Grade: X Subject: Chemistry

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Types of changes in matter: In nature there are two types of changes namely,
(a) Physical changes
(b) Chemical changes
Difference between physical and chemical changes:
Physical changes Chemical changes

When no new compound or no new When a new compound or a new

composition of substance is formed. composition of substance is formed.
Eg: On tearing: Eg: On burning:
Paper ------------- pieces of paper Paper ------------- ash

• A chemical change can be expressed in both word equation and chemical

equation.
• But how far is word equation advantageous than chemical equation?
Difference between word equation and chemical equation:
Word equation Chemical equation
1. It takes a long span of time to 1. It is short, crisp and clear.
complete a writing a word
equation.
Eg: Hydrogen + oxygen --- Water Eg: 2H2 + O2 --- 2H2O
2. It doesn’t express atomicity. [Link] is expressed.

3. It cannot be balanced without [Link] can be balanced.

atomicity.
4. No state of matter is mentioned. [Link] of matter is mentioned.
Eg: 2H2 (g) + O2(g) --- 2H2O (l)

How to determine a chemical reaction?

1. Change in state of reactant to product.

2. Formation of precipitate
3. Evolution of gas
4. Change in temperature
5. Change in colour
6. Change in taste

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
7. Change in chemical composition

Schematic representation of chemical equation:

• A schematic representation of chemical reaction with help of symbols and
chemical formulae of various species is known as Chemical equation.
• The initial compounds before a reaction re called as Reactants, which are
written on the left-hand side (L.H.S) and the final compounds after the reaction
obtained are called as Products, which is written on the right-hand side
(R.H.S).
• Reactant ----------------- Products

Essentials of chemical equation:

• Reaction must be correct
• Reaction must be balanced
• Reaction must be molecular
• Reaction must show if there is any absorption or release of energy (heat).

Steps to balance a chemical equation:

(i) Write the correct chemical equation of the chemical reaction.
C3H8 + O2 → H2O+ CO2
(ii) Draw boxes around the compound (reactant and product). So that no
symbols or its atomicity are altered during the balancing process.
C3H8 + →O2 → H O + CO
2 2

(iii) Start writing the number of atoms of each element of LHS and RHS
separately.

(iv) Try to start from any molecule or element of any compound which shows
difference in count from LHS to RHS.
(v) Continuously multiply from number 2, 3, 4…goes on till an appropriate
number is found, so that after multiplication the atomicity on LHS=RHS.
(vi) Balancing of equation is purely a trial-and-error method.

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
Eg: C3H8 + 5O2 → 4H2O+ 3CO2

Types of chemical reactions:

1. Combination reaction: A reaction in which a single product is formed from

two or more reactants is known as a combination reaction.
A + B → AB or AB + CD → ABCD

• Burning of magnesium: 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

• Burning Of Carbon (coal): (i) with sufficient oxygen: C + O2 → CO2
(ii) with insufficient oxygen: 2C + O2 → 2CO
• Ca (OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

2. Decomposition reaction: A reaction in which a single reactant breaks or splits

or decomposes into two or more simpler products.

AB → A + B or ABCD → AB + CD
• Decomposition may take place in the presence of energy.
• It is an endothermic reaction.
• Based on the type of energy, decomposition is of three types, namely;
(i) Thermal decomposition: When a decomposition occurs in the presence of
heat (energy).
CaCO3 ↔ CaO + CO2
(ii) Electrolytical decomposition: When a decomposition occurs in the
presence of electricity (energy).
2H2O → H2 + O2
(iii) Photolytic or photochemical decomposition: When a decomposition
occurs in the presence of sunlight (energy).
2AgBr → 2Ag + Br2

3. Displacement reaction: A reaction in which, a highly reactive element

displaces the comparatively low reactive element from its aqueous salt
solution.
• This reaction is not possible when a low reactive element tries displacing the
high reactive element.
• To understand displacement reaction, it is important to learn about the reactive
series of elements.
CuSO4(aq) + Fe(s) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

2HCl + Ca → CaCl2 + H2

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry

Reactivity series of elements:

4. Double displacement reaction: A reaction in which two compounds

(reactants) react by exchanging their ions to form two new compounds.

AB + CD → AD + CB
There are three types of chemical reactions possible with the principle of
double displacement reactions, namely;
(i) Neutralization reaction
Eg: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
(ii) Precipitation reaction
Eg: Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → 2NaCl + BaSO4 ↓)
2KI + Pb (NO3)2 → 2KNO3 + PbI2 ↓)
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3 ↓)
(iii) Evolution of gas
Eg: Na2CO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2 (↑
5. Exothermic reaction: The reactions in which along with the formation of
product, some amount of energy (may be in the form of heat/light/energy) is
produced.
• Reactant → product + energy

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
• i.e. energy of reactants > energy of products
• CH4 + 2O2 → H2O + CO2 + HEAT + LIGHT
• rusting of iron
• combustion
• dilution of acid
• freezing of ice cubes
• dehydration of salt
• charring of sugar
• formation of snow

6. Endothermic reactions: The reactions in which energy is absorbed by the

reactants to complete the reaction.
• Reactant + energy → product
• i.e. energy of reactants < energy of products
• C6H12O6 + O2 + sunlight → 6CO2 + 6H2O (photosynthesis)
• Melting of ice cube
• The process of evaporation
• Boiling
• Atom to cation
• Anhydrous salt to hydrated salt

7. Precipitate reaction: the reaction in which an insoluble (in water) substance is

formed.
• NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl ↓)

8. Oxidation and reduction:

• Oxidation: Addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen or loss of electron.
• 2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
• Reduction: Addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen or gain of electron.
• N2 + H2 → 2NH3

9. Redox reactions: The chemical reaction in which both oxidation and reduction
takes place simultaneously.
• Cu + H2O → CuO + H2 ; Oxidation: Cu → CuO, Reduction: H2O → H2
• Oxidising agent (O.A): The compound which oxides the other compound or
element by getting itself reduced.
• Reducing agent (R.O): The compound which gets reduces the other
compound by getting itself oxidised.
• Cu + H2O → CuO + H2; O.A - H2O, R.A – Cu

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry

NCERT SOLUTIONS:

Question 1:
Why should a magnesium ribbon be cleaned before burning in air?

Answer
Magnesium is very reactive metal. When stored it reacts with oxygen to form a layer
magnesium oxide on its surface. This layer of magnesium oxide is quite stable and
prevents further reaction of magnesium with oxygen. The magnesium ribbon is
cleaned by sand paper to remove this layer so that the underlying metal can be
exposed into air.
Question 2:
Write the balanced equation for the following chemical reactions.
(i) Hydrogen + Chlorine → Hydrogen chloride
(ii) Barium chloride + Aluminium sulphate → Barium sulphate + Aluminium chloride
(iii) Sodium + Water → Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen
Answer
(i) H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
(ii) 3BaCl2 + Al2 (SO4)3 → 3BaSO4 + 2AlCl3
(iii) 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
Question 3:
Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the following
reactions.
(i) Solutions of barium chloride and sodium sulphate in water react to give insoluble
barium sulphate and the solution of sodium chloride.
(ii) Sodium hydroxide solution (in water) reacts with hydrochloric acid solution (in
water) to produce sodium chloride solution and water.
Answer
(i) BaCl2 + Na2SO4 → BaSO4 + NaCl
(ii) NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
Question 1:
A solution of a substance ‘X’ is used for white washing.
(i) Name the substance ‘X’ and write its formula.
(ii) Write the reaction of the substance ‘X’ named in (i) above with water.
Answer
(i) The substance ‘X’ is calcium oxide. Its chemical formula is CaO.
(ii) Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to form calcium hydroxide (slaked
lime).

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
Question 2:
Why is the amount of gas collected in one of the test tubes in Activity 1.7 double
of the amount collected in the other? Name this gas.
Answer
Water (H2O) contains two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen. Therefore, the amount
of hydrogen and oxygen produced during electrolysis of water is in a 2:1 ratio. During
electrolysis, since hydrogen goes to one test tube and oxygen goes to another, the
amount of gas collected in one of the test tubes is double of the amount collected in
the other.
Question 1:
Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution change when an iron nail is
dipped in it?
Answer
When an iron nail is placed in a copper sulphate solution, iron displaces copper from
copper sulphate solution forming iron sulphate, which is green in colour.
Therefore, the blue colour of copper sulphate solution fades and green colour appears.
Question 2:
Give an example of a double displacement reaction other than the one given in
Activity 1.10.
Answer
Sodium carbonate reacts with calcium chloride to form calcium carbonate and sodium
chloride. In this reaction, sodium carbonate and calcium chloride exchange ions to
form two new compounds. Hence, it is a double displacement reaction.
Question 3:
Identify the substances that are oxidised and the substances that are reduced in
the
following reactions.
(i) Sodium (Na) is oxidised as it gains oxygen and oxygen gets reduced.
(ii) Copper oxide (CuO) is reduced to copper (Cu) while hydrogen (H2) gets oxidised
to water (H2O).
Question 1:
Which of the statements about the reaction below are incorrect?
2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
(a) Lead is getting reduced.
(b) Carbon dioxide is getting oxidised.
(c) Carbon is getting oxidised.
(d) Lead oxide is getting reduced.
(i) (a) and (b)
(ii) (a) and (c)
(iii) (a), (b) and (c)
(iv) all above

