MK PREPARATIONS

Chapter 1: Introduction to Computing and ICT

Fundamentals
ONE-LINERS
1. A system is a group of interdependent components working together toward
a common objective.
M 2. Every system has four essential elements: objective, components,
K environment, and interaction.
3. Natural systems are self-regulating and require no human intervention,
unlike artificial systems.
P 4. Computer science uniquely bridges natural science (studying computation)
R and design science (creating computational systems).

E 5. ICT fundamentally converges computers (processing) with

telecommunications (transmission).
P 6. The IPO cycle (Input-Processing-Output-Storage) is the universal
A operational model of all computers.

R 7. Hardware constitutes the tangible, physical components; software represents

the intangible instructions.
A
8. System software enables machine operation; application software
T accomplishes user tasks.
I 9. The Von Neumann architecture's revolutionary stored-program concept
unified instruction and data storage in the same memory space.
O
[Link] Von Neumann, program modification required physical rewiring;
N after, programs could modify other programs.
S [Link] CPU's four-step instruction cycle—Fetch, Decode, Execute, Store—
operates millions of times per second.
[Link] Von Neumann bottleneck occurs because the single shared bus carries
both instructions and data, creating a throughput limitation.

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[Link] the CPU faster yields diminishing returns when the bus remains the
system's critical bottleneck.
[Link] hierarchy exploits the trade-off between speed, size, and cost: faster
memory is exponentially more expensive.
[Link] memory bridges the speed gap between CPU registers and main
memory through temporal and spatial locality principles.
M
[Link] is faster but costlier than DRAM because SRAM requires no
K refreshing.
[Link] is volatile "working space"; ROM is non-volatile "permanent
instruction" storage.
P
[Link] memory, a specialized EEPROM, revolutionized storage by enabling
R block-level electrical rewriting.
E [Link]'s supremacy in computing stems from electricity's binary nature: ON
P (1) and OFF (0).
[Link] serves as human-readable binary shorthand: four binary digits
A compress into one hex digit.
R [Link]'s complement representation elegantly solves the negative number
A problem by using the leftmost bit as the sign bit.
[Link] two's complement, there is exactly one more negative number than
T positive numbers in any given bit-width.
I [Link]'s 32-value gap between uppercase and lowercase (65→97) is
O computationally efficient as 2⁵.

N [Link] difference between 'A' (65) and 'a' (97) is exactly 32—one bit-flip in
binary representation.
S [Link] operating system is the master software that transforms raw hardware
into a usable computing platform.
26.A program is static code on disk; a process is that code dynamically
executed in memory.

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[Link] scheduling solves the fundamental problem of sharing a single CPU
among multiple competing processes.
[Link]-robin scheduling ensures fairness by allocating fixed time slices to
each process in circular order.
[Link] eliminates external fragmentation by dividing programs into fixed-
size pages mapped into arbitrary memory frames.
M
[Link] memory illusionarily extends RAM by using disk space as secondary
K memory through paging.
[Link] occurs when the system spends more time swapping pages
between memory and disk than executing instructions.
P
[Link] (Direct Memory Access) liberates the CPU from I/O tasks by allowing
R devices to transfer data directly to memory.
E [Link] wastes CPU cycles by constantly checking device status; interrupts
P notify the CPU only when needed.
[Link] emphasizes hardware complexity with multi-step instructions; RISC
A relies on compiler optimization with simple, fixed-length instructions.
R [Link] CISC processors internally convert complex instructions into RISC-
A like micro-operations.
[Link] hit ratio directly determines system performance; modern systems
T achieve 95%+ hit rates.
I [Link]'s Law fundamentally proves that sequential code portions impose an
O insurmountable ceiling on parallel speedup.

N [Link] 90% parallelizable code, infinite processors cannot exceed 10x

speedup due to the 10% sequential portion.
S [Link]'s Taxonomy classifies parallel architectures into SISD, SIMD, MISD,
and MIMD based on instruction and data streams.
[Link] (Multiple Instruction Multiple Data) dominates modern computing—
your multi-core phone is MIMD.

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[Link] prioritize raw computational power; mainframes prioritize
reliability and concurrent user support.
[Link] ENIAC (1946) was the first electronic computer; the EDVAC (1949)
introduced the stored-program concept.
[Link] computer generation brought smaller, faster, cheaper, and more
reliable systems through technological leaps.
M
[Link] gates are the atomic building blocks of all digital circuits,
K implementing Boolean functions.
[Link] Morgan's Laws provide the mathematical foundation for circuit
simplification and gate conversion.
P
[Link] circuits produce outputs solely from current inputs;
R sequential circuits incorporate past states through memory.
E [Link]-flops are the fundamental 1-bit memory cells enabling registers,
P counters, and all sequential logic.
[Link] D flip-flop's output simply follows the input at each clock edge—the
A most common memory element.
R [Link] computing fundamentally shifts capital expenditure (buying servers)
A to operational expenditure (renting resources).
[Link] provides virtualized hardware; PaaS provides development platforms;
T SaaS provides ready-to-use software.
I [Link] in depth mandates security at every layer: physical, network,
O system, application, data, and user.

N [Link] encryption uses identical keys for encryption and decryption;

asymmetric uses mathematically linked public-private key pairs.
S [Link]'s 7-bit design accommodates 128 characters—sufficient for English
but inadequate for global languages.
[Link] program counter holds the memory address of the next instruction to be
executed.

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[Link] Unit coordinates all CPU operations; ALU performs all
mathematical and logical calculations.
[Link] buses (data, address, control) are the communication highways
connecting all computer components.
[Link] are the fastest memory location, operating at CPU speed with
nanosecond access times.
M
[Link] revolutionized storage by eliminating mechanical movement, offering
K orders-of-magnitude faster access than HDDs.
[Link] methodology requires complete upfront planning; Agile embraces
iterative development with continuous feedback.
P
[Link]-box testing validates functionality without code visibility; white-box
R testing examines internal logical paths.
E [Link] address bus carries memory location information, not the actual data.
P [Link] control bus carries command signals synchronizing all components.
A [Link] can be erased using ultraviolet light; EEPROM uses electrical
signals.
R
[Link] memory erases data in blocks, not byte-by-byte like conventional
A EEPROM.
T [Link] uses flip-flops to store bits; DRAM uses capacitors that leak charge
requiring refresh.
I
[Link] Hard Disk Drives use spinning platters; SSDs use NAND flash
O memory chips.
N [Link] suffer from mechanical latency; SSDs have no moving parts ensuring
near-instant access.
S
[Link] binary number 11111111 in unsigned representation equals 255; in
signed two's complement equals -1.
[Link]'s complement subtraction is performed by adding the two's complement
of the subtrahend.

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[Link] in two's complement occurs when adding two positives yields a
negative or two negatives yield a positive.
[Link] was developed to overcome ASCII's limitation of representing only
128 characters.
[Link]-8, the dominant web encoding, uses variable byte lengths while
maintaining ASCII compatibility.
M
[Link] BIOS stored in ROM initializes hardware and boots the operating
K system.
[Link] is the modern replacement for BIOS, supporting larger drives and
faster booting.
P
[Link] process control block (PCB) stores all information about a specific
R process.
E [Link] switching is the mechanism of saving one process state and loading
P another.
[Link] gives the illusion of parallelism by rapidly switching processes
A on a single CPU.
R [Link] scheduling suffers from the convoy effect where short jobs wait
A behind long ones.
[Link] scheduling is provably optimal for minimizing average waiting time but
T impossible to implement perfectly.
I [Link] scheduling can cause starvation where low-priority processes never
O execute.

