Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr.

Moawiah Alhulayil

Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Department of Electrical Engineering

Electronics

Chapter 1: Semiconductor Materials and Diodes

Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

m_alhulayil@[Link]
Office No.: 9028

Spring 2024/25

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

Chapter 1: Semiconductor Materials and Diodes

❖ Sec 1.1: Semiconductor Materials and Properties

➢ A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between those of insulators and good conductors.
➢ Examples are Silicon and Germanium.
➢ The electrons are distributed in various “shells” at different distances from the nucleus, and electron energy increases
as shell radius increases.
➢ Electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons, and the chemical activity of a material is determined
primarily by the number of such electrons.
➢ Elements in the periodic table can be grouped according to the number of valence electrons. Silicon (Si) and
germanium (Ge) are in group IV and are elemental semiconductors.
➢ In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those materials which have almost an empty conduction
band and almost filled valence band with a very narrow energy gap separating the two.

➢ Semiconductors are mainly classified into two categories:

1. Intrinsic semiconductors:
- An intrinsic semiconductor material is chemically very pure and possesses poor conductivity. It has equal
number of negative carriers (electrons) and positive carriers (holes).

2. Extrinsic semiconductors:
- An extrinsic semiconductor is an improved intrinsic semiconductor with a small amount of impurities added
by a process, known as doping, which alters the electrical properties of the semiconductor and improves its
conductivity. Depending on whether the added impurities have “extra” electrons or “missing” electrons
determines how the bonding in the crystal lattice is affected as shown in the following figure, and therefore
how the material’s electrical properties change.

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

• The Doping of semiconductors:

➢ The addition of a small percentage of impurity atoms in the intrinsic semiconductor (pure silicon or pure germanium)
produces dramatic changes in their electrical properties. Depending on the type of impurity added, the extrinsic
semiconductors can be divided in to two classes:
1. N-type Semiconductors
2. P-type Semiconductors.

➢ In an n-type semiconductor, electrons are called the majority carrier because they far outnumber the holes, which
are termed the minority carrier. In contrast, in a p-type semiconductor, the holes are the majority carrier, and the
electrons are the minority carrier.

• N-Type Semiconductor:

➢ Group V dopants are the atoms with an “extra” electron, in other words a valence shell with only one electron. When
a semiconductor is doped with a Group V impurity it is called an n-type material, because the addition of these
impurities such as antimony, arsenic or phosphorous contributes free electrons, greatly increasing the conductivity of
the intrinsic semiconductor.
➢ In an n-type semiconductor, the majority carrier is the electron, and the minority carrier is the hole.
➢ The effect of this doping process on the relative conductivity can be explained by energy band diagram shown in the
following figure. When donor impurities are added to an intrinsic semiconductor, allowable energy levels are
introduced at a very small gap below the conduction band, as illustrated in the figure. These new allowable levels are
essentially a discrete level because the added impurity atoms are far apart in the crystal structure and hence their
interaction is small. In the case of Silicon, the gap of the new discrete allowable energy level is only 0.05 eV (0.01 eV
for germanium) below the conduction band, and therefore at room temperature almost all of the "fifth" electrons of
the donor impurity are raised into the conduction band and the conductivity of the material increases considerable.

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

• P-Type Semiconductor:

➢ Group III dopants are the atoms with a hole in their valence shell (only “missing” one electron), when a
semiconductor is doped with a Group III impurity it is called a p-type material, The addition of these impurities such
as boron, aluminium or gallium to an intrinsic semiconductor creates reductions of valence electrons, called "holes".
➢ In an p-type semiconductor, the majority carrier is the hole, and the minority carrier is the electron.
➢ The effect of this doping process on the relative conductivity can be explained by energy band diagram shown in the
following figure. When accepter impurities or P type impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, they produce
an allowable discrete energy level which is just above the valance band, as shown in the figure. Since a very small
amount of energy (0.08 eV in case of Silicon and 0.01 eV in case of Germanium) is required for an electron to leave
the valence band and occupy the accepter energy level, holes are created in the valence band by these electrons.

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

Semiconductors

Intrinsic semiconductors (pure) Extrinsic semiconductors (impure)

N-type P-type

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❖ Sec 1.2: The Drift Current and Diffusion Current in Semiconductors

➢ There are two types of current through a semiconducting material; one is drift current and the other is diffusion current.