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
Answer
(i)(a) and (b)
Question 2:
Fe2O3 + 2Al → Al2O3 + 2Fe
The above reaction is an example of a
(a) combination reaction.
(b) double displacement reaction.
(c) decomposition reaction.
(d) displacement reaction.
Answer
(d) The given reaction is an example of a displacement reaction.
Question 3:
What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to iron filings? Tick the
correct
answer.
(a) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced.
(b) Chlorine gas and iron hydroxide are produced.
(c) No reaction takes place.
(d) Iron salt and water are produced.
Answer
(a) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced. The reaction is as follows:
Question 4:
What is a balanced chemical equation? Why should chemical equations be
balanced?
Answer
A reaction which has an equal number of atoms of all the elements on both sides of
the chemical equation is called a balanced chemical equation.
The law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
Hence, in a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants should be equal to the total
mass of the products. It means that the total number of atoms of each element should
be equal on both sides of a chemical equation. Hence, it is for this reason that
chemical equations should be balanced.
Question 5:
Translate the following statements into chemical equations and then balance
them.
(a) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.
(b) Hydrogen sulphide gas burns in air to give water and sulphur dioxide.
(c) Barium chloride reacts with aluminium sulphate to give aluminium chloride and a
precipitate of barium sulphate.
(d) Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Answer

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
(a) 3H2 + N2 → 2NH3
(b) 2H2S + 3O2 → 2H2O + 2SO2
(c) 3BaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3 → 2AlCl3 + 3BaSO4
(d) 2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2
Question 6:
Balance the following chemical equations.
(a) 2HNO3 + Ca (OH)2 → Ca (NO3)2 + 2H2O
(b) 2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
(c) NaCl + AgNO3 → AgCl + NaNO3
(d) 3BaCl2 + 3H2SO4 → 3BaSO4 + 6HCl
Question 7:
Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.
(a) Calcium hydroxide + Carbon dioxide → Calcium carbonate + Water
(b) Zinc + Silver nitrate → Zinc nitrate + Silver
(c) Aluminium + Copper chloride → Aluminium chloride + Copper
(d) Barium chloride + Potassium sulphate → Barium sulphate + Potassium chloride
Answer
(a) 2Ca (OH)2 + 2CO2 → 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
(b) Zn + 2AgNO3 → Zn (NO3)2 + 2Ag
(c) 2Al + 3CuCl2 → 2AlCl3 + 3Cu
(d) BaCl2 + K2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2KCl
Question 8:
Write the balanced chemical equation for the following and identify the type of
reaction in each case.
(a)Potassium bromide (aq) + Barium iodide (aq) → Potassium iodide (aq) +
Barium bromide(s)
(b) Zinc carbonate (s) → Zinc oxide (s) + Carbon dioxide (g)
(c) Hydrogen (g) + Chlorine (g) → Hydrogen chloride (g)
(d) Magnesium (s) + Hydrochloric acid (aq) → Magnesium chloride (aq) + Hydrogen
Answer
(a) Double displacement reaction: 2KBr + BaI2 → 2KI + BaBr2
(b) Decomposition reaction: ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2
(c) Combination reaction: H2 + Cl → 2HCl
(d) Displacement reaction: Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

Question 9:
What does one mean by exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give examples.
Answer
Chemical reactions that release energy in the form of heat, light, or sound are called
Exothermic Reactions.

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
Example: Mixture of sodium and chlorine to yield table salt
In other words, combination reactions are exothermic.
Reactions that absorb energy or require energy in order to proceed are called
Endothermic Reactions.
Example: In the process of photosynthesis, plants use the energy from the sun to
convert carbon dioxide and water to glucose and oxygen.
Question 10:
Why respiration is considered an exothermic reaction? Explain.
Answer
Energy is required to support life. Energy in our body is obtained from the food we
eat. During digestion, large molecules of food are broken down into simpler
substances such as glucose. Glucose combines with oxygen in the cells and provides
energy. The special name of this combustion reaction is respiration. Since energy is
released in the whole process, it is an exothermic process.
Question 11:
Why decomposition reactions are called the opposite of combination reactions?
Write equations for these reactions.
Answer
Decomposition reactions are those in which a compound breaks down to form two or
more substances. These reactions require a source of energy to proceed. Thus, they are
the exact opposite of combination reactions in which two or more substances combine
to give a new substance with the release of energy.
Decomposition reaction: ZnO + CO2 → ZnCO3
Combination reaction: ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2
Question 12:
Write one equation each for decomposition reactions where energy is supplied in
the form of heat, light or electricity.
Answer
(a) Thermal decomposition: 2KClO3 + Heat → 2KCl + 3O2
(b) Decomposition by light: 2H2O → H2 + O2
(c) Decomposition by electricity: NaCl → Na + Cl
Question 13:
What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reactions?
Write equations for these reactions.
Answer
In a displacement reaction, a more reactive element replaces a less reactive element
from a compound. Where A is more reactive than B. In a double displacement
reaction, two atoms or a group of atoms switch places to form new compounds.
For example:
Displacement reaction: CuCl2 + Mg → MgCl2 + Cu
Double displacement reaction: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
Question 14:
In the refining of silver, the recovery of silver from silver nitrate solution
involved displacement by copper metal. Write down the reaction involved.
Answer
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Cu (NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
Question 15:
What do you mean by a precipitation reaction? Explain by giving examples.
Answer
A reaction in which an insoluble solid (called precipitate) is formed is called a
precipitation reaction.
Eg: In this reaction, calcium carbonate is obtained as a precipitate. Hence, it is a
precipitation reaction. Another example of precipitation reaction is:
BaCl2 + K2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2KCl
In this reaction, barium sulphate is obtained as a precipitate.
Question 16:
Explain the following in terms of gain or loss of oxygen with two examples each.
(a) Oxidation
(b) Reduction
Answer
(a) Oxidation is the gain of oxygen.
For example:
(i) 4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
(ii) H2S + O2 → H2O + SO2
In equation (i), H2 is oxidized to H2O and in equation (ii), Cu is oxidised to CuO.
(b) Reduction is the loss of oxygen.
For example:
(i) CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(l)
(ii) 2HgO → 2Hg + O2
In equation (i), CO2 is reduced to CO and in equation (ii), CuO is reduced to Cu.
Question 17:
A shiny brown-coloured element ‘X’ on heating in air becomes black in colour.
Name the element ‘X’ and the black coloured compound formed.
Answer

‘X’ is copper (Cu) and the black-coloured compound formed is copper oxide (CuO).
The equation of the reaction involved on heating copper is given below.
2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Acids – derived from the Latin term this means “SOUR”.
Bases – derived from Latin term this means “BITTER”.
Note: It is not safe to taste all the acids and bases.
Acids:
Acids are sour in taste.
Eg: all the citrus fruits, green leafy vegetables, curd, etc.
Acid changes the colour of blue litmus paper to red litmus paper.
An acid is a substance which contains hydrogen ion and dissociates H+ ions in aqueous
solution. (Arrhenius theory)
Classification of acids:
1. Based on strength: (a) Strong acids
(b) Weak acids
2. Based on source: (a) Organic acids
(b) Inorganic acids
3. Based on concentration: (a) concentrated acids
(b) Diluted acids
1. Depending on strength:
To what extent dissociation of an acid takes place in a solution. That
is known as “Degree of dissociation” (alpha-α). The degree of dissociation is responsible for the
concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+). High degree of dissociation gives higher hydronium ion
concentration. Depending upon this strength of dissociation, acids may be of following types:

(a) Strong acids: These ionize completely in their aqueous solutions and hence produces a large
number of hydronium ions, i.e. have high degree of dissociation (α).
Eg: HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, etc.
( )→ + ( )

+ →

(b) Weak acids: These ionize partially in their aqueous solutions and hence produce a small
number of hydronium ions, showing lesser degree of dissociation.
Eg: CH3COOH, HCOOH, Citric acid, etc.
CH3COOH (aq) ---------→ CH3COO - + H+
H+ + H2O ---------→ H3O+
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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
2. Depending on source:
Based on the sources of availability, acids are
(a) Organic acids: Which are generally obtained from plants and animal resources. These acids
are generally weak and partially dissociates.
Eg: Lactic acid, oxalic acid, malic acid, tartaric acids, citric acids, etc.
(b) Inorganic acids: Which are man-made or artificially prepared or not present in the nature.
The mineral acids completely dissociate in the solution. They show 100% dissociation.
Eg: HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, etc.

3. Depending upon concentration: The amount or quantity of acid present in a fixed ratio to
the amount of water in a solution.
(a) Concentrated acids: A large amount of acid is present in a fixed amount of water
(quantity of acid is greater than water in the solution).
(b) Diluted acid: A small amount of acid is present in a fixed amount of water (quantity of
acid is lesser than water in the solution).