N [Link] progressively increases priority of waiting processes to prevent

starvation.
S [Link] fragmentation occurs when allocated memory exceeds requested
memory within a partition.
[Link] fragmentation leaves sufficient total memory but no contiguous
block for a process.

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[Link] divides programs into logical variable-sized segments based
on programmer's view.
[Link] divides programs into fixed-sized pages invisible to the programmer.
[Link] page table maps virtual page numbers to physical frame numbers.
[Link] Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB) is a hardware cache for page table
M entries.

K [Link] paging loads pages only when they are actually needed, not in
advance.
[Link] fault occurs when a program accesses a page not currently in physical
P memory.

R [Link] page replacement algorithm decides which page to evict when memory
is full.
E [Link]'s anomaly proves that adding more memory can sometimes increase
P page faults in FIFO.
A [Link] working set model maintains the set of pages a process is actively using.

R [Link] can be eliminated by allocating enough frames to satisfy the

working set.
A [Link] allocation methods determine how files are stored on disk blocks.
T [Link] allocation stores files in consecutive blocks, enabling fast access
I but causing fragmentation.

O [Link] allocation stores files in scattered blocks linked by pointers,

eliminating fragmentation but slow for random access.
N [Link] allocation uses an index block containing pointers to all data blocks.
S [Link] FAT (File Allocation Table) is a linked list structure mapping disk
clusters.
[Link] supports file compression, encryption, and disk quotas beyond basic
file storage.

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100. Journaling file systems maintain a log of changes for rapid recovery
after crashes.
101. The ext4 file system, common in Linux, supports journaling and large
file sizes.
102. APFS, Apple's file system, is optimized for flash storage with copy-
on-write design.
M
103. RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) combines multiple
K drives for performance or redundancy.
104. RAID 0 stripes data across drives for performance but offers no
redundancy.
P
105. RAID 1 mirrors data across drives for complete redundancy but
R doubles cost.
E 106. RAID 5 stripes with parity, offering good performance and single-
P drive fault tolerance.
107. Moore's Law observed that transistor density doubles approximately
A every two years.
R 108. Moore's Law is ending due to quantum effects at atomic scales
A limiting further miniaturization.
109. Dennard Scaling allowed smaller transistors to consume less power
T while maintaining performance.
I 110. The end of Dennard Scaling led to the multi-core era instead of faster
O single cores.

N 111. Dark silicon refers to chip portions that must remain powered off due
to thermal constraints.
S 112. Quantum computing leverages superposition and entanglement for
certain exponential speedups.
113. A qubit can represent 0, 1, or both simultaneously through
superposition.

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114. Quantum supremacy occurs when a quantum computer solves a
problem impractical for classical computers.
115. Neuromorphic computing mimics neural structures for energy-
efficient AI processing.
116. Optical computing uses light instead of electricity for potentially
faster, lower-power computation.
M
117. DNA computing uses biological molecules to perform parallel
K computations.
118. Spintronics exploits electron spin rather than charge for non-volatile,
low-power memory.
P
119. Memristors are circuit elements whose resistance depends on
R historical voltage applied.
E 120. Heterogeneous computing combines different processor types (CPU,
P GPU, FPGA) for specialized tasks.
121. GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) excels at SIMD parallel operations
A for graphics and AI.
R 122. FPGA (Field-Programmable Gate Array) can be reconfigured after
A manufacturing for custom circuits.
123. ASIC (Application-Specific Integrated Circuit) is hard-wired for a
T single task, maximizing efficiency.
I 124. Systolic arrays are specialized pipelines where data flows
O rhythmically through processing elements.

N 125. Dataflow architecture executes instructions when all operands are

available, not in programmed order.
S 126. VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word) relies on the compiler to
schedule parallel operations.
127. EPIC (Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing) extends VLIW
concepts in architectures like Itanium.

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128. Speculative execution guesses branch outcomes to keep the pipeline
full.
129. Branch prediction attempts to guess which way a conditional jump
will go.
130. Misprediction penalty is the cost of flushing incorrect speculative
work.
M
131. Out-of-order execution allows instructions to execute when ready, not
K in program order.
132. Register renaming eliminates false dependencies by mapping
architectural to physical registers.
P
133. Tomasulo's algorithm pioneered out-of-order execution with register
R renaming.
E 134. Superscalar processors issue multiple instructions per clock cycle.
P 135. Hyper-threading (Simultaneous Multithreading) allows one core to
execute multiple threads.
A
136. NUMA (Non-Uniform Memory Access) recognizes that memory
R access time depends on location.
A 137. UMA (Uniform Memory Access) provides equal memory access time
for all processors.
T
138. SMP (Symmetric Multiprocessing) has multiple identical processors
I sharing memory.
O 139. AMP (Asymmetric Multiprocessing) assigns specialized tasks to
N different processors.
140. Vector processors apply the same operation to entire arrays of data in
S one instruction.
141. Pipeline hazards (structural, data, control) stall instruction throughput.
142. Data hazards occur when instructions depend on previous results not
yet available.

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143. Control hazards arise from branches and jumps disrupting the
instruction flow.
144. Structural hazards happen when hardware resources cannot support all
concurrent operations.
145. Forwarding (bypassing) resolves data hazards by routing results
directly where needed.
M
146. Branch delay slots are instructions placed after branches that execute
K regardless of branch outcome.
147. Predicated execution conditionally executes instructions based on
boolean flags.
P
148. The clock rate determines how many cycles per second the CPU
R executes.
E 149. CPI (Cycles Per Instruction) measures average cycles needed per
P instruction.
150. MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second) and FLOPS (Floating Point
A Operations Per Second) measure performance.
R
A
T
I
O
N
S

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Practice MCQs
1. Which component of a system refers to the external factors that influence
its operation?
• A) Objective
• B) Components
M
• C) Environment
K • D) Interaction
• Answer: C
P 2. What distinguishes natural systems from artificial systems?
R • A) Natural systems are smaller in size
E • B) Natural systems require no human intervention and are self-regulating

P • C) Artificial systems cannot have objectives

A • D) Natural systems always include computers

Answer: B
R •

3. ICT is fundamentally the convergence of:

A
• A) Hardware and software
T
• B) Computers and telecommunications
I • C) Input and output devices
O • D) Data and information
N • Answer: B
S 4. The IPO cycle in a computer consists of:
• A) Input, Processing, Output
• B) Instruction, Processing, Operation
• C) Integration, Programming, Output
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• D) Input, Programming, Organization
• Answer: A
5. What was the revolutionary idea in Von Neumann architecture?
• A) Using vacuum tubes instead of transistors
B) Storing both instructions and data in the same memory
M
•

• C) Separating input and output devices

K • D) Using magnetic disks for storage
• Answer: B
P 6. The correct sequence of the instruction cycle is:
R • A) Execute, Fetch, Decode, Store
E • B) Fetch, Decode, Execute, Store
P • C) Decode, Fetch, Store, Execute

A • D) Store, Fetch, Decode, Execute

R • Answer: B
7. The Von Neumann bottleneck refers to:
A
A) Limited CPU processing speed
T
•

• B) Insufficient RAM capacity

I • C) The shared bus carrying both instructions and data, limiting throughput
O • D) Slow hard disk access
N • Answer: C
S 8. Which memory type is fastest but most expensive?
• A) Hard Disk
• B) RAM
• C) CPU Registers
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• D) SSD
• Answer: C
9. SRAM differs from DRAM primarily because:
• A) SRAM is volatile, DRAM is non-volatile
B) SRAM requires no refreshing and is faster
M
•