❖ 1. Drift Current:

- The drift current is the flow of charge carriers, which is due to the applied voltage or electric field.
- In semiconductor, there are two types of charge carriers, they are electrons and holes.
- When the voltage is applied to a semiconductor, the free electrons move towards the positive terminal of a
battery and holes move towards the negative terminal of a battery.
- Electrons are the negatively charged particles and holes are the positively charged particles.
- The electrons (negatively charged particles) are attracted towards the positive terminal of a battery and holes
(positively charged particles) are attracted towards the negative terminals.
- The average velocity that an electron or hole achieved due to the applied voltage or electric field is called drift
velocity.

- The drift velocity of electrons is given by:

𝒗𝒏 = −𝝁𝒏 𝑬
- The drift velocity of holes is given by:
𝒗𝒑 = +𝝁𝒑 𝑬

where
𝑣𝑛 : 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑐𝑚/𝑠)
𝑣𝑝 : 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑐𝑚/𝑠)

𝜇𝑛 : 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠)

𝜇𝑝 : ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠)

𝐸: 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑉/𝑐𝑚)

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- The drift current density due to free electrons is given by:

𝑱𝒏 = −𝒆 𝒏 𝒗𝒏 = −𝒆 𝒏 (−𝝁𝒏 𝑬) = +𝒆 𝒏 𝝁𝒏 𝑬
- The drift current density due to holes is given by:
𝑱𝒑 = +𝒆 𝒑 𝒗𝒑 = +𝒆 𝒑 (+𝝁𝒑 𝑬) = +𝒆 𝒑 𝝁𝒑 𝑬

where

𝐽𝑛 : 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 )

𝐽𝑝 : 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 )

𝜇𝑛 : 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠)

𝜇𝑝 : ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠)

𝐸: 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑉/𝑐𝑚)

𝑒: 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (1.602 ∗ 10−19 𝐶)

𝑛: 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 [𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟] (#/𝑐𝑚3 )

𝑝: ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 [𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟] (#/𝑐𝑚3 )

- The total drift current density is given by:

𝟏
𝑱 = 𝑱𝒏 + 𝑱𝒑 = 𝒆 𝒏 𝝁𝒏 𝑬 + 𝒆 𝒑 𝝁𝒑 𝑬 = 𝝈𝑬 = 𝑬
𝝆
where

𝜎: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ((Ω. cm)−1 )

𝜌: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (Ω. cm)

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❖ 2. Diffusion Current:

- Diffusion current is mainly generated in semiconductors.

- The doping process in semiconductors is non-uniform. In order to achieve uniformity, the flow of charge
carriers takes place from higher concentration area to lower concentration area. It is referred to as diffusion.
- The necessity of the diffusion current in the semiconductor is because of the reason behind the dominating
current at the junction. At the equilibrium condition, the net currents are zero because the forward current is
balanced by the reverse drift current but inside the depletion region, both drift and diffusion currents are
present.
- Generally, in semiconductors, one can find the movement of charge carriers. This movement of the carriers is
termed as Diffusion. The movement of carriers is observed from the higher concentration area to the lower
concentration area.
- In this process of movement, there is some generation of the current. This type of current is referred to as
Diffusion Current for the semiconductors.
- Diffusion current occurs without an external voltage or electric field applied.
- Diffusion current does not occur in a conductor.
- The direction of diffusion current is same or opposite to that of the drift current.

- The diffusion current density due to free electrons is given by:

𝒅𝒏
𝑱𝒏 = +𝒆 𝑫𝒏
𝒅𝒙
- The diffusion current density due to holes is given by:
𝒅𝒑
𝑱𝒑 = −𝒆 𝑫𝒑
𝒅𝒙
where

𝐽𝑛 : 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 )

𝐽𝑝 : 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 )

𝐷𝑛 : 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠)

𝐷𝑝 : 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠)

𝑒: 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 (1.602 ∗ 10−19 𝐶)

𝑛: 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
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Example: Calculate the diffusion current density for a given semiconductor. Consider silicon at 𝑻 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑲. Assume
the electron concentration varies linearly from 𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 to 𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 over the distance from 𝒙 = 𝟎 to
𝒙 = 𝟑 𝝁𝒎. Assume 𝑫𝒏 = 𝟑𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟐 /𝒔.

Solution:

𝒅𝒏 𝚫𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 − 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐
𝑱𝒏 = +𝒆 𝑫𝒏 = +𝒆 𝑫𝒏 = (𝟏. 𝟔 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 )(𝟑𝟓) ( ) = 𝟏𝟖𝟔. 𝟔 𝐀/𝐜𝐦𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝚫𝒙 𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 − 𝟎

Example: Consider silicon at 𝑻 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑲. Assume the hole concentration is given by 𝒑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒆−𝒙/𝑳𝒑 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , where
𝑳𝒑 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎. Calculate the hole diffusion current density at:

(A) 𝒙 = 𝟎.
(B) 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎.
Assume 𝑫𝒑 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟐 /𝒔.

Solution:

𝒅𝒑
𝑱𝒑 = −𝒆 𝑫𝒑
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒑 𝟏
= − 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒆−𝒙/𝑳𝒑
𝒅𝒙 𝑳𝒑
(A)

𝒅𝒑 𝟏 𝟎
−
𝑱𝒑 = −𝒆 𝑫𝒑 = −(𝟏. 𝟔 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 ) (𝟏𝟎) (− −𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒆 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ) = 𝟏𝟔 𝐀/𝐜𝐦𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝟏𝟎

(B)
𝟏𝟎 −𝟑
𝒅𝒑 𝟏 −
𝑱𝒑 = −𝒆 𝑫𝒑 = −(𝟏. 𝟔 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 ) (𝟏𝟎) (− −𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒆 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ) = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟗 𝐀/𝐜𝐦𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝟏𝟎

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❖ Sec 1.3: The PN Junction

➢ The real power of semiconductor electronics occurs when p and n regions are directly adjacent to each other, forming
a pn junction.
➢ A pn junction at equilibrium is characterized by a depletion region where there are no charge carriers and a contact
potential.
➢ The pn junction can be biased by connecting to an external circuit and there are two types of biasing:
1. Forward bias.
2. Reverse bias.

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• No voltage is applied to the pn junction.

• Electron: moves from n region to p region,
positive charge left behind.
•
(without external bias)

Hole: moves from p region to n region,

PN in Equilibrium

negative charge left behind.

• The positively charged region and the
negatively charged region comprise the space-
charge region, or depletion region, of the pn
junction.
• Because of the electric field in the space-
charge region, there is a potential difference
across that region. This potential difference is
called the built-in voltage.
• At equilibrium: diffusion=0, current=0.

• ‘+’ is applied to p.
• ‘External field’ is opposite to the ‘built-in
field’.
• ‘built-in field’ is weakened.
• This applied voltage polarity (i.e., bias) is
PN in Forward bias

known as forward bias.

• Diffusion gives a net current.

• ‘-’ is applied to p.
• ‘External field’ is in the same direction as the
‘built-in field’.
• This applied voltage polarity (i.e., bias) is
PN in Reverse bias

known as reverse bias.

• ‘built-in field’ is strengthened.
• There is essentially NO current across the pn
junction. Only a small leakage current can
flow.

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❖ Sec 1.4: PN Junction Diode Characteristics

➢ The theoretical relationship between the voltage and the current in the pn junction is given by:
𝒗𝑫
𝒊𝑫 = 𝑰𝑺 [𝒆 𝜼 𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏]

where
𝐼𝑆 : 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 − 𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑇 : 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉𝑇 = 0.026 V 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝑒: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚

𝜂: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟)(1 ≤ 𝜂 ≤ 2)

𝒌𝑻
𝒗𝑻 =
𝒒
where
𝑘: 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (K)

𝑞: 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (1.602 ∗ 10−19 𝐶)

➢ This pn junction, with nonlinear rectifying current characteristics, is called a ‘pn junction diode’.
➢ A plot for the derived current-voltage characteristics of a pn junction is shown below for 𝐼𝑆 = 10−14 A.
➢ In the forward-bias region: The diode current is an exponential function of diode voltage.
➢ In the reverse-bias region: The diode current is nearly zero.
➢ The pn junction diode is a nonlinear electronic device.

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➢ The following figure shows the diode circuit symbol and the conventional current direction and voltage polarity.