Some important acids and their sources

1. Red ants Formic acid

2. Tea Tannic acid
3. Gastric juice Hydrochloric acid

4. Tomato\ spinach Oxalic acid

5. Curd\butter milk Lactic acid
6. Vinegar Acetic acid

7. Tamarind Tartaric acid

8. Citrus fruits Citric acid

(orange,lemon,grapes,
etc)
9. Apple Malic acid
10. Butter Butyric acid
11. Olive oil Oleic acid
12. Fats Stearic acid
13. Urine Uric acid
14. Hydrochloric acid Inorganic acid
15. Nitric acid Inorganic acid

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry

Properties of acids:

Physical properties:

(a) Taste: they have sour taste. Inorganic acids are highly corrosive in nature and hence they
shouldn’t be touch or tasted.
(b) Physical state: found in two states of matter.
Solid acids: Boric acid (H3BO3), oxalic acid (COOH)2, etc.
Liquid acids: Carbonic acid (H2CO3), Formic acid (HCOOH), etc.
(c) Colour change of indicators:

INDICATORS COLOUR CHANGE IN ACIDIC

MEDIUM
Litmus solutions Blue to red

Phenolphthalein remains colourless

Turmeric Remains yellow

China rose Turns to dark pink (magenta)

(d) They are good electrolytes: conduct electricity in molten or aqueous state due to the
presence of free ions (or) free electrons.
(e) Acids have corrosive nature: They cause severe burns on the skin and attack and eat up
material like cloth, wood, metal bodies, etc.

Chemical properties:
(a) Reaction with metals: When acids react with active metals like Na, K, etc. evolves
hydrogen gas which burns with a pop sound.

Acid + metal → salt + Hydrogen gas

Eg: ( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ( ) ↑

( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ( ) ↑

( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ( ) ↑

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
HNO3 is a strong oxidizing agent due to which the released hydrogen gas gets converted to
H2O, except with Magnesium (Mg) and Manganese (Mn). Therefore, a very diluted nitric
acid (1%) is used.

(b) Reaction with bases: When acid reacts with bases it forms salt and water. This is
neutralization reaction. Actually, neutralization is a point where the substance is neither
acidic nor basic. It becomes neutral, but that depends on the strength of acid and base too.

Acid + base → salt + water

Eg: SA + SB → Salt (neutral)+ water

+ ( )→ ( )+ ()
SA + WB → Salt (acidic) + water
+ → ( )+ ()
WA + SB → Salt (basic) + water
+ → + ()
WA + WB → Salt (neutral) + water
+ → + ()

(c) Reaction with metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates: Acids on reaction with
metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates gives respective salt of respective metal,
carbon dioxide and water.

Acid + metal carbonates/ metal bicarbonate → salt + CO2+ H2O

Eg: ( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ( )+ ( )
( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ( )+ ( )

Note: when carbon dioxide is passed through lime water it forms a white precipitate called calcium
carbonate. On further passing of carbon dioxide, the white precipitate disappears due to the
formation of calcium hydrogen carbonate.
( ) ( )+ ( )→ ( )↓+ ()
( )+ ( )+ ( )→ ( ) ( )
(d) Reaction with metal oxides: When acid reacts with metal oxide it forms salt and water.

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
Acid + metal oxides → salt + water

Eg: ( )+ ( )→ ( ) ( )+ ()

! ( )+ ( )→ ! ( )+ ()

" ( )+ ( )→ " ( )+ ()
Note: 1. All the compound containing hydrogen are not acids.
Eg: the compounds like acids, glucose, alcohol, etc. contains hydrogen but only in acids
hydrogen can dissociate or ionize. This property all alone is responsible for acidic nature.
2. Acids don’t show acidic nature in the absence of water.
Acidic behavior is due to ionized H+ ions. Which is only possible in the presence of water, H+
combines with H2O and forms H3O+.
Hence dry HCl gas doesn’t show any acidic behavior.
3. Acids react with metals, hence they gradually react with metal and corrode them. So
acids are always stored in glass or ceramic containers because they are not affect by
acids.
Bases:
Bases are bitter to taste.
They are slippery to touch.
All the bases change red litmus to blue colour.
A base when dissolves in water, dissociates hydroxyl ions(OH-).
Eg: + ( )→ ( )+ ()
Note: All Alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis. Alkalis dissociate OH- when they
dissolve in water.
Eg: Alkalis:NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)* ,etc.
Bases: Cu(OH)* , Fe(OH)., etc.
Classification of bases:
1. Depending on strength: (a) Strong bases (b) Weak bases
2. Depending on concentration: (a) Concentrated base (b) Diluted base

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
1. Depending on strength:

(a) Strong bases: The bases which ionize completely in aqueous solution and give a high
concentration of OH- ion.
E g: Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, etc.
( ) → ( )+ ( )

( ) → ( )+ ( )
(b) Weak bases: These bases that ionize partially in aqueous solution and give a less
concentration of OH- ion.
E g: Ammonium hydroxide, Barium hydroxide, etc.
( ) → ( )+ ( )

( ) ( ) → ( )+ ( )

2. Depending on concentration :

(a) Concentrated bases: When a high amount of a base is present in a fixed amount of
aqueous solution.
(b) Diluted bases: When a less amount of base in a fixed amount of aqueous solution.
Properties of bases:
1. Physical Properties:
(a) Taste: Bases have a bitter taste.
(b) Physical state: Bases are generally solids or liquids. They are soapy to touch.
(c) They change the colour of indicator:
Indicator Colour change in basic
medium
Litmus solution Red to blue

Phenolphthalein Colourless turns to pink

Turmeric Reddish brown

China rose Green

(d) They are good electrolytes: Bases dissociate into ions on dissolving in water and hence
conduct electricity to show electrolytic property.

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
(e) They have corrosive action: Strong bases such as alkalis are corrosive like NaOH. They
show slight burn on the skin as compared to acids.

2. Chemical properties:

(a) Reaction with acids:

Acid + base → salt + water
Eg: ( )+ ( )→ + ()
(b) Reaction with metals: Hydrogen gas is evolved when bases react with metals.
Generally, less reactive metals show this reaction.

Eg: ( )+ ( )→ + ( )
(Sodium zincate)

(c) Action of non-metal oxide: Strong alkali absorbs CO2 from air to form carbonates.
Eg: ( )+ ( )→ + ( )
( ) ( )+ ( )→ + ( )
Neutralization reaction: The reaction between acid and base can be viewed as a reaction taking
place between hydronium ion and hydroxyl ion.
Acid + base → salt + water
( )+ ( )→ + ( )
Or
( )+ ( )→ ( )+ /
• The process of neutralization is highly exothermic reaction.
• Acid must be added to water always with continuous stirring. If water is added to
concentrated acid, generates high heat may cause the mixture to splash out and cause
burns.
INDICATORS:
How can we judge how strong a given acid or base is?
By making use of Universal indicator, this is mixture of several indicators.
PH: In German, PH means potenz of hydrogen that means power of hydrogen. The strength of
acids and bases depends upon no. of H+ and OH- ions produced.
Olfactory indicator: There are some substances like vanilla, onion or clove oil which by
change in their odour/smell, indicate whether the sample solution is acidic or basic.
Natural indicators: From plant and animal source.

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Grade: X Subject: Chemistry

Indicator Acid solution Basic solution Neutral

Blue litmus Red No colour change No change
solution
Red litmus No change Blue No change
solution
Clove oil Characteristic Loses its -
odour characteristic odour
Onion Characteristic Loses its -
odour characteristic odour
Vanilla Characteristic Loses its -
odour characteristic odour

Artificial indicator: 1. Phenolphthalein, Methyl orange, methyl red, etc.

Indicator Acid solution Basic solution
Phenolphthalein Colourless Turns pink
Methyl orange Red Yellow

How strong the acids and bases? (i.e Strength of acid and base):
PH: In German, PH means potenz of hydrogen that means power of hydrogen. The strength of
acids and bases depends upon no. of H+ and OH- ions produced. A scale for measuring
hydrogen ion concentration in the solution is called PH scale.

pg. 8
Grade: X Subject: Chemistry

• For neutral solutions [ H+] = [ OH-]

• For acidic solution [ H+] > [ OH-]
• For basic solutions [ H+] < [ OH-]
pg. 9
Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
H
Importance of P value:
(i) Greater the concentration of H+ ions, less will be the PH and more will be the acidic
nature.
(ii) PH of a solution depends upon the temperature.

Nature of substance PH values Examples

0 Conc. HCl
1.2 Gastric juices
2.2 Lemon juices
3 Vinegar
ACID 4 Acid rain
5 Black coffee, bananas
6.8 Milk
7.0 Distilled water
NEUTRAL 7.4 Blood
8 Egg white, sea water
9 Baking soda
10 Milk of magnesia
BASE 11 Ammonia
12 Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)
13 0.1 M NaOH
14 Drain cleaner

Importance of PH in daily life:

1. PH change can cause tooth decay: The tooth enamel is made up of Calcium phosphate. This
is the hardest substance in the body. It can get corroded if the PH value in the mouth is below
5.5. The best way to prevent this is to brush or clean your mouth after eating. Tooth decay
can also be prevented by using tooth paste (which is basic), hence it neutralizes the excess
acid in the mouth.