• C) SRAM is used for main memory, DRAM for cache

K • D) SRAM is cheaper than DRAM
• Answer: B
P 10. ROM is characterized as:
R • A) Volatile memory that loses data when power is off
E • B) Non-volatile memory that retains data without power
P • C) Temporary working space for programs

A • D) The fastest memory in the hierarchy

R • Answer: B
11. Flash memory is technically a type of:
A
A) SRAM
T
•

• B) DRAM
I • C) EEPROM
O • D) Magnetic storage
N • Answer: C
S 12. Why do computers use the binary number system?
• A) Because humans understand binary easily
• B) Because decimal circuits are too expensive
• C) Because electricity has two states: ON (1) and OFF (0)
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• D) Because binary requires less memory
• Answer: C
13. Convert binary 1011 to decimal:
• A) 10
B) 11
M
•

• C) 12
K • D) 13
• Answer: B
P 14. Convert binary 10111010 to hexadecimal:
R • A) B9
E • B) BA
P • C) AB

A • D) 9B

R • Answer: B
15. In two's complement representation, the leftmost bit indicates:
A
A) The magnitude of the number
T
•

• B) The sign (0=positive, 1=negative)

I • C) Whether the number is even or odd
O • D) The decimal point position
N • Answer: B
S 16. The range of signed 8-bit numbers in two's complement is:
• A) 0 to 255
• B) -127 to +127
• C) -128 to +127
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• D) -255 to +255
• Answer: C
17. The ASCII code for 'A' is:
• A) 97
B) 65
M
•

• C) 48
K • D) 32
• Answer: B
P 18. The ASCII code for 'a' is:
R • A) 65
E • B) 97
P • C) 48

A • D) 32

R • Answer: B
19. The numerical difference between uppercase and lowercase ASCII letters
A is:
T • A) 16
I • B) 32
O • C) 64

N • D) 128

S • Answer: B
20. An operating system is primarily:
• A) Application software for word processing
• B) System software that manages hardware and provides services for
programs
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• C) A programming language compiler
• D) A database management system
• Answer: B
21. The key difference between a program and a process is:
A) Programs are larger than processes
M
•

• B) A program is static on disk; a process is dynamic in memory

K • C) Processes are written in assembly; programs in high-level languages
• D) There is no difference
P • Answer: B
R 22. Round-robin scheduling works by:
E • A) Processing longest jobs first
P • B) Giving each process a fixed time slice in circular order

A • C) Prioritizing important tasks exclusively

R • D) Processing jobs in order of arrival

Answer: B
A •

23. Paging solves which memory management problem?

T
• A) Insufficient total memory
I • B) External fragmentation
O • C) Slow disk access
N • D) CPU idle time
S • Answer: B
24. Virtual memory uses which device as "fake" RAM?
• A) CPU registers
• B) Cache memory
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• C) Hard disk or SSD
• D) ROM
• Answer: C
25. Thrashing occurs when:
A) The CPU overheats and slows down
M
•

• B) The system spends more time swapping pages than executing instructions
K • C) The hard disk runs out of space
• D) Too many users log in simultaneously
P • Answer: B
R 26. DMA (Direct Memory Access) improves performance by:
E • A) Increasing CPU clock speed
P • B) Allowing devices to transfer data directly to memory without CPU
intervention
A
• C) Compressing data before storage
R • D) Prioritizing interrupts
A • Answer: B
T 27. In programmed I/O (polling), the CPU:
I • A) Waits for interrupts from devices
O • B) Constantly checks device status, wasting cycles

N • C) Delegates I/O to a separate controller

S • D) Ignores devices until data arrives

• Answer: B
28. CISC architectures are characterized by:
• A) Few simple instructions, fixed length

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• B) Complex instructions, variable length, hardware does more
• C) Only load/store instructions access memory
• D) Compiler does most of the work
• Answer: B
29. RISC architectures are characterized by:
M
• A) Complex, multi-step instructions
K • B) Variable instruction length
• C) Simple instructions, fixed length, compiler does more
P • D) Hardware implements complex operations
R • Answer: C
E 30. ARM processors, used in most smartphones, are based on which
architecture?
P
• A) CISC
A
• B) RISC
R • C) Von Neumann
A • D) Harvard
T • Answer: B
I 31. Cache memory exists primarily to:
O • A) Store permanent data

N • B) Bridge the speed gap between fast CPU and slower RAM

S • C) Increase total storage capacity

• D) Replace RAM completely
• Answer: B
32. A cache hit ratio of 95% means:

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• A) 95% of data is stored permanently
• B) 95% of memory accesses find data in cache
• C) 95% of CPU time is productive
• D) 5% of cache is unused
Answer: B
M
•

33. According to Amdahl's Law, if 90% of a program can be parallelized, the

K maximum theoretical speedup with infinite processors is:
• A) 90x

P • B) 100x

R • C) 10x

E • D) 9x
Answer: C
P •

34. In Flynn's Taxonomy, a standard multi-core PC falls under:

A
• A) SISD
R • B) SIMD
A • C) MISD
T • D) MIMD
I • Answer: D
O 35. SIMD architecture (Single Instruction Multiple Data) is commonly used
in:
N
• A) Word processors
S
• B) Graphics cards (GPUs)
• C) Database servers
• D) Operating systems
• Answer: B
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36. The ENIAC computer (1946) is historically significant as:
• A) The first commercial computer
• B) The first stored-program computer
• C) The first electronic computer
D) The first personal computer
M
•

• Answer: C
K 37. The EDVAC (1949) introduced which revolutionary concept?
• A) Vacuum tubes
P • B) Magnetic tape storage
R • C) The stored-program concept
E • D) Graphical user interface
P • Answer: C

A 38. The output of a combinational circuit depends on:

R • A) Current inputs only

B) Current inputs and past outputs
A •

C) Clock frequency only

T
•

• D) Previous state only

I • Answer: A
O 39. Sequential circuits differ from combinational circuits because they:
N • A) Have no inputs
S • B) Have memory and depend on past states
• C) Use only logic gates
• D) Cannot implement arithmetic functions
• Answer: B
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40. The D flip-flop is primarily used to:
• A) Perform arithmetic operations
• B) Store one bit of data at the clock edge
• C) Generate clock signals
D) Convert analog to digital
M
•

• Answer: B
K 41. De Morgan's Laws state that (A·B)' equals:
• A) A'·B'
P • B) A' + B'
R • C) A + B
E • D) (A+B)'
P • Answer: B

A 42. In cloud computing, IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service) provides:

R • A) Ready-to-use software applications

B) Virtual machines and storage
A •

C) Development platforms only

T
•

• D) Database management exclusively

I • Answer: B
O 43. SaaS (Software as a Service) examples include:
N • A) AWS EC2
S • B) Google App Engine
• C) Gmail and Office 365
• D) Microsoft Windows
• Answer: C
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44. Symmetric encryption uses:
• A) Different keys for encryption and decryption
• B) The same key for encryption and decryption
• C) No keys at all
D) Public and private key pairs
M
•

• Answer: B
K 45. Asymmetric encryption (like RSA) uses:
• A) Identical keys for both operations
P • B) Public key for encryption, private key for decryption
R • C) No mathematical relationship between keys
E • D) Single shared secret key
P • Answer: B

A 46. The Waterfall methodology requires:

R • A) Iterative development with continuous feedback

B) Complete upfront planning before execution
A •

C) Customer involvement throughout

T
•

• D) Two-week development cycles

I • Answer: B
O 47. Agile methodology emphasizes:
N • A) Rigid upfront requirements
S • B) Customer sees product only at the end
• C) Small repeated cycles with continuous feedback
• D) Changes are difficult to implement
• Answer: C
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48. Black-box testing means:
• A) Testing with knowledge of internal code structure
• B) Testing without seeing the internal code, focusing on inputs and outputs
• C) Testing only security vulnerabilities
D) Testing at the unit level only
M
•