➢ The diode can be used as a voltage-controlled switch that is:

ON: for a forward-bias voltage (where a relatively large current is produced by a fairly small applied voltage).
OFF: for a reverse-bias voltage (where a very small current is created).

Example: Consider a pn at 𝑇 = 300 𝐾 in which 𝐼𝑆 = 10−14 A and 𝜂 = 1. Find the diode current for 𝑣𝐷 = +0.7 V and
𝑣𝐷 = −0.7 V.

Solution:

∗ 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝑫 = +𝟎. 𝟕 𝐕: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑛 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 − 𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑

𝒗𝑫 𝟎.𝟕
𝒊𝑫 = 𝑰𝑺 [𝒆 𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏] = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 [𝒆 𝟏∗𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟔 − 𝟏] = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟑 𝐦𝐀

∗ 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝑫 = −𝟎. 𝟕 𝐕: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑛 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 − 𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑

𝒗𝑫 −𝟎.𝟕
𝒊𝑫 = 𝑰𝑺 [𝒆 𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏] = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 [𝒆 𝟏∗𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟔 − 𝟏] = −𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝐀 ≈ 𝟎 𝐀

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

❖ Sec 1.5: Diode Circuits: DC Analysis and Models

To begin understanding diode circuits, consider a simple diode application. The current-voltage characteristics of different
states are shown below for ideal diode.

➢ The ideal diode acts as:

A Short Circuit (SC): under forward bias.

An Open Circuit (OC): under reverse bias.

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One diode circuit is the rectifier circuit shown in the following figure. Assume that the input voltage 𝒗𝑰 is a sinusoidal
signal, and the diode is an ideal diode.

▪ During the positive half-cycle of the sinusoidal input:

A forward-bias current exists in the diode and the voltage across the diode is zero. The equivalent circuit for this
condition is shown in the figure above. In this part of the cycle, the diode acts as a short circuit. The output voltage
𝒗𝑶 is then equal to the input voltage

▪ During the negative half-cycle of the sinusoidal input:

- The diode is reverse biased. The equivalent circuit for this condition is shown in the figure above. In this part
of the cycle, the diode acts as an open circuit, the current is zero, and the output voltage is zero. The output
voltage 𝒗𝑶 of the circuit is shown in the figure above.

▪ Over the entire cycle:

- The input signal: is sinusoidal and has a zero average value.
- The output signal: contains only positive values and therefore has a positive average value.
- Consequently, this circuit is said to rectify the input signal, which is the first step in generating a dc voltage
from a sinusoidal (ac) voltage. A dc voltage is required in virtually all electronic circuits.

The analysis of nonlinear circuits is not as straightforward as that of linear circuits. Therefore, we will look at different
approaches to the dc analysis of diode circuits such as iteration; graphical techniques; a piecewise linear modelling method
and a computer analysis.

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▪ 1. Iteration and Graphical Analysis Technique:

Consider the following diode circuit, with a dc input voltage 𝐕𝐈 . Iteration and graphical analysis technique will be used
here to analyze this circuit.

The graphical analysis technique involves plotting two simultaneous equations and locating their point of intersection,
which is the solution of the two equations. These equations are difficult to solve by hand because they contain both linear
and exponential terms.
𝑲𝑽𝑳 𝒆𝒒𝒖: 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝑫 𝑹 + 𝑽𝑫
Which can be rewritten as:
𝑽𝑰 𝑽𝑫
𝑰𝑫 = − … 𝒆𝒒(𝟏)
𝑹 𝑹

The diode voltage (𝑽𝑫) and current (𝑰𝑫 ) are related by the ideal diode equation as:
𝑽𝑫
𝑰𝑫 = 𝑰𝑺 [𝒆 𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏] … 𝒆𝒒(𝟐)

Combining eq(1) and eq(2), we obtain:

𝑽𝑫
𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝑺 𝑹 [𝒆 𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏] + 𝑽𝑫

The last equation contains only one unknown, 𝑽𝑫. However, this equation is a transcendental equation and cannot be
solved directly. The use of iteration to find a solution to this equation is a must.

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▪ 2. Piecewise Linear Model:

Consider the following diode circuit, with a dc input voltage 𝐕𝐈 . Piecewise linear model will be used here to analyze this
circuit. Another, simpler way to analyze diode circuits is to approximate the diode’s current–voltage characteristics, using
linear relationships or straight lines.