2. PH in our digestive system: In our stomach HCl is produced, which helps in the digestion of
food. Too much of acid causes pain and irritation. To overcome this suffering an antacid is
consumed.
Eg: Milk of magnesia [Mg (OH)2], etc.
3. PH in soil: Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth. To find out the pH
required for the healthy growth of a plants.
pg. 10
Grade: X Subject: Chemistry

4. Plants and animals are pH sensitive: Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.
Living organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH change. When pH of rain water is
less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. When acid rain flows into the rivers, it lowers the pH of
the river water. The survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes difficult.

5. Self-defence by animals and plants through chemical: Bee-sting leaves an acid which
causes pain and irritation. Use of a mild base like baking soda on the stung area gives relief.
Stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid causing burning pain. A traditional
remedy – by rubbing the affected area with leaf from a dock plant can reduce irritation and
inflammation.
6. Tarnished surface of copper vessels can be cleaned by rubbing either tamarind or with lemon.
7. Depending on the pH values of the skin secretion, different soap, lotions, cream, etc are
prepared.

SALTS:

Salts are the compounds formed by partial or total replacement of the dissociated H+ ions of
an acid by a metallic ion.
( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ()
( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ()
PH of salts:
(a) Neutral salts- if pH value is = 7
(b) Acidic salts - if pH value is > 7
(c) Basic salts - if pH value is < 7
Importance of salts:
1. Sodium chloride (NaCl) – common salt:
NaCl is also called as table salt, rock salt, neutral salt, etc.
Lab preparation:
When sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid, it forms sodium chloride and water.
( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ()
The obtained aqueous salt (brine solution) is evaporated to get the solid salt.
Large scale production:
(i) From sea water
(ii) From underground deposits

pg. 11
Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
Uses of common salt:
(a) As a raw material for the preparation of large number of chemicals such as NaOH, Na2CO3,
NaHCO3, etc.
(b) In cooking food
(c) As a preservative in pickles and curing meat and fish
(d) In the manufacturing of soaps
NaCl is used as a raw material:
• Sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas, hydrogen gas is produced by the electrolysis of a
concentrated aqueous solution of sodium chloride (brine).
• Chlorine gas is produced at anode and hydrogen gas is produce at cathode. NaOH solution is
produced near cathode.
• The process of electrolysis of NaCl is chlor-alkali process due to the products obtained i.e
chlor for chlorine and alkali for the base-NaOH.

2. Bleaching powder- CaOCl2 :

Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime [Ca (OH)2].
Bleaching powder is represented as CaOCl2, though the actual composition is quite complex.
Ca (OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O

pg. 12
Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
Properties of bleaching powder:
• White powder with a strong smell of chlorine.
• Soluble in cold water
• Reacts with diluted acids to produce chlorine gas.
( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ( )+ ()
Uses of bleaching powder:
(i) for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp in paper
factories and for bleaching washed clothes in laundry;
(ii) as an oxidising agent in many chemical industries;
(iii) to make drinking water free from germs
(iv) in making unshrinkable wool
(v) in manufacturing chloroform

3. Sodium carbonate or Washing soda (Na2CO3. 10H2O):

Sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating baking soda; recrystallization of Sodium
carbonate gives washing soda.
→ + ( )+ ( )
Properties of sodium carbonate:
• Transparent crystalline solids
• Aqueous solution is alkaline in nature
• On heating it becomes anhydrous sodium carbonate, common called as soda ash.
• It shows cleaning property by attacking the dirt and grease.
Uses of sodium carbonate:
(i) Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
(ii) It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax (Na2B4O7. 10H2O).
(iii) Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
(iv) It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.

4. Baking soda (NaHCO3):

The baking soda is commonly used in the kitchen for making tasty crispy pakoras, etc.
Sometimes it is added for faster cooking. The chemical name of the compound is sodium
hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3). It is produced using sodium chloride as one of the raw
materials.

NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 → NH4Cl + NaHCO3

pg. 13
Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
Properties of sodium hydrogen carbonate:
• It is a white coloured crystal and is sparingly soluble in water.
• It is mild non-corrosive salt.
Uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate:
(i) For making baking powder, this is a mixture of baking soda and a mild edible acid such
as tartaric acid. When baking powder is heated or mixed in water, the following reaction
takes place –
NaHCO3 + H+ → CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt of acid

Carbon dioxide produced during the reaction can cause bread or cake to rise making them
soft and spongy.
(ii) Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also an ingredient in antacids. Being alkaline, it neutralises
excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.
(iii) It is also used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.
Water of crystallisation: Copper sulphate crystals which seem to be dry contain water of
crystallisation. When we heat the crystals, this water is removed and the salt turns white, which is
called as Anhydrous salt. If you moisten the crystals again with water, you will find that blue colour
of the crystals reappears.
Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of a salt.
Five water molecules are present in one formula unit of copper sulphate. Chemical formula for
hydrated copper sulphate is Cu SO4.5H2O.
Plaster of Paris (POP):
On heating gypsum at 373 K, it loses water molecules and becomes calcium sulphate hemihydrate
0
(CaSO4. H2O). This is called Plaster of Paris, the substance which doctors use as plaster for
*
supporting fractured bones in the right position. Plaster of Paris is a white powder and on mixing
with water, it changes to gypsum once again giving a hard solid mass.
0 0
CaSO4. H2O + 1 H2O → CaSO4.2H2O
* *

(Plaster of Paris) (Gypsum)

Properties of POP:
• It looks like white powder.
• Has the property of setting into a hard mass on wetting with water.
Uses of POP:
(i) It is a fire proofing material.
(ii) It is used for making toys and for decorative.
pg. 14
Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
(iii) Used for the air tight arrangements in apparatus.
(iv) It is used to support fractured bones.
(v) To make a smooth surface on the walls before painting.
NCERT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. You have been provided with three test tubes. One of them contains distilled water and the
other two contain an acidic solution and a basic solution, respectively. If you are given only
red litmus paper, how will you identify the contents of each test tube ?
Ans: (i) Put the red litmus paper in all the test tubes, turn by turn. The solution which turns red
litmus to blue will be a basic solution. The blue litmus paper formed here can now be used to test
the acidic solution.
(ii) Put the blue litmus paper obtained above in the remaining two test-tubes, turn-by-turn. The
solution which turns the blue litmus paper to red will be the acidic solution.
(iii) The solution which has no effect on any litmus paper will be neutral and hence it will be
distilled water.
2. Why should curd and sour substances not be kept in brass and copper vessels?

Ans: Curd and sour substances should not be kept in brass and copper vessels because these and
other sour food-stuffs contain acids which can react with the metal of the vessel to form poisonous
metal compounds which can cause food poisoning and affect our health adversely.
3. Which gas is usually liberated when an acid reacts with a metal? Illustrate with an example.
How will you test for the presence of this gas?

Ans: (i) Hydrogen (H2) gas is liberated when an acid reacts with a metal.
(ii) Illustration : When some zinc granules in the test tube. Add about 5 mL dilute hydrochloric acid
slowly. Soon the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid starts and hydrogen gas is evolved.
(iii) Test for H2 gas :
H2 gas is not soluble in water. When passed through soap solution, it gets trapped into bubbles.
Bring a burning candle near the soap bubble filled with gas. The soap bubble bursts and hydrogen
gas burns with a pop sound.
4. Metal compound A reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce effervescence. The gas
evolved extinguishes a burning candle. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction if
one of the compounds formed is calcium chloride.

Ans: As the end product is calcium chloride and the gas formed is carbon dioxide, the metal
compound A must be calcium carbonate. Therefore, the reaction between calcium carbonate and
hydrochloric acid is

pg. 15
Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
5. Why do HCl, HNO3, etc show acidic characters in aqueous solutions while solutions of
compounds like alcohol and glucose do not show acidic character?

Ans: H+ ions in aqueous solution are responsible for acidic character. HCl, HNO3, etc. give H+ ions
in water while alcohol and glucose do not give H+ ion in water. Therefore, alcohol and glucose do
not show acidic character.
6. Why does an aqueous solution of an acid conduct electricity?

Ans: The aqueous solution of an acid conducts of charged electricity due to the presence particles
called ions in it.
7. Why does dry HCl gas not change the colour of the dry litmus paper?
Ans: Dry HCl gas does not give H+ ions and therefore does not change the colour of dry litmus
paper.