• Answer: B
K 49. White-box testing requires:
• A) No knowledge of the code
P • B) Visibility of internal code and logical paths
R • C) Only user acceptance criteria
E • D) Automated testing tools exclusively
P • Answer: B

A 50. The main advantage of SSDs over HDDs is:

R • A) Lower cost per gigabyte

B) No moving parts, much faster access
A •

C) Larger storage capacity

T
•

• D) Better for long-term backups

I • Answer: B
O 51. Which bus carries the actual data between components?
N • A) Address bus
S • B) Control bus
• C) Data bus
• D) Power bus
• Answer: C
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52. The address bus carries:
• A) The actual data to be processed
• B) Control commands from CPU
• C) Memory location information
D) Electrical power
M
•

• Answer: C
K 53. Which type of ROM can be erased using UV light?
• A) PROM
P • B) EPROM
R • C) EEPROM
E • D) Flash
P • Answer: B

A 54. Which scheduling algorithm minimizes waiting time by processing

shortest tasks first?
R • A) FCFS
A • B) Round Robin
T • C) SJF (Shortest Job First)
I • D) Priority scheduling
O • Answer: C

N 55. In paged memory systems, a page is:

S • A) A variable-sized program segment

• B) A fixed-size block of a program
• C) The entire program in memory
• D) A section of the hard disk

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• Answer: B
56. LRU page replacement removes:
• A) The oldest loaded page
• B) The least recently used page
C) The largest page
M
•

• D) Randomly selected pages

K • Answer: B
57. The FAT32 file system limitation is:
P • A) Cannot handle files larger than 4GB
R • B) Only works on Linux
E • C) No journaling capability
P • D) Requires SSD specifically

A • Answer: A

R 58. The half adder circuit produces:

A) Sum and difference
A •

B) Sum and carry

T
•

• C) Product and quotient

I • D) Only sum
O • Answer: B
N 59. Sum output in a half adder is generated by:
S • A) AND gate
• B) OR gate
• C) XOR gate
• D) NAND gate
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• Answer: C
60. Carry output in a half adder is generated by:
• A) XOR gate
• B) AND gate
C) OR gate
M
•

• D) NOR gate
K • Answer: B
61. A multiplexer (MUX) performs which function?
P • A) Converts code to active output
R • B) Selects one of many inputs to pass through
E • C) Adds two binary numbers
P • D) Stores one bit of data

A • Answer: B

R 62. The program counter (PC) holds:

A) The current data being processed
A •

B) The address of the next instruction to execute

T
•

• C) The result of arithmetic operations

I • D) The clock speed of CPU
O • Answer: B
N 63. The ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) performs:
S • A) Only arithmetic operations
• B) Only logical operations
• C) Both arithmetic and logical operations
• D) Memory management
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• Answer: C
64. The Control Unit's primary function is:
• A) Performing arithmetic calculations
• B) Coordinating and controlling all CPU operations
C) Storing data permanently
M
•

• D) Managing virtual memory

K • Answer: B
65. Which memory level is closest to the CPU core?
P • A) L3 cache
R • B) RAM
E • C) L1 cache
P • D) SSD

A • Answer: C

R 66. In two's complement, why is there one more negative number than
positive?
A • A) Because zero is counted as positive
T • B) Because the most negative number has no positive counterpart
I • C) Due to hardware limitations
O • D) Because of rounding errors

N • Answer: B

S 67. The ASCII code for space character is:

• A) 48
• B) 65
• C) 32

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• D) 97
• Answer: C
68. Which is NOT a function of an operating system?
• A) Process management
B) Memory management
M
•

• C) Compiling high-level language

K • D) File management
• Answer: C
P 69. A process in "Waiting" state is:
R • A) Ready to use CPU
E • B) Currently executing
P • C) Waiting for some event or I/O

A • D) Newly created

R • Answer: C
70. Journaling in file systems provides:
A
A) Faster file access
T
•

• B) Recovery capability after crashes by keeping change logs

I • C) Automatic file compression
O • D) Encryption of all files
N • Answer: B
S 71. Which is an example of a real-time operating system?
• A) Windows 10
• B) Android
• C) VxWorks (used in aircraft control)
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• D) macOS
• Answer: C
72. The AND gate produces output 1 when:
• A) At least one input is 1
B) All inputs are 1
M
•

• C) No inputs are 1
K • D) An odd number of inputs are 1
• Answer: B
P 73. The XOR gate produces output 1 when:
R • A) All inputs are 1
E • B) No inputs are 1
P • C) An odd number of inputs are 1

A • D) Both inputs are 0

R • Answer: C
74. In Boolean algebra, A + A' equals:
A
A) A
T
•

• B) A'
I • C) 1
O • D) 0
N • Answer: C
S 75. In Boolean algebra, A · A' equals:
• A) A
• B) A'
• C) 1
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• D) 0
• Answer: D
76. Cyclomatic complexity measures:
• A) CPU clock cycles
B) Code complexity and number of paths to test
M
•

• C) Memory usage
K • D) Network bandwidth
• Answer: B
P 77. Unit testing focuses on:
R • A) Testing entire system
E • B) Testing individual components or functions
P • C) User acceptance

A • D) Integration between modules

R • Answer: B
78. Acceptance testing is performed to:
A
A) Find syntax errors
T
•

• B) Verify if system meets user requirements

I • C) Test individual functions
O • D) Measure performance only
N • Answer: B
S 79. A full adder adds how many bits?
• A) 2 bits
• B) 3 bits (two operands and carry-in)
• C) 4 bits
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• D) 8 bits
• Answer: B
80. Which is NOT a cloud deployment model?
• A) Public cloud
B) Private cloud
M
•

• C) Hybrid cloud
K • D) Distributed cloud
• Answer: D
P 81. Phishing attacks involve:
R • A) Malware that encrypts files
E • B) Fake communications to steal sensitive information
P • C) Overloading servers with traffic

A • D) Physical theft of hardware

R • Answer: B
82. DDoS attacks aim to:
A
A) Steal passwords
T
•

• B) Overwhelm systems with traffic to shut them down

I • C) Install spyware
O • D) Modify system files
N • Answer: B
S 83. Man-in-the-Middle attacks involve:
• A) Inserting malware into USB drives
• B) Eavesdropping and intercepting communications
• C) Guessing passwords
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• D) Physical damage to servers
• Answer: B
84. The first layer of defense in depth is:
• A) Network security
B) Physical security
M
•

• C) Data encryption
K • D) User training
• Answer: B
P 85. The last layer of defense in depth is:
R • A) Physical security
E • B) Firewalls
P • C) User training and awareness

A • D) Encryption

R • Answer: C
86. Which computer category is designed for thousands of concurrent users
A with maximum reliability?
T • A) Supercomputer
I • B) Mainframe
O • C) Minicomputer

N • D) Microcomputer

S • Answer: B
87. Supercomputers are optimized for:
• A) Transaction processing
• B) Raw computational power

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• C) User interactivity
• D) Portability
• Answer: B
88. Embedded computers are characterized by:
A) General-purpose use
M
•

• B) Dedicated to a single task inside another device

K • C) Maximum processing power
• D) User-upgradable components
P • Answer: B
R 89. The first generation of computers used:
E • A) Transistors
P • B) Integrated circuits