The diode characteristics are approximated to two lines:

- For 𝑽𝑫 < 𝑽𝜸: One below the cut-in voltage with zero current.
1
- For 𝑽𝑫 ≥ 𝑽𝜸: Another one above the cut-in voltage with slope of ( ).
𝑅𝐹
where:
𝑉𝛾 : 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 − 𝑜𝑛 (𝑐𝑢𝑡 − 𝑖𝑛) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒.
𝑅𝐹 : 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.

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• How do we analyze a circuit with a diode?

1. Assume a set of states for the diodes.

2. Solve the circuit to find the currents (𝐼𝐷 ) of diodes assumed to be ON and the voltages (𝑉𝐷 ) of the diodes assumed
to be OFF.
3. Check to see if (𝐼𝐷 ) is positive for all diodes assumed to be ON and (𝑉𝐷 ) is negative for all diodes assumed to be
OFF.
4. If this is TRUE, then the solution is complete; otherwise, return to step 1 by assuming a different set of states
for the diodes.

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Example: Determine the states of the ideal diodes in the circuit shown in the following figure.

Solution:

Case 1: Assume D1 is OFF and D2 is ON

We need to find 𝑽𝑫𝟏 for D1 and 𝑰𝑫𝟐 for D2. The equivalent circuit for this assumption is as follows:

𝑽𝑫𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟓 = 𝟓 𝑽 (𝑵𝑶𝑻 𝑶𝑲, 𝒊𝒕 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆)

𝟓
𝑰𝑫𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑 𝒎𝑨 (𝑶𝑲, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆)
𝟔𝑲

Thus, we need to start over with another assumption.

Case 2: Assume D1 ON and D2 OFF

We need to find 𝑰𝑫𝟏 for D1 and 𝑽𝑫𝟐 for D2. The equivalent circuit for this assumption is as follows:

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𝟏𝟎
𝑰𝑫𝟏 = = 𝟏 𝒎𝑨 (𝑶𝑲, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆)
𝟒𝑲 + 𝟔𝑲
𝑽𝑫𝟐 :
𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑲𝑽𝑳: − 𝟓 + 𝑽𝑫𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 ∗ 𝑰𝑫𝟏 = 𝟎
𝑽𝑫𝟐 = 𝟓 − 𝑹𝟐 ∗ 𝑰𝑫𝟏 = 𝟓 − 𝟔𝑲 ∗ 𝟏𝒎 = −𝟏 𝑽 (𝑶𝑲, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆)

The assumption is TRUE. Then, the states of the diodes are as follows:

𝑫𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝑶𝑵 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑫𝟐 𝒊𝒔 𝑶𝑭𝑭

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

Example: Determine the diode current in the circuit shown in the following figure. Assume the diode is an ideal diode.

Solution:

Case 1: Assume D1 OFF

We need to find 𝑽𝑫𝟏 for D1. The equivalent circuit for this assumption is as follows:

𝑹𝟐 𝟑𝑲
𝑽𝑫𝟏 = ∗ 𝑽𝟏 = ∗ 𝟑𝟔 = 𝟏𝟐 𝑽 (𝑵𝑶𝑻 𝑶𝑲, 𝒊𝒕 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆)
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝟔𝑲 + 𝟑𝑲

Thus, we need to start over with another assumption.

Case 2: Assume D1 is ON

We need to find 𝑰𝑫 for D1. The equivalent circuit for this assumption is as follows:

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𝑼𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒔:

𝑽𝒙 − 𝟑𝟔 𝑽𝒙 𝑽𝒙
𝑲𝑪𝑳 @ 𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒙: − − − =𝟎
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑽𝒙 − 𝟑𝟔 𝑽𝒙 𝑽𝒙
− − − =𝟎
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒙 𝟑𝟔 𝑽𝒙 𝑽𝒙
− + − − =𝟎
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑𝟔
𝑽𝒙 [ + + ]=
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒙 = 𝟒 𝑽

𝑽𝒙 𝟒
𝑰𝑫𝟏 = = = 𝟒 𝒎𝑨 (𝑶𝑲, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆)
𝑹𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

The assumption is TRUE. Then, the state of the diode is as follows:

𝑫𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝑶𝑵

Hence, the diode current is

𝑰𝑫𝟏 = 𝟒 𝒎𝑨

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Example: Determine the output voltages and the currents in the following circuits. Assume the potential drops for both
diodes are 0.7V.