8. While diluting an acid, why is it recommended that the acid should be added to water and
not water to the acid ?
Ans: While diluting an acid it is recommended that the acid should be added to water and not water
to the acid because if water is added to concentrated acid to dilute it, then a large amount of heat is
evolved at once. This heat changes some of the water to steam explosively which can splash the
acid on one’s face or clothes and cause acid burns.
9. While diluting an acid, why is it recommended that the acid should be added to water and
not water to the acid?
Ans: While diluting an acid it is recommended that the acid should be added to water and not water
to the acid because if water is added to concentrated acid to dilute it, then a large amount of heat is
evolved at once. This heat changes some of the water to steam explosively which can splash the
acid on one’s face or clothes and cause acid burns.
10. How is the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH–) affected when excess base is dissolved in
a solution of sodium hydroxide?
Ans: The concentration of hydroxide ions will increase when excess base is dissolved in a solution
of sodium hydroxide, but it happens to a limited extent only after which the concentration becomes
almost constant.
11. You have two solutions A and B. The pH of solution A is 6 and pH of solution B is 8.
Which solution has more hydrogen ion concentration? Which of this is acidic and which one is
basic?
Ans: A pH value of less than 7 indicates an acidic solution, while greater than 7 indicates a basic
solution. Since solution A has more hydrogen ion concentration, solution A is acidic and solution B
is basic.

pg. 16
Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
+
12. What effect does the concentration of H (aq) ions have on the nature of the solution?
Ans: More the concentration of H+ ions, higher the acidic nature of the solution.

13. Do basic solutions also have H+ (aq) ions ? If yes, then why are these basic?
Ans: Basic solutions have H+ (aq) ions. But these are far less in number than OH– ions that is
responsible for their basic nature.

14. Under what soil condition do you think a farmer would treat the soil of his fields with
quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or chalk (calcium carbonate)?
Ans: If the soil is too acidic (having low pH) then it is treated with materials like quick lime
(calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or chalk (calcium carbonate).

15. What is the common name of the compound CaOCl2?

Ans: Bleaching powder.

16. Name the substance which on treatment with chlorine yields bleaching powder.
Ans: Slaked lime Ca (OH)2.

17. Name the sodium compound which is used for softening hard water.
Ans: Sodium carbonate.

18. What will happen if a solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated. Give the equation
of the reaction involved?
Ans: Solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate on heating gives sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide
gas is evolved.

19. Write an equation to show the reaction between plaster of Paris and water.

Ans:

20. Write word equations and then balanced equations for the reaction taking place when
Ans:
(a) Zinc + dilute sulphuric acid → Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

(b) Magnesium ribbon + dil. Hydrochloric acid → Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen

Mg (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
pg. 17
Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
(c) Aluminium powder + dil. Sulphuric acid →Aluminium sulphate + Hydrogen
2Al (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) → Al2 (SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)

(d) Iron filings + Dilute hydrochloric acid → Ferric chloride + Hydrogen

2Fe (s) + 6HCl (aq) → 2FeCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)

21. Compounds such as alcohol and glucose also contain hydrogen but are not categorised as
acids. Describe an activity to prove it.

Ans: Though compounds like alcohol and glucose contain hydrogen but they do not ionise in the
solution to produce H+ ions on passing current through them.
(i) Take solutions of alcohols and glucose.
(ii) Fix two nails on a cork, and place the cork in 100 mL beaker.
(iii) Connect the nails to the two terminals of a 6-volt battery through a bulb and a switch, as
shown in the given Figure.

(iv) Now pour alcohol in the beaker and switch on the current.
(v) The bulb does not glow.
(vi) Repeat the experiment with glucose. The bulb does not glow in this case also.
(vii) This means no ions or H+ ions are present in the solution.
This shows that alcohols and glucose are not acids.

22. Why does distilled water not conduct electricity, whereas rainwater does?

Ans: Distilled water does not conduct electricity because it does not contain any ionic compound
(like acids, bases or salts) dissolved in it.
Rainwater, while falling to the earth through the atmosphere, dissolves an acidic gas carbon dioxide
from the air and forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid provides hydrogen ions, H+ (aq) and
carbonate ions, CO(aq)32to rainwater. Hence, due to the presence of carbonic acid which provides
ions to rainwater, the rainwater conducts electricity.

23. Why do acids not show acidic behaviour in the absence of water?
Ans: The acidic behaviour of acids is due to the presence of hydrogen ions, [H+ (aq) ions], in them.
pg. 18
Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
The acid produces hydrogen ions only in the presence of water. So in the absence of water, an acid
will not form hydrogen ions and hence will not show its acidic behaviour.

24. Equal lengths of magnesium ribbons are taken in test tubes A and B. Hydrochloric acid is
added to test tube A, while acetic acid (CH3COOH) is added to test tube B. In which test tube
will the fizzing occur more vigorously and why?
Ans: Fizzing will occur more vigorously in test tube A. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a strong acid
whereas acetic acid (CH3COOH) is a weak acid. Being strong acid, the hydrochloric acid solution
contains a much greater amount of hydrogen ions in it due to which the fizzing will occur more
vigorously in test tube A (containing hydrochloric acid). The fizzing is due to the evolution of
hydrogen gas which is formed by the action of acid on the magnesium metal of magnesium ribbon.

25. fresh milk has a pH of 6. How do you think the pH will change as it turns into curd?
Explain your answer.
Ans: PH of milk falls below 6 as it turns into curd due to the formation of lactic acid during this
process. Lactic acid present in it reduces its pH value.

26. A milkman adds a very small amount of baking soda to fresh milk.
(a) Why does he shift the pH of the fresh milk from 6 to slightly alkaline ?
(b) Why does this milk take a long time to set as curd ?
Ans: (a) Milk is made slightly alkaline so that it may not get sour easily due to the formation of
lactic acid in it.
(b) The alkaline milk takes a longer time to set into curd because the lactic acid being formed has to
first neutralise the alkali present in it.

27. Plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture proof container. Explain why?
Ans:
Plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture proof container because the presence of moisture can
cause slow setting of plaster of Paris by bringing about its hydration. This will make the plaster of
Paris useless after sometime.

28. What is a neutralisation reaction? Give two examples.

Ans: The reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water is called a neutralisation
reaction.
Examples:

pg. 19
Grade: X Subject: Chemistry
29. Give two important uses of washing soda and baking soda.
Ans: Uses of washing soda :
(i) Washing soda is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
(ii) It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.

Uses of baking soda :

(i) Baking soda is used as an antacid in medicines to remove acidity of the stomach.
(ii) Baking soda is used for making baking powder (used in making cakes, bread, etc.).

pg. 20
 Revision Notes on Acids, Bases and Salts
The taste of the food is due to presence of acids and bases in them.
Acids
• Acids is defined as the one which produces hydrogen ions in water. For Example, Sulphuric
Acid, Hydrochloric Acid etc.
• They give sour taste.

• Acids turn blue litmus to red. This is used as confirmation test for the presence of acid.

• When acids react with metals, gases are evolved.

Reactions with Acids
1. Reaction of Acid with Metal
Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
Mg + H2 SO4 → H2 + Mg SO4
2. Reaction of Acid with Carbonates
Na2 CO3 (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
3. Reaction of Acid with Bicarbonates
NaHCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Similarity between Acids and Bases
• Both acids and base react with water. They produce ions in water

• Both acids and bases acts as electrolytes, so are good conductors of electricity.

• Both of them changes the colour of the litmus paper.

Classification of Acids
Acids are classified as Organic Acids and Mineral Acids. Acids which are derived from plants
and animals, they are known as Organic Acids. For Example, Citric Acid from fruit. Mineral
acids are inorganic acids such as Sulphuric Acid. They are dangerous to be used, so need
more precautions.
Acids are also classified as Strong Acids or Weak Acids. Strong acid is an acid, that
completely dissociates into ions in aqueous solutions. For Example, Sulphuric Acid,
Hydrochloric Acid.

Weak acid is the one which does not dissociate completely into ions in aqueous solutions. For
Example, Acetic Acid.

Acids can also be as Dilute Acid and Concentrated Acids. The one which has low
concentration of acids in aqueous solution, they are known as Dilute Acids whereas the one
which has high concentration of acids in aqueous solution, are known as Concentrated Acids.
It is advisable to add acid to water and not vice versa because large amount of heat is released if
water is added to acid. This released heat is large enough to cause harm.

Acids can also be classified based on number of hydrogen ions. Monoprotic acid is the one
which gives one mole of hydrogen ions per mole of acid, such as HCl. Diprotic Acid is the one
which produces two mole of hydrogen ions per mole of acid. For Example, H2SO4.
Bases
• Bases are the one which produces hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions. Bases which are
water soluble they are known as Alkalis.
• They turn red litmus to blue.

• They have a bitter taste.

• They also produced carbon-dioxide when reacted with carbonates.

• They also evolved hydrogen gas when bases react with metals.
Reactions of Bases
1. Reaction with Metals
Base reacts with metals and produce hydrogen gas.

2NaOH + Zn → Na2 → Na2ZnO2 + H2

2. Reaction with Acids
Base reacts with acids to form salts. For Example,
KOH + HCl → KCl + H2O
3. Reaction with Non-metallic Oxides
Base reacts with non-metallic oxides to form salt and water.