A • C) Vacuum tubes

R • D) Microprocessors
Answer: C
A •

90. Microprocessors ushered in which computer generation?

T
• A) Second generation
I • B) Third generation
O • C) Fourth generation
N • D) Fifth generation
S • Answer: C
91. The IBM PC (1981) is significant because:
• A) It was the first computer ever built
• B) It made computers personal and widely accessible
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• C) It introduced vacuum tubes
• D) It was the first supercomputer
• Answer: B
92. In the memory hierarchy, as we move from top to bottom:
A) Speed increases, cost increases
M
•

• B) Speed decreases, cost per bit decreases

K • C) Size decreases, cost increases
• D) Speed increases, size decreases
P • Answer: B
R 93. L1 cache is typically:
E • A) Shared between all cores
P • B) Inside each CPU core, very fast but small

A • C) Slower than RAM

R • D) Measured in gigabytes
Answer: B
A •

94. FIFO page replacement removes:

T
• A) The least recently used page
I • B) The oldest loaded page
O • C) The most frequently used page
N • D) Random pages
S • Answer: B
95. Optimal page replacement:
• A) Is always implemented in modern systems

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• B) Removes page that won't be used for longest time (theoretically perfect
but impossible)
• C) Removes random pages
• D) Keeps all pages in memory
• Answer: B
M 96. Which is true about RISC compared to CISC?
K • A) RISC has more complex instructions
• B) RISC has variable instruction length

P • C) RISC relies more on compiler optimization

R • D) RISC hardware does more work

Answer: C
E •

97. The system bus consists of:

P
• A) Data bus only
A
• B) Address bus only
R • C) Data bus, address bus, and control bus
A • D) Power and ground lines
T • Answer: C
I 98. A decoder circuit:
O • A) Selects one of many inputs

N • B) Converts coded input to one active output

S • C) Adds two numbers

• D) Stores data
• Answer: B
99. An encoder circuit:

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• A) Converts active input to coded output
• B) Decodes instructions
• C) Performs arithmetic
• D) Generates clock signals
Answer: A
M
•

100. According to Amdahl's Law, if 95% of a program can be parallelized, the

K maximum speedup with infinite processors is:
• A) 95x

P • B) 100x

R • C) 20x

E • D) 10x
Answer: C
P •

101. The Harvard architecture differs from Von Neumann by:

A
• A) Using only one memory space
R • B) Having separate memory paths for instructions and data
A • C) Eliminating the need for cache
T • D) Using analog signals
I • Answer: B
O 102. Which cache mapping scheme allows any block to go anywhere in cache?

N • A) Direct mapped

S • B) Fully associative
• C) Set associative
• D) Sector mapping
• Answer: B

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103. Write-through cache policy means:
• A) Data written only to cache
• B) Data written to cache and memory simultaneously
• C) Data written only when cache is full
D) Data never written back to memory
M
•

• Answer: B
K 104. Write-back cache policy means:
• A) Data written to cache and memory immediately
P • B) Data written only to cache, then to memory when block is replaced
R • C) Data never written to memory
E • D) Writes bypass cache entirely
P • Answer: B

A 105. Temporal locality in memory access means:

R • A) Recently accessed data will likely be accessed again soon

B) Data near recently accessed data will likely be accessed
A •

C) Data is accessed in sequential order

T
•

• D) Data is accessed randomly

I • Answer: A
O 106. Spatial locality in memory access means:
N • A) Recently accessed data will likely be accessed again soon
S • B) Data near recently accessed data will likely be accessed
• C) Data is accessed in reverse order
• D) Data is accessed from remote locations
• Answer: B
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107. RAID 0 provides:
• A) Data redundancy through mirroring
• B) Performance improvement through striping with no redundancy
• C) Parity-based error recovery
D) Double parity protection
M
•

• Answer: B
K 108. RAID 1 provides:
• A) Striping for performance
P • B) Mirroring for complete redundancy
R • C) Parity for error correction
E • D) Distributed parity
P • Answer: B

A 109. RAID 5 requires a minimum of:

R • A) 2 drives
B) 3 drives
A •

C) 4 drives
T
•

• D) 5 drives
I • Answer: B
O 110. The boot process begins with code stored in:
N • A) RAM
S • B) Hard disk
• C) ROM (BIOS/UEFI)
• D) Cache
• Answer: C
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111. Interrupts allow the CPU to:
• A) Execute instructions faster
• B) Respond to asynchronous events without polling
• C) Increase clock speed
D) Reduce memory usage
M
•

• Answer: B
K 112. An interrupt vector is:
• A) The data being transferred
P • B) A pointer to the interrupt handler routine
R • C) The interrupt priority level
E • D) The device generating the interrupt
P • Answer: B

A 113. Non-maskable interrupts (NMI) are used for:

R • A) Regular I/O operations

B) Critical events like hardware failures
A •

C) User input
T
•

• D) Network packets
I • Answer: B
O 114. The deadlock condition requires four conditions: mutual exclusion, hold
N and wait, no preemption, and:

S • A) Circular wait
• B) Priority inversion
• C) Starvation
• D) Aging

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• Answer: A
115. The banker's algorithm is used for:
• A) CPU scheduling
• B) Deadlock avoidance
C) Memory allocation
M
•

• D) File system management

K • Answer: B
116. Belady's anomaly occurs in which page replacement algorithm?
P • A) LRU
R • B) Optimal
E • C) FIFO
P • D) Clock

A • Answer: C

R 117. The clock algorithm is an approximation of:

A) FIFO
A •

B) LRU
T
•

• C) Optimal
I • D) Random
O • Answer: B
N 118. Inverted page tables save memory by:
S • A) Using smaller page sizes
• B) Having one entry per physical frame, not per virtual page
• C) Eliminating page tables entirely
• D) Storing page tables on disk
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• Answer: B
119. Segmentation with paging combines:
• A) Variable segments and fixed pages
• B) Fixed segments and variable pages
C) No memory protection
M
•

• D) Single-level addressing
K • Answer: A
120. The TLB miss rate affects performance because:
P • A) The CPU must access the page table in memory, which is slower
R • B) The process must be terminated
E • C) The cache must be flushed
P • D) The disk must be accessed

A • Answer: A

R 121. Microkernels differ from monolithic kernels by:

A) Including all services in kernel space
A •

B) Running most services in user space with minimal kernel

T
•

• C) Having no kernel at all

I • D) Using only one process
O • Answer: B
N 122. Linux is an example of a:
S • A) Microkernel
• B) Monolithic kernel
• C) Hybrid kernel
• D) Exokernel
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• Answer: B
123. Windows NT uses which kernel architecture?
• A) Pure microkernel
• B) Monolithic kernel
C) Hybrid kernel
M
•

• D) No kernel
K • Answer: C
124. Mutual exclusion ensures that:
P • A) Multiple processes can enter critical section simultaneously
R • B) Only one process enters critical section at a time
E • C) Processes never wait
P • D) Deadlock is guaranteed

A • Answer: B

R 125. A semaphore with count >1 is called a:

A) Binary semaphore
A •

B) Counting semaphore
T
•

• C) Mutex
I • D) Monitor
O • Answer: B
N 126. The critical section problem requires: mutual exclusion, progress, and:
S • A) Priority inversion
• B) Bounded waiting
• C) Deadlock
• D) Starvation
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• Answer: B
127. Peterson's solution provides:
• A) Hardware-based mutual exclusion
• B) Software-based mutual exclusion for two processes
C) Deadlock prevention
M
•

• D) Memory management
K • Answer: B
128. A monitor is a high-level synchronization construct that:
P • A) Uses busy waiting
R • B) Encapsulates shared data and operations with mutual exclusion
E • C) Requires assembly language
P • D) Cannot handle condition variables