Solution:

The silicon diode requires a voltage of about 0.7 V to activate it. It can be seen that, for both circuits, there is enough
energy in both batteries to turn the diodes ON.

Circuit (A) Circuit (B)

The current (i.e., the conventional current) flows from the The current (i.e., the conventional current) flows from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal of the battery. positive terminal to the negative terminal of the battery.
However, the direction of the current flows from Anode However, the direction of the current flows from Cathode
to Cathode of the diode. This means D1 will be ON. to Anode of the diode. This means D2 will be OFF.

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The equivalent circuit is as follows: The equivalent circuit is as follows:

𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝒇 = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟕 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑 𝑽 𝑽𝒐 = 𝟎 𝑽

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝒇 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑰=𝟎𝑨
𝑰= = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟔 𝒎𝑨
𝑹𝟏 𝟓𝑲

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

Example: Find the output voltage and the current in the following circuit. Assume the potential drops for both diodes
are 0.7V.

Solution:

The silicon diode requires a voltage of about 0.7 V to activate it. There is enough energy in the battery to turn the diodes
ON. The current (i.e., the conventional current) flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the battery.
However, the direction of the current flows from Anode to Cathode in both diodes. This means D1 and D2 will be ON.
The equivalent circuit is as follows:

𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝒇𝟏 − 𝑽𝒇𝟐 = 𝟗 − 𝟎. 𝟕 − 𝟎. 𝟕 = 𝟕. 𝟔 𝑽
𝑽𝒐 𝟕. 𝟔
𝑰= = = 𝟏. 𝟗 𝒎𝑨
𝑹𝟏 𝟒𝑲

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Example: Find the output voltage and the current in the following circuit. Assume the potential drops for Si diode is
0.7V and for Ge diode is 0.3V.

Solution:
The battery has enough energy to activate the diodes ON. The current flows in the right direction for both diodes. Then,
both diodes will be ON.
The equivalent circuit so far is as follows:

Based on the previous equivalent circuit, 𝐕𝐨 has two values and this is NOT correct!. One of these two values is correct
and the other is NOT!. Because the Ge diode requires less energy to be activated and that is the diode that going to be
ON. In specific, the current will always flow in the path of less resistance and Ge is the diode that offers less resistance.
Therefore, D2 will be ON and D1 will be OFF. Thus, the correct equivalent circuit will be as follows:

𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝑮𝒆 = 𝟔 − 𝟎. 𝟑 = 𝟓. 𝟕 𝑽
𝑽𝒐 𝟓. 𝟕
𝑰= = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎𝑨
𝑹𝟏 𝟓𝑲

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

Example: Find the output voltage and the current in each diode in the following circuit. Assume the potential drop for
each diode is 0.7V.

Solution:

The battery has enough energy to activate the diodes ON. The current flows in the right direction for both diodes. Then,
both diodes will be ON.
The equivalent circuit is as follows:

𝑽𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽
𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝒐 𝟖 − 𝟎. 𝟕
𝑰𝒔 = = = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟑 𝒎𝑨 (𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒔)
𝑹𝟏 𝟑𝑲

𝑰𝒔
𝑰𝑫𝟏 = 𝑰𝑫𝟐 = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝑨
𝟐

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

Example: Find the output voltage and the current in each diode in the following circuit. Assume the potential drop for
Si diode is 0.7V and for Ge diode is 0.3V.

Solution:

The batteries have enough energy to activate the diodes ON. The current flows in the right direction for both diodes.
Then, both diodes will be ON.
The equivalent circuit is as follows:

𝟏𝟔 − 𝟎. 𝟑 − 𝟎. 𝟕 − (−𝟖)
𝑰𝑫𝟏 = 𝑰𝑫𝟐 = 𝑰 = = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟖𝟔 𝒎𝑨
𝟐𝑲 + 𝟓𝑲

𝑽𝒐 = 𝟏𝟔 − 𝑽𝑮𝒆 − 𝑹𝟏 ∗ 𝑰 = 𝟏𝟔 − 𝟎. 𝟑 − 𝟐𝑲 ∗ 𝟑. 𝟐𝟖𝟔𝒎 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝑽

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

Example: Find the output voltage and the current passes through R1 resistor in the following circuit. Assume the
potential drop for each diode is 0.7V.