2NaOH + CO2 → CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O

Classification of Bases
Bases are classified as Strong Base and Weak Base. Strong base is the one which dissociates
completely into its ions in aqueous solution. For Example, NaOH.
Weak base is the one which does not dissociate completely into its ions in aqueous
solutions. For Example, Ammonium Hydroxide, NH4OH
Bases are also classified as Dilute Base and Concentrated Base. The solution which has low
concentration of base in aqueous solution is defined as Dilute Base whereas the one which has
high concentration of base in aqueous solution is known as Concentrated Base.
Strength of Acid or Base Solutions
The dissociation constant of weak acid or weak base can be represented as-

Suppose HA is weak acid, then dissociation constant is represented as-

Strength of an acid or base can be determined using a pH scale. It is a scale to measure the
hydrogen ion concentration in a solution. The p stands for ‘potenz’, it is a German word which
means power.

• If pH is equal to 7, means the solution is neutral.

• If pH is greater then 7 means alkaline solution.

• If pH is less then 7 means the solution is acidic.

Fig.1. pH scale
Importance of pH
• Human body works at a pH of about 7.4.

• Stomach has a pH of about 2 due to presence of hydrochloric acid in it. It is needed for the
activation of pepsin protein required for protein digestion.

• When we eat food containing sugar, then the bacteria present in our mouth break down the
sugar to form acids. This acid lowers the pH in the mouth. Tooth decay starts when the pH of
acid formed in the mouth falls below 5.5. This is because then the acid becomes strong
enough to attack the enamel of our teeth and corrode it. This sets in tooth decay. The best
way to prevent tooth decay is to clean the mouth thoroughly after eating food.

• Many animals and plants protect themselves from enemies by injecting painful and irritating
acids and bases into their skin.

• When honey bee stings a person, it injects an acidic liquid into the skin. Rubbing with mild
base like baking soda solution on the stung area of the skin gives relief.
 • When a wasp stings, it injects an alkaline liquid into the skin. Then rubbing with a mild acid
like vinegar on the stung area of the skin gives relief.

• Soil pH and plant growth: Most of the plants grow best when the pH of the soil is close to 7. If
the soil is too acidic or basic, the plants grow badly or do not grow at all. The soil pH is also
affected by the use of chemical fertilisers in the field. Chemicals can be added to soil to adjust
its pH and make it suitable for growing plants. If the soil is too acidic then it is treated with
materials like quicklime or slaked lime. If the soil is too alkaline then alkalinity can be reduced
by adding decaying organic matter.
Salts
When acid and base neutralize, salts are formed. Strong acid and strong base combines to form
neutral salt.

NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

Eq.1. Formation of Neutral Salt
Strong acid and weak base combine to form acidic salt. For Example, Hydrochloric Acid and
ammonium hydroxide combine to form ammonium chloride. Other examples, sodium hydrogen
carbonate, sodium hydrogen sulphate etc.
HCl + NH4OH → NH4Cl + H2O
Eq.2. Formation of Acidic Salt
Similarly, weak acid and strong base combine to form basic salt. For Example, Acetic Acid and
sodium hydroxide combine to form sodium acetate. Other examples are calcium carbonate,
potassium cyanide etc.
CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
Eq.3. Formation of Basic Salt
The most common salt is table salt or sodium chloride (NaCl).
Indicators
They are the substances that which indicate acidic or basic nature of the solution using colour
change. For Example, litmus solution, methyl orange, phenolphthalein, methyl red etc. Acids
convert blue litmus paper red in colour. Bases turn red litmus blue. Phenolphthalein remains
colourless in presence of acids but turn pink in presence of bases.
Some Important Chemical Compounds and their uses

Preparation Uses

1. Raw material for making large number of

1. NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O useful chemicals in industry. Eg: NaOH
2. From sea water by evaporation (caustic soda), Na2CO3 (washing soda),
Common Salt (NaCl) 3. From underground deposit NaHCO3 (baking soda).
(Sodium Chloride) {Large crystals of common salt found in underground 2. Preservative in pickle and curing meat and
deposit which is brown due to presence of impurities in it. fish.
It is mined from underground deposit like coal.} 3. To melt ice and clear roads in winters in
cold countries.
 4. Used in manufacturing of soap.
Uses of H2
1. Hydrogenation of oil to get vegetable
ghee (margarine)
2. To make ammonia for fertilizers
3. In fuel for rockets.
Uses of Cl2
Passing electricity through concentrated solution of NaCl 1. In water treatment
(called 'brine') 2. To clean water in swimming pools
3. To make plastic, e.g. PVC
4. To make CFCs, chloroform, dyes etc.
Caustic Soda (NaOH)
2NaCl (Brine) + 2H2O2NaOH (Caustic Soda) + Cl2 + H2 Uses of NaOH
(Sodium Hydroxide)
At anode (+ve electrode): Cl2 is produced 1. Used in making soap and detergent.
At cathode (-ve electrode): H2 is produced 2. Used in manufacturing of paper
It is called chloro-alkali process because products formed 3. De-greasing metals
are chlorine (Chloro) and NaOH (alkali). 4. Refining oil
5. Making dyes and bleaches
Uses of HCl
1. Cleaning steel
2. Preparation of chloride, e.g. NH4Cl
3. In making medicines and cosmetics
4. In making plastics, PVC etc.
1. Used as antacid in medicine to remove
acidity of the stomach
2. Used in making baking powder (Basic
soda + tartaric acid)
NaCl + NH3 + H2O + CO2 → NaHCO3 + NH4Cl NaHCO3 + H⊕ (from mild acid) →
Baking Soda (NaHCO3) Properties Na⊕ (sodium salt of acid) + CO2 + H2O
(Sodium Action of Heat: The CO2 produced during the process gets
Hydrogencarbonate) trapped in wet dough and bubbles out slowly
to make cake 'rise' so that it becomes soft
and spongy.
Tartaric acid neutralizes it, and so it has
pleasant taste.
3. Used in soda-acid fire extinguisher
1. Used in glass, soap and paper industries
Na2CO3 + 10 H2O → Na2CO3.10H2O
Washing Soda 2. Used in manufacturing of sodium
Preparation of Na2CO3
(Na2CO3.10H2O) compounds such as Borax
{NaCl + NH3 + H2O + CO2 NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
(Sodium Carbonate) 3. Cleaning agent for domestic purpose
NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O}
4. Remove permanent hardness of water
Bleaching Powder Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O 1. For bleaching cotton and linen in textile
(CaOCl2) Slaked Lime Calcium Oxychloride industry, for bleaching wood pulp in paper
Calcium Oxychloride Properties factories, for bleaching washed clothes in
CaOCl2 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + Cl2 + H2O laundry
The Cl2 produced by action of dilute acid acts as bleaching 2. Oxidizing agent in chemical industries
agent. 3. Disinfecting drinking water

CaSO4.H2O (Plaster of Paris) +3/2 H2O

* Heating of gypsum should not be done above 100oC as 1. Used in hospital for setting fractured
above that temperature, water of crystallization will bones in the right position to ensure correct
eliminate and anhydrous CaSO4 will be obtained. This healing.
anhydrous CaSO4 is known as Dead Burnt Plaster. 2. Making toys, decorative materials, cheap
Plaster of Paris (P.O.P) * CaSO4.1/2 H2O means that two molecules of CaSO4 share ornaments, and casts of statues.
(CaSO4.1/2 H2O) one molecule of water. 3. Used as fire-proofing material
(Calcium Sulphate Properties 4. Used in chemistry labs for setting air gaps
Hemihydrate) Has remarkable property of setting into a hard mass on in apparatus.
wetting with water, as gypsum is formed. 5. Making smooth surfaces, such as For
CaSO4.1/2 H2O (P.O.P) + 1/2 H2O → CaSO4.2H2O making ornamental designs on ceilings of
(Gypsum set as hard mass) houses and other buildings
Hence, P.O.P should be stored in moisture-proof container
as moisture can cause slow setting of P.O.P by hydrating
it.
Class X Chapter 2 – Acids Bases and Salts Science

Question 1:
You have been provided with three test tubes. One of them contains distilled water and
the other two contain an acidic solution and a basic solution, respectively. If you are
given only red litmus paper, how will you identify the contents of each test tube?
Answer
If the colour of red litmus paper gets changed to blue, then it is a base and if there is no
colour change, then it is either acidic or neutral. Thus, basic solution can be easily
identified.
Let us mark the three test tubes as A, B, and C. A drop of the solution in A is put on the
red litmus paper. Same is repeated with solution B and C. If either of them changes
colour to blue, then it is basic. Therefore, out of three, one is eliminated. Out of the
remaining two, any one can be acidic or neutral. Now a drop of basic solution is mixed
with a drop of each of the remaining two solutions separately and then the nature of the
drops of the mixtures is checked. If the colour of red litmus turns blue, then the second
solution is neutral and if there is no change in colour, then the second solution is acidic.
This is because acidic and basic solutions neutralize each other. Hence, we can
distinguish between the three types of solutions.

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Question 1:
Why should curd and sour substances not be kept in brass and copper vessels?
Answer
Curd and other sour substances contain acids. Therefore, when they are
kept in brass and copper vessels, the metal reacts with the acid to liberate hydrogen gas
and harmful products, thereby spoiling the food.