A • Answer: B

R 129. The dining philosophers problem illustrates:

A) CPU scheduling
A •

B) Synchronization challenges and deadlock

T
•

• C) Memory allocation
I • D) File system organization
O • Answer: B
N 130. Spooling allows:
S • A) Multiple processes to use a printer simultaneously by queueing output
• B) Direct memory access
• C) Faster CPU execution
• D) Reduced power consumption
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• Answer: A
131. Buffering in I/O systems:
• A) Slows down data transfer
• B) Temporarily holds data to match speed differences between devices
C) Eliminates need for interrupts
M
•

• D) Increases CPU load

K • Answer: B
132. Device drivers are:
P • A) Hardware components
R • B) Software that interfaces between OS and hardware devices
E • C) User applications
P • D) Firmware only

A • Answer: B

R 133. Plug and Play (PnP) allows:

A) Manual configuration of all devices
A •

B) Automatic detection and configuration of hardware

T
•

• C) Removal of all device drivers

I • D) Faster CPU operation
O • Answer: B
N 134. The FAT file system uses a:
S • A) Tree structure
• B) Linked list allocation
• C) Indexed allocation
• D) Contiguous allocation
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• Answer: B
135. NTFS uses which structure for file allocation?
• A) FAT table
• B) Master File Table (MFT)
C) Inode table
M
•

• D) Linked list
K • Answer: B
136. Unix/Linux file systems use:
P • A) FAT table
R • B) MFT
E • C) Inode structure
P • D) Linked allocation only

A • Answer: C

R 137. Hard links in Unix:

A) Can cross file systems
A •

B) Cannot cross file systems and point directly to inode

T
•

• C) Are always symbolic

I • D) Point to pathnames
O • Answer: B
N 138. Symbolic links (soft links):
S • A) Point directly to inodes
• B) Contain pathname to target file
• C) Cannot be deleted
• D) Work only on same file system
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• Answer: B
139. Disk scheduling algorithms optimize:
• A) CPU utilization
• B) Seek time and rotational latency
C) Memory access
M
•

• D) Network bandwidth
K • Answer: B
140. The SCAN disk scheduling algorithm (elevator algorithm):
P • A) Services requests in order of arrival
R • B) Moves disk arm in one direction, servicing requests until end, then
E reverses
C) Services shortest seek time first
P •

• D) Randomly selects next request

A
• Answer: B
R 141. C-SCAN (Circular SCAN) improves on SCAN by:
A • A) Servicing requests in both directions equally
T • B) Providing more uniform wait time by servicing only in one direction
I • C) Eliminating seek time entirely
O • D) Prioritizing urgent requests

N • Answer: B

S 142. SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First) may cause:

• A) Optimal performance always
• B) Starvation of requests far from current position
• C) No movement

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• D) Equal service for all
• Answer: B
143. Formatting a disk:
• A) Erases all data and prepares disk for file system use
B) Only reads disk contents
M
•

• C) Increases disk capacity

K • D) Speeds up CPU
• Answer: A
P 144. Disk partitioning:
R • A) Divides physical disk into separate logical sections
E • B) Merges multiple disks into one
P • C) Increases disk speed

A • D) Reduces storage capacity

R • Answer: A
145. The boot block contains:
A
A) User files
T
•

• B) Code to start the operating system

I • C) Device drivers only
O • D) Application programs
N • Answer: B
S 146. Superblock in Unix file systems contains:
• A) Individual file data
• B) File system metadata (size, free blocks, etc.)
• C) User passwords
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• D) Device drivers
• Answer: B
147. Inodes store:
• A) File name only
B) File metadata (permissions, timestamps, pointers) but not name
M
•

• C) File contents only

K • D) Directory structure
• Answer: B
P 148. Directories in Unix are:
R • A) Special files containing names and inode numbers
E • B) Always empty
P • C) Stored in RAM only

A • D) Identical to regular files

R • Answer: A
149. The maximum file size in a file system depends on:
A
A) CPU speed only
T
•

• B) Number of pointers in inode and block size

I • C) RAM size
O • D) Monitor resolution
N • Answer: B
S 150. File system consistency checking (fsck) is used to:
• A) Improve performance
• B) Repair corrupted file system structures after crash
• C) Defragment files
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• D) Compress files
• Answer: B
151. RAID 10 (1+0) combines:
• A) Striping then mirroring
B) Mirroring then striping
M
•

• C) Parity only
K • D) No redundancy
• Answer: A
P 152. RAID 01 (0+1) combines:
R • A) Mirroring then striping
E • B) Striping then mirroring
P • C) Parity distributed

A • D) Single disk

R • Answer: B
153. Hot swapping allows:
A
A) CPU replacement while running
T
•

• B) Disk replacement without powering down

I • C) Memory upgrade during operation
O • D) Network cable removal
N • Answer: B
S 154. SAN (Storage Area Network) provides:
• A) File-level access over network
• B) Block-level storage access over high-speed network
• C) Only backup services
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• D) Cloud email
• Answer: B
155. NAS (Network Attached Storage) provides:
• A) Block-level access
B) File-level access over network
M
•

• C) Direct CPU connection

K • D) Memory expansion
• Answer: B
P 156. Object storage differs from file storage by:
R • A) Using hierarchical directories
E • B) Storing data with metadata and unique identifier in flat address space
P • C) Providing block-level access

A • D) Requiring local attachment

R • Answer: B
157. Distributed file systems (like NFS) allow:
A
A) Local access only
T
•

• B) Remote file access over network as if local

I • C) Faster CPU operation
O • D) Memory sharing
N • Answer: B
S 158. NFS (Network File System) uses which protocol?
• A) HTTP
• B) TCP/IP typically
• C) FTP
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• D) SMTP
• Answer: B
159. SMB/CIFS is the file sharing protocol used by:
• A) Unix systems
B) Windows systems
M
•

• C) Mainframes only
K • D) Embedded devices
• Answer: B
P 160. Database indexing improves:
R • A) Data security
E • B) Query performance by reducing disk access
P • C) Backup speed

A • D) Network bandwidth

R • Answer: B
161. ACID properties in databases stand for:
A
A) Availability, Consistency, Isolation, Durability
T
•

• B) Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability

I • C) Atomicity, Concurrency, Integrity, Durability
O • D) Accuracy, Consistency, Isolation, Dependability
N • Answer: B
S 162. A B-tree index is preferred over binary trees for disk storage because:
• A) It uses less memory
• B) High fanout reduces disk accesses
• C) It's simpler to implement
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• D) It requires no balancing
• Answer: B
163. Transaction rollback ensures:
• A) Faster processing
B) Atomicity by undoing partial changes on failure
M
•

• C) Data compression
K • D) Encryption
• Answer: B
P 164. The two-phase commit protocol ensures:
R • A) Faster transactions
E • B) Atomicity in distributed transactions
P • C) Data encryption

A • D) Index maintenance

R • Answer: B
165. CAP theorem states distributed systems can have at most two of:
A Consistency, Availability, and:
T • A) Performance
I • B) Partition tolerance
O • C) Security

N • D) Scalability

S • Answer: B
166. MapReduce is a programming model for:
• A) Single-threaded applications
• B) Processing large datasets in parallel across clusters

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• C) Real-time transaction processing
• D) User interface design
• Answer: B
167. Hadoop implements:
A) Only storage
M
•

• B) MapReduce processing with HDFS storage

K • C) Database management
• D) Real-time analytics
P • Answer: B
R 168. HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) is designed for:
E • A) Low-latency access
P • B) High-throughput access to large files