Solution:

The batteries have enough energy to activate the diodes ON. The current flows in the right direction for both diodes.
Then, both diodes will be ON.
The equivalent circuit so far is as follows:

Based on the previous equivalent circuit, 𝐕𝐨 has two values and this is NOT correct!. One of these two values is correct
and the other is NOT!. In such cases, the higher potential (i.e., +12 V battery) is going to win out against the lower
potential (i.e., +5 V battery). Therefore, D2 will be ON and D1 will be OFF. Thus, the correct equivalent circuit will
be as follows:

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𝑽𝒐 = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝑽𝒇𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟕 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑 𝑽

𝑽𝒐 − (−𝟑) 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑 + 𝟑
𝑰𝑹𝟏 = = = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟖 𝒎𝑨
𝑹𝟏 𝟔𝑲

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Example: Find 𝑽𝒐 and 𝑰 in the following circuits. Assume the diodes are ideal.

Solution:

Note that ideal diodes have 𝑽𝒇 = 𝟎.

Circuit (A):

𝐕𝐨 has three values and this is NOT correct!. One of these three values is correct and the others are NOT!. In such cases,
the higher potential (i.e., +3 V battery) is going to win out against the lower potentials (i.e., +2 V and +1 V batteries).
Therefore, D1 will be ON and D2 & D3 will be OFF.

𝑽𝒐 = 𝟑 − 𝟎 = 𝟑 𝑽
𝑽𝒐 𝟑
𝑰= = = 𝟑 𝒎𝑨
𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑲

Circuit (B):

𝐕𝐨 has three values and this is NOT correct!. One of these three values is correct and the others are NOT!. In such cases,
the lower potential (i.e., +1 V battery) is going to win out against the higher potentials (i.e., +3 V and +2 V batteries)
because the diodes are reversed. Therefore, D3 will be ON and D1 & D2 will be OFF.

𝑽𝒐 = 𝟏 − 𝟎 = 𝟏 𝑽
𝟓 − 𝑽𝒐 𝟓 − 𝟏
𝑰= = = 𝟒 𝒎𝑨
𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑲

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

Practice Problem: Find the output voltage and the current in the following circuit. Assume the potential drop for the
diode is 0.7V.

Answer: 𝑽𝒐 = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟐 𝑽 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑰 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑 𝒎𝑨

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

Example: Calculate the diode current in the circuit shown below for 𝑉1 = 12 𝑉 and 𝑅 = 4 KΩ, assuming the diode:
(A) Is ideal.
(B) Can be represented with a piecewise linear model with 𝑉𝑓 = 0.6 𝑉 and 𝑅𝑓 = 20 Ω.

Solution:

(A) D1 is an ideal diode and it is ON. Then, it will be replaced with a short circuit. The equivalent circuit is
shown in the following figure:

𝑽𝟏 𝟏𝟐
𝑰= = = 𝟑 𝒎𝑨
𝑹 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎

(B) D1 is a real diode and it is ON. Then, it will be replaced with a piecewise model. The equivalent circuit is
shown in the following figure:

𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝒇 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟔
𝑰= = = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑𝟔 𝒎𝑨
𝑹 + 𝑹𝒇 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎

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Electronics Applied Science Private University Dr. Moawiah Alhulayil

Example: Determine the diode voltage and current in the circuit shown in the following figure, using a piecewise linear
model. Also determine the power dissipated in the diode. Assume a piecewise linear diode parameters of 𝑽𝜸 = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝑽
and 𝑹𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎 𝛀.

Solution:

With the given input voltage polarity, the diode is forward bias. Thus, (𝐼𝐷 > 0). The equivalent circuit is shown below.

The diode current can be determined by:

𝑽𝑰 − 𝑽𝜸 𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟔
𝑰𝑫 = = = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎𝑨
𝑹 + 𝑹𝒇 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎

and the diode voltage is:

𝑽𝑫 = 𝑽𝜸 + 𝑰𝑫 𝑹𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟔 + (𝟐. 𝟏𝟗 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )(𝟏𝟎) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟐 𝑽

The power dissipated in the diode is given by:

𝑷𝑫 = 𝑰𝑫 𝑽𝑫 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟗 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔 𝒎𝑾

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