Question 2:
Which gas is usually liberated when an acid reacts with a metal? Illustrate with an
example. How will you test for the presence of this gas?
Answer
Hydrogen gas is usually liberated when an acid reacts with a metal.

Take few pieces of zinc granules and add 5 ml of dilute H2SO4. Shake it and pass the gas
produced into a soap solution. The bubbles of the soap solution are formed. These soap
bubbles contain hydrogen gas.

We can test the evolved hydrogen gas by its burning with a pop sound when a candle is
brought near the soap bubbles.

Question 3:
Metal compound A reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce effervescence. The gas
evolved extinguishes a burning candle. Write a balanced chemical equation for the
reaction if one of the compounds formed is calcium chloride.
Answer

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Class X Chapter 2 – Acids Bases and Salts Science

Question 1:
Why do HCl, HNO3, etc., show acidic characters in aqueous solutions while solutions of
compounds like alcohol and glucose do not show acidic character?
Answer
The dissociation of HCl or HNO3 to form hydrogen ions always occurs in the presence of
water. Hydrogen ions (H+) combine with H2O to form hydronium ions (H3O+).
The reaction is as follows:

Although aqueous solutions of glucose and alcohol contain hydrogen, these cannot
dissociate in water to form hydrogen ions. Hence, they do not show acidic character.

Question 2:
Why does an aqueous solution of an acid conduct electricity?
Answer
Acids dissociate in aqueous solutions to form ions. These ions are responsible for
conduction of electricity.

Question 3:
Why does dry HCl gas not change the colour of the dry litmus paper?
Answer
Colour of the litmus paper is changed by the hydrogen ions. Dry HCl gas does not
contain H+ ions. It is only in the aqueous solution that an acid dissociates to give ions.
Since in this case, neither HCl is in the aqueous form nor the litmus paper is wet,
therefore, the colour of the litmus paper does not change.

Question 4:
While diluting an acid, why is it recommended that the acid should be added to water
and not water to the acid?
Answer
Since the process of dissolving an acid in water is exothermic, it is always recommended
that acid should be added to water. If it is done the other way, then it is possible that

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Class X Chapter 2 – Acids Bases and Salts Science

because of the large amount of heat generated, the mixture splashes out and causes
burns.

Question 5:
How is the concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+) affected when a solution of an acid is
diluted?
Answer
When an acid is diluted, the concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+) per unit volume
decreases. This means that the strength of the acid decreases.

Question 6:
How is the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH−) affected when excess base is dissolved
in a solution of sodium hydroxide?
Answer
The concentration of hydroxide ions (OH−) would increase when excess base is dissolved
in a solution of sodium hydroxide.

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Class X Chapter 2 – Acids Bases and Salts Science

Question 1:
You have two solutions, A and B. The pH of solution A is 6 and pH of solution B is 8.
Which solution has more hydrogen ion concentration? Which of this is acidic and which
one is basic?
Answer
A pH value of less than 7 indicates an acidic solution, while greater than 7 indicates a
basic solution. Therefore, the solution with pH = 6 is acidic and has more hydrogen ion
concentration than the solution of pH = 8 which is basic.

Question 2:

What effect does the concentration of ions have on the nature of the solution?
Answer

Concentration of can have a varied effect on the nature of the solution. With an
+
increase in H ion concentration, the solution becomes more acidic, while a decrease of
H+ ion causes an increase in the basicity of the solution.

Question 3:

Do basic solutions also have ions? If yes, then why are these basic?
Answer

Yes, basic solution also has ions. However, their concentration is less as compared
−
to the concentration of OH ions that makes the solution basic.

Question 4:
Under what soil condition do you think a farmer would treat the soil of his fields with
quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or chalk (calcium
carbonate)?
Answer
If the soil is acidic and improper for cultivation, then to increase the basicity of soil, the
farmer would treat the soil with quick lime or slaked lime or chalk.

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Class X Chapter 2 – Acids Bases and Salts Science

Question 1:
What is the common name of the compound CaOCl2?
Answer
The common name of the compound CaOCl2 is bleaching powder.

Question 2:
Name the substance which on treatment with chlorine yields bleaching powder?
Answer
Calcium hydroxide [Ca (OH)2], on treatment with chlorine, yields bleaching powder.

Question 3:
Name the sodium compound which is used for softening hard water.
Answer
Washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O) is used for softening hard water.

Question 4:
What will happen if a solution of sodium hydrocarbonate is heated? Give the equation of
the reaction involved.
Answer
When a solution of sodium hydrocarbonate (sodium hydrogencarbonate) is heated,
sodium carbonate and water are formed with the evolution of carbon dioxide gas.

Question 5:
Write an equation to show the reaction between Plaster of Paris and water.
Answer
The chemical equation for the reaction of Plaster of Paris and water can be represented
as

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Class X Chapter 2 – Acids Bases and Salts Science

Exercise solution
Question 1:
A solution turns red litmus blue, its pH is likely to be
(a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 10
Answer
(d) Bases turn red litmus blue and acids turn blue litmus red. Basic solution has a pH
value more than 7. Since the solution turns red litmus blue, its pH is likely to be 10.

Question 2:
A solution reacts with crushed egg-shells to give a gas that turns lime-water milky. The
solution contains
(a) NaCl (b) HCl (c) LiCl (d) KCl
Answer
(b) The solution contains HCl.

Question 3:
10 mL of a solution of NaOH is found to be completely neutralised by 8 mL of a given
solution of HCl. If we take 20 mL of the same solution of NaOH, the amount of HCl
solution (the same solution as before) required to neutralise it will be
(a) 4 mL (b) 8mL (c) 12 mL (d) 16 mL
Answer
(d) 16 mL of HCl solution will be required.

Question 4:
Which one of the following types of medicines is used for treating indigestion?
(a) Antibiotic
(b) Analgesic
(c) Antacid
(d) Antiseptic
Answer
(c) Antacid is used for treating indigestion.

Question 5:

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Class X Chapter 2 – Acids Bases and Salts Science

Write word equations and then balanced equations for the reaction taking
place when −
(a) dilute sulphuric acid reacts with zinc granules.
(b) dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with magnesium ribbon.
(c) dilute sulphuric acid reacts with aluminium powder.
(d) dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with iron filings.
Answer
(a) Sulphuric acid + Zinc → Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen

(b) Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium → Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen

(c) Sulphuric acid + Aluminium → Aluminium sulphate + Hydrogen

(d) Hydrochloric acid + Iron → Ferric chloride + Hydrogen

Question 6:
Compounds such as alcohols and glucose also contain hydrogen but are not categorized
as acids. Describe an activity to prove it.
Answer
Two nails are fitted on a cork and are kept it in a 100 mL beaker. The nails are then
connected to the two terminals of a 6-volt battery through a bulb and a switch. Some
dilute HCl is poured in the beaker and the current is switched on. The same experiment
is then performed with glucose solution and alcohol solution.
Observations:
It will be observed that the bulb glows in the HCl solution and does not glow in the
glucose solution.

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Result:
HCl dissociates into H+ and Cl− ions. These ions conduct electricity in the solution
resulting in the glowing of the bulb. On the other hand, the glucose solution does not
dissociate into ions. Therefore, it does not conduct electricity.
Conclusion:
From this activity, it can be concluded that all acids contain hydrogen but not all
compounds containing hydrogen are acids.
That is why, though alcohols and glucose contain hydrogen, they are not categorised as
acids.

Question 7:
Why does distilled water not conduct electricity, whereas rain water does?
Answer
Distilled water is a pure form of water and is devoid of any ionic species. Therefore, it
does not conduct electricity. Rain water, being an impure form of water, contains many
ionic species such as acids and therefore it conducts electricity.

Question 8:
Why do acids not show acidic behaviour in the absence of water?
Answer
Acids do not show acidic behaviour in the absence of water because the dissociation of
hydrogen ions from an acid occurs in the presence of water only. It is the hydrogen ions
that are responsible for the acidic behaviour.

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Class X Chapter 2 – Acids Bases and Salts Science

Question 9:
Five solutions A, B, C, D and E when tested with universal indicator showed pH as 4, 1,
11, 7 and 9, respectively. Which solution is
(a) neutral?
(b) strongly alkaline?
(c) strongly acidic?
(d) weakly acidic?
(e) weakly alkaline?
Arrange the pH in increasing order of hydrogen-ion concentration.
Answer
(a) Neutral → Solution D with pH 7
(b) Strongly alkaline → Solution C with pH 11
(c) Strongly acidic → Solution B with pH 1
(d) Weakly acidic → Solution A with pH 4
(e) Weakly alkaline → Solution E with pH 9
The pH can be arranged in the increasing order of the concentration of hydrogen ions as:
11 < 9 < 7 < 4 < 1

Question 10:
Equal lengths of magnesium ribbons are taken in test tubes A and B. Hydrochloric acid
(HCl) is added to test tube A, while acetic acid (CH3COOH) is added to test tube B. In
which test tube will the fizzing occur more vigorously and why?
Answer
The fizzing will occur strongly in test tube A, in which hydrochloric acid (HCl) is added.
This is because HCl is a stronger acid than CH3COOH and therefore produces hydrogen
gas at a faster speed due to which fizzing occurs.