A • C) Single-node storage

R • D) Real-time transactions
Answer: B
A •

169. Spark differs from Hadoop MapReduce by:

T
• A) Being slower
I • B) Using in-memory processing for faster iterative algorithms
O • C) Lacking fault tolerance
N • D) Supporting only batch processing
S • Answer: B
170. RDD (Resilient Distributed Dataset) in Spark is:
• A) A database table
• B) A fault-tolerant collection of objects partitioned across cluster
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• C) A storage format
• D) A network protocol
• Answer: B
171. Data warehousing involves:
A) Transaction processing only
M
•

• B) Collecting and integrating data for analysis and reporting

K • C) Real-time order processing
• D) User authentication
P • Answer: B
R 172. ETL stands for:
E • A) Extract, Transform, Load
P • B) Execute, Transmit, Log

A • C) Encrypt, Transfer, Locate

R • D) Evaluate, Test, Launch

Answer: A
A •

173. OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) systems are optimized for:

T
• A) Complex analytical queries
I • B) High-volume, short, atomic transactions
O • C) Long-running batch jobs
N • D) Data visualization
S • Answer: B
174. OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) systems are optimized for:
• A) Simple updates
• B) Complex queries and data analysis
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• C) User registration
• D) Password verification
• Answer: B
175. A data cube in OLAP represents:
A) Physical storage unit
M
•

• B) Multi-dimensional data for analysis

K • C) Encryption algorithm
• D) Network topology
P • Answer: B
R 176. Data mining discovers:
E • A) New storage devices
P • B) Patterns and knowledge from large datasets

A • C) Network errors

R • D) User passwords
Answer: B
A •

177. Machine learning differs from traditional programming by:

T
• A) Requiring explicit rules for all cases
I • B) Learning patterns from data instead of being explicitly programmed for
O all scenarios

N • C) Being slower always

S • D) Using only symbolic logic

• Answer: B
178. Supervised learning requires:
• A) No training data

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• B) Labeled training data with desired outputs
• C) Only unlabeled data
• D) Reinforcement signals only
• Answer: B
179. Unsupervised learning works with:
M
• A) Labeled data only
K • B) Unlabeled data to find hidden patterns
• C) Only numerical data
P • D) Predefined categories
R • Answer: B
E 180. Reinforcement learning involves:
P • A) Labeled examples

A • B) An agent learning from rewards and punishments through interaction

R • C) Only classification tasks

D) Pre-programmed responses
A •

Answer: B
T
•

181. Neural networks are inspired by:

I • A) Digital circuits
O • B) Biological neural structure of the brain
N • C) Quantum mechanics
S • D) Classical logic
• Answer: B
182. Deep learning uses:
• A) Single-layer neural networks
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• B) Multiple hidden layers in neural networks
• C) No activation functions
• D) Only linear transformations
• Answer: B
183. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) excel at:
M
• A) Sequential data like text
K • B) Grid-like data like images
• C) Single numbers
P • D) Audio only
R • Answer: B
E 184. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) are designed for:
P • A) Image classification

A • B) Sequential data like time series or text

R • C) Static data
D) Single predictions
A •

Answer: B
T
•

185. The vanishing gradient problem affects:

I • A) Shallow networks only
O • B) Training of deep networks where gradients become extremely small
N • C) Convolutional layers only
S • D) Input normalization
• Answer: B
186. Transfer learning uses:
• A) Random initialization always
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• B) Pre-trained models on new tasks
• C) Only synthetic data
• D) No training
• Answer: B
187. Overfitting in machine learning means:
M
• A) Model performs well on new data
K • B) Model learns training data too well including noise, failing to generalize
• C) Model is too simple
P • D) Training is incomplete
R • Answer: B
E 188. Regularization techniques prevent:
P • A) Underfitting

A • B) Overfitting by adding penalty for complexity

R • C) Slow training
D) Data loading
A •

Answer: B
T
•

189. Dropout in neural networks:

I • A) Deletes neurons permanently
O • B) Randomly ignores neurons during training to prevent overfitting
N • C) Increases network size
S • D) Speeds up inference
• Answer: B
190. Batch normalization:
• A) Increases training time
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• B) Normalizes layer inputs to stabilize and accelerate training
• C) Reduces model accuracy
• D) Eliminates need for activation functions
• Answer: B
191. Natural Language Processing (NLP) deals with:
M
• A) Image recognition
K • B) Interaction between computers and human language
• C) Numerical calculations
P • D) Database queries only
R • Answer: B
E 192. Word embeddings (like Word2Vec) represent words as:
P • A) One-hot vectors only

A • B) Dense vectors capturing semantic relationships

R • C) Single numbers
D) Binary codes
A •

Answer: B
T
•

193. Attention mechanism in transformers allows:

I • A) Fixed context windows
O • B) Weighting importance of different input parts dynamically
N • C) No parallelization
S • D) Linear complexity only
• Answer: B
194. The Transformer architecture (BERT, GPT) relies primarily on:
• A) Recurrent connections
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• B) Self-attention mechanisms without recurrence
• C) Convolutional layers
• D) Simple feed-forward networks
• Answer: B
195. GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) is:
M
• A) A convolutional network
K • B) An autoregressive language model using transformer decoder
• C) A database system
P • D) A reinforcement learning algorithm
R • Answer: B
E 196. BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers) is:
P • A) Unidirectional only

A • B) Bidirectional transformer encoder for language understanding

R • C) A recurrent network
D) Not pre-trained
A •

Answer: B
T
•

197. Computer vision enables computers to:

I • A) Process audio only
O • B) Interpret and understand visual information from images/video
N • C) Generate text only
S • D) Perform calculations
• Answer: B
198. Edge detection in image processing identifies:
• A) Colors in image
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• B) Boundaries where image brightness changes sharply
• C) Texture only
• D) Depth information
• Answer: B
199. Image segmentation partitions an image into:
M
• A) Random regions
K • B) Meaningful segments or objects
• C) Single pixels only
P • D) Compressed format
R • Answer: B
E 200. Object detection locates and classifies:
P • A) Only one object per image

A • B) Multiple objects with bounding boxes and labels

R • C) Image colors only

D) Text in documents
A •

Answer: B
T
•

201. YOLO (You Only Look Once) is known for:

I • A) Slow but accurate detection
O • B) Real-time object detection
N • C) Image generation
S • D) Style transfer
• Answer: B
202. Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) consist of:
• A) One network only
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• B) Generator and discriminator networks competing
• C) Only discriminative model
• D) No training
• Answer: B
203. The generator in GANs aims to:
M
• A) Discriminate real from fake
K • B) Produce realistic samples to fool discriminator
• C) Classify images
P • D) Extract features
R • Answer: B
E 204. The discriminator in GANs aims to:
P • A) Generate images

A • B) Distinguish real samples from generated ones

R • C) Perform regression
D) Reduce dimensionality
A •

Answer: B
T
•

205. Variational Autoencoders (VAEs) are used for:

I • A) Classification only
O • B) Generating new data similar to training data
N • C) Regression tasks
S • D) Object detection
• Answer: B
206. Diffusion models generate data by:
• A) Single-step generation
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• B) Gradually denoising random noise
• C) Adversarial training only
• D) Simple interpolation
• Answer: B
207. Federated learning trains models:
M
• A) On centralized data only
K • B) Across decentralized devices without sharing raw data
• C) Without any data
P • D) On a single machine
R • Answer: B
E 208. Differential privacy protects:
P • A) Model accuracy