Question 11:
Fresh milk has a pH of 6. How do you think the pH will change as it turns into curd?
Explain your answer.
Answer
The pH of milk is 6. As it changes to curd, the pH will reduce because curd is acidic in
nature. The acids present in it decrease the pH.

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Class X Chapter 2 – Acids Bases and Salts Science

Question 12:
A milkman adds a very small amount of baking soda to fresh milk.
(a) Why does he shift the pH of the fresh milk from 6 to slightly alkaline?
(b) Why does this milk take a long time to set as curd?
Answer
(a) The milkman shifts the pH of the fresh milk from 6 to slightly alkaline because in
alkaline condition, milk does not set as curd easily.
(b) Since this milk is slightly basic than usual milk, acids produced to set the curd are
neutralized by the base. Therefore, it takes a longer time for the curd to set.

Question 13:
Plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture-proof container. Explain why?
Answer
Plaster of Paris (POP) should be stored in a moisture-proof container because Plaster of
Paris, a powdery mass, absorbs water (moisture) to form a hard solid known as gypsum.

Question 14:
What is a neutralization reaction? Give two examples.
Answer
A reaction in which an acid and base react with each other to give a salt and water is
termed as neutralization reaction. In this reaction, energy is evolved in the form of heat.
For example:
(i)

(ii) During indigestion (caused due to the production of excess of hydrochloric acid in the

stomach), we administer an antacid (generally milk of magnesia, which is

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Class X Chapter 2 – Acids Bases and Salts Science

basic in nature). The antacid neutralizes the excess of acids and thus gives relief from
indigestion.

Question 15:
Give two important uses of washing soda and baking soda.
Answer
Two important used of washing soda and baking soda are as follows:
(1) Washing soda:
(a) It is used in glass, soap, and paper industries.
(b) It is used to remove permanent hardness of water.
(2) Baking soda:
(a) It is used as baking powder. Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda and a mild
acid known as tartaric acid. When it is heated or mixed in water, it releases CO2 that
makes bread or cake fluffy.
(b) It is used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.

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Class X Chapter 4 – Carbon and its Compounds Science

Question 1:
What would be the electron dot structure of carbon dioxide which has the formula CO2?
Answer:
Electron dot structure of CO2 is

Question 2:
What would be the electron dot structure of a molecule of sulphur which is made up of
eight atoms of sulphur? (Hint − the eight atoms of sulphur are joined together in the
form of a ring.)
Answer:
Electron dot structure of a sulphur molecule

Question 1:
How many structural isomers can you draw for pentane?
Answer:
Three structural isomers are possible for pentane.
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

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Class X Chapter 4 – Carbon and its Compounds Science

Question 2:
What are the two properties of carbon which lead to the huge number of carbon
compounds we see around us?
Answer:
The two features of carbon that give rise to a large number of compounds are as follows:
(i) Catenation − It is the ability to form bonds with other atoms of carbon.
(ii) Tetravalency − With the valency of four, carbon is capable of bonding with four other
atoms.
Question 3:
What will be the formula and electron dot structure of cyclopentane?
Answer:
The formula for cyclopentane is C5H10. Its electron dot structure is given below.

Question 4:
Draw the structures for the following compounds.
(i) Ethanoic acid (ii) Bromopentane*
(iii) Butanone (iv) Hexanal
*Are structural isomers possible for bromopentane?
Answer:
(i)

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Class X Chapter 4 – Carbon and its Compounds Science

(ii) There are many structural isomers possible for bromopentane. Among them, the
structures of three isomers are given.

(iii)

(iv)

,
Question 2:
Why do ionic compounds have high melting points?
Answer:
Ionic compounds have strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the ions.
Therefore, it requires a lot of energy to overcome these forces. That is why ionic
compounds have high melting points.

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Class X Chapter 4 – Carbon and its Compounds Science

Question 1:
Why is the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid an oxidation reaction?
Answer:

Since the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid involves the addition of oxygen to
ethanol, it is an oxidation reaction.
Question 2:
A mixture of oxygen and ethyne is burnt for welding. Can you tell why a mixture of
ethyne and air is not used?
Answer:

When ethyne is burnt in air, it gives a sooty flame. This is due to incomplete combustion
caused by limited supply of air. However, if ethyne is burnt with oxygen, it gives a clean
flame with temperature 3000°C because of complete combustion. This oxy-acetylene
flame is used for welding. It is not possible to attain such a high temperature without
mixing oxygen. This is the reason why a mixture of ethyne and air is not used.
Question 1:
How would you distinguish experimentally between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid?
Answer:
We can distinguish between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid on the basis of their
reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates. Acid reacts with carbonate and
hydrogen carbonate to evolve CO2 gas that turns lime water milky.

Alcohols, on the other hand, do not react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.
Question 2:
What are oxidising agents?
Answer:

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Some substances such as alkaline potassium permanganate and acidified potassium

dichromate are capable of adding oxygen to others. These are known as oxidising
agents.

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Class X Chapter 4 – Carbon and its Compounds Science

Question 1:
Would you be able to check if water is hard by using a detergent?
Answer:
Detergents are ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids. Unlike
soap, they do not react with calcium and magnesium ions present in hard water to form
scum. They give a good amount of lather irrespective of whether the water is hard or
soft. This means that detergents can be used in both soft and hard water. Therefore, it
cannot be used to check whether the water is hard or not.
Question 2:
People use a variety of methods to wash clothes. Usually after adding the soap, they
‘beat’ the clothes on a stone, or beat it with a paddle, scrub with a brush or the mixture
is agitated in a washing machine. Why is agitation necessary to get clean clothes?
Answer:
A soap molecule has two parts namely hydrophobic and hydrophilic. With the help of
these, it attaches to the grease or dirt particle and forms a cluster called micelle. These
micelles remain suspended as a colloid. To remove these micelles (entrapping the dirt),
it is necessary to agitate clothes.
Question 1:
Ethane, with the molecular formula C2H6 has
(a) 6 covalent bonds.
(b) 7 covalent bonds.
(c) 8 covalent bonds.
(d) 9 covalent bonds.
Answer:
(b) Ethane has 7 covalent bonds.
Question 2:
Butanone is a four-carbon compound with the functional group
(a) carboxylic acid.
(b) aldehyde.
(c) ketone.
(d) alcohol.
Answer:
(c) The functional group of butanone is ketone.

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Class X Chapter 4 – Carbon and its Compounds Science

Question 3:
While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is getting blackened on the outside, it means
that
(a) the food is not cooked completely.
(b) the fuel is not burning completely.
(c) the fuel is wet.
(d) the fuel is burning completely.
Answer:
(b) While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is getting blackened on the outside, then
it means that the fuel is not burning completely.
Question 4:
Explain the nature of the covalent bond using the bond formation in CH3Cl.
Answer:
Carbon can neither lose four of its electrons nor gain four electrons as both the
processes require extra amount of energy and would make the system unstable.
Therefore, it completes its octet by sharing its four electrons with other carbon atoms or
with atoms of other elements. The bonds that are formed by sharing electrons are
known as covalent bonds. In covalent bonding, both the atoms share the valence
electrons, i.e., the shared electrons belong to the valence shells of both the atoms.

Here, carbon requires 4 electrons to complete its octet, while each hydrogen atom
requires one electron to complete its duplet. Also, chlorine requires an electron to
complete the octet. Therefore, all of these share the electrons and as a result, carbon
forms 3 bonds with hydrogen and one with chlorine.
Question 5:
Draw the electron dot structures for
(a) ethanoic acid.
(b) H2S.

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Class X Chapter 4 – Carbon and its Compounds Science

(c) propanone.
(d) F2.
Answer:
(a) Ethanoic acid

(b) H2S

(c) Propanone

(d) F2

Question 6:
What is a homologous series? Explain with an example.
Answer:
A homologous series is a series of carbon compounds that have different numbers of
carbon atoms but contain the same functional group.
For example, methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc. are all part of the alkane
homologous series. The general formula of this series is CnH2n+2.
Methane CH4
Ethane CH3CH3
Propane CH3CH2CH3
Butane CH3CH2CH2CH3
It can be noticed that there is a difference of −CH2 unit between each successive
compound.

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Question 7:
How can ethanol and ethanoic acid be differentiated on the basis of their physical and
chemical properties?
Answer:
• Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature with a pleasant odour while ethanoic acid has
vinegar-like smell. The melting point of ethanoic acid is 17°C. This is below room
temperature and hence, it freezes during winters.
• Ethanoic acid reacts with metal carbonates and metal hydrogencarbonates to form salt,
water, and carbon dioxide gas while ethanol does not react with them.

For example,

For example,

Question 8:
In the electrolytic refining of a metal M, what would you take as the anode, the cathode
and the electrolyte?
Answer:
In the electrolytic refining of a metal M:
Anode → Impure metal M
Cathode → Thin strip of pure metal M
Electrolyte → Solution of salt of