A • B) Individual data points in statistical queries

R • C) Training speed
D) Model size
A •

Answer: B
T
•

209. Homomorphic encryption allows:

I • A) Only storage encryption
O • B) Computation on encrypted data without decryption
N • C) Faster encryption only
S • D) Key exchange only
• Answer: B
210. Zero-knowledge proofs allow:
• A) Data decryption
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• B) Proving knowledge without revealing the knowledge itself
• C) Faster hashing
• D) Key generation
• Answer: B
211. Blockchain is a:
M
• A) Centralized database
K • B) Distributed, immutable ledger of transactions
• C) Encryption algorithm
P • D) Cloud service
R • Answer: B
E 212. Proof of Work in blockchain requires:
P • A) No computation

A • B) Solving computational puzzles to add blocks

R • C) Central authority approval

D) Pre-mining only
A •

Answer: B
T
•

213. Smart contracts are:

I • A) Legal paper documents
O • B) Self-executing contracts with terms directly written in code
N • C) Manual agreements
S • D) Email confirmations
• Answer: B
214. Cryptocurrency uses blockchain primarily for:
• A) Video streaming
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• B) Decentralized digital currency transactions
• C) Social media
• D) Email
• Answer: B
215. IPFS (InterPlanetary File System) is:
M
• A) A database
K • B) A peer-to-peer distributed file system
• C) A cloud provider
P • D) An encryption standard
R • Answer: B
E 216. TCP provides:
P • A) Unreliable datagram service

A • B) Reliable, connection-oriented data delivery

R • C) No error checking
D) Only multicast
A •

Answer: B
T
•

217. UDP provides:

I • A) Reliable, ordered delivery
O • B) Lightweight, connectionless, unreliable datagram service
N • C) Connection establishment
S • D) Retransmission
• Answer: B
218. The OSI model has how many layers?
• A) 5
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• B) 7
• C) 4
• D) 6
• Answer: B
219. The TCP/IP model has how many layers?
M
• A) 7
K • B) 4
• C) 5
P • D) 6
R • Answer: B
E 220. IP addresses in IPv4 are:
P • A) 128-bit

A • B) 32-bit

R • C) 64-bit
D) 16-bit
A •

Answer: B
T
•

221. IPv6 addresses are:

I • A) 32-bit
O • B) 128-bit
N • C) 64-bit
S • D) 256-bit
• Answer: B
222. Subnet masking determines:
• A) MAC address
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• B) Network portion and host portion of IP address
• C) Default gateway
• D) DNS server
• Answer: B
223. DNS (Domain Name System) translates:
M
• A) IP to MAC addresses
K • B) Domain names to IP addresses
• C) Port numbers
P • D) Email addresses
R • Answer: B
E 224. HTTP operates at which OSI layer?
P • A) Transport

A • B) Application

R • C) Network
D) Data Link
A •

Answer: B
T
•

225. HTTPS differs from HTTP by:

I • A) Using different port
O • B) Adding encryption layer (SSL/TLS)
N • C) Being faster
S • D) Using UDP
• Answer: B
226. A firewall functions at which layers?
• A) Only physical
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• B) Network and transport typically
• C) Only application
• D) Only session
• Answer: B
227. VPN (Virtual Private Network) provides:
M
• A) Public internet access only
K • B) Secure encrypted tunnel over public network
• C) Faster connection
P • D) Web hosting
R • Answer: B
E 228. MAC addresses are:
P • A) 32-bit logical addresses

A • B) 48-bit physical addresses burned into NIC

R • C) 128-bit IPv6 addresses

D) Port numbers
A •

Answer: B
T
•

229. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) maps:

I • A) Domain names to IP
O • B) IP addresses to MAC addresses
N • C) Ports to services
S • D) URLs to content
• Answer: B
230. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) automatically assigns:
• A) MAC addresses
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• B) IP addresses and network configuration
• C) Domain names
• D) Routes
• Answer: B
231. NAT (Network Address Translation) allows:
M
• A) Encryption of all traffic
K • B) Multiple devices to share single public IP
• C) Faster routing
P • D) Direct internet access
R • Answer: B
E 232. Load balancing distributes:
P • A) Data encryption

A • B) Network traffic across multiple servers

R • C) MAC addresses
D) Domain names
A •

Answer: B
T
•

233. CDN (Content Delivery Network) improves performance by:

I • A) Centralizing all content
O • B) Distributing content to geographically closer servers
N • C) Encrypting all data
S • D) Reducing server count
• Answer: B
234. Edge computing processes data:
• A) Only in central cloud
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• B) Near the source instead of centralized data center
• C) Without any computation
• D) On user's device only
• Answer: B
235. Quantum computing uses:
M
• A) Classical bits only
K • B) Qubits in superposition and entanglement
• C) Analog signals
P • D) Magnetic storage
R • Answer: B
E 236. Qubit superposition means:
P • A) Qubit is always 0 or 1

A • B) Qubit exists in combination of 0 and 1 states simultaneously until

measured
R • C) Qubit has no state
A • D) Qubit stores two bits
T • Answer: B
I 237. Quantum entanglement means:
O • A) Particles are independent

N • B) Quantum states are correlated such that measuring one instantly affects
the other
S
• C) No relationship exists
• D) Classical communication is instant
• Answer: B
238. Shor's algorithm on quantum computers threatens:
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• A) Symmetric encryption only
• B) RSA and other public-key cryptography
• C) Hash functions only
• D) All encryption equally
Answer: B
M
•

239. Grover's algorithm provides quadratic speedup for:

K • A) All problems
• B) Unstructured search problems
P • C) Only sorting
R • D) Database writes
E • Answer: B
P 240. Post-quantum cryptography aims to:

A • A) Use quantum computers for encryption

R • B) Develop classical algorithms resistant to quantum attacks

C) Break all encryption
A •

D) Replace all computers

T
•

• Answer: B
I 241. Biotechnology computing (bioinformatics) applies computing to:
O • A) Financial data
N • B) Biological data like DNA sequences
S • C) Weather prediction
• D) Traffic management
• Answer: B
242. Computational genomics analyzes:
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• A) Protein structures only
• B) Genome sequences and genetic data
• C) Population statistics
• D) Medical images only
Answer: B
M
•

243. Brain-computer interfaces (BCI) enable:

K • A) Faster typing only
• B) Direct communication between brain and external devices
P • C) Memory storage only
R • D) Visual displays
E • Answer: B
P 244. Neuromorphic computing mimics:

A • A) Digital logic

R • B) Neural structure of biological brains in hardware

C) Quantum effects
A •

D) Classical computers
T
•

• Answer: B
I 245. Spiking neural networks (SNNs) differ from traditional ANNs by:
O • A) Continuous activation
N • B) Using precise spike timing for information transmission
S • C) No learning capability
• D) Digital signals only
• Answer: B
246. Memristors are circuit elements whose resistance depends on:
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• A) Temperature only
• B) Historical voltage applied (they "remember")
• C) Light exposure
• D) Magnetic fields only
Answer: B
M
•

247. Optical computing uses which medium for computation?

K • A) Electrons
• B) Light/photons
P • C) Sound waves
R • D) Magnetic fields
E • Answer: B
P 248. DNA computing performs computation using:

A • A) Silicon chips

R • B) Biological molecules and reactions

C) Quantum particles
A •

D) Light pulses
T
•

• Answer: B
I 249. Swarm intelligence algorithms are inspired by:
O • A) Individual reasoning
N • B) Collective behavior of social insects like ants and bees
S • C) Classical physics
• D) Digital circuits
• Answer: B
250. Evolutionary algorithms use mechanisms inspired by:
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• A) Gradient descent
• B) Biological evolution: selection, mutation, crossover
• C) Backpropagation
• D) Linear regression
Answer: B
M
•

P
R
E
P
A
R
A
T
I
O
N
S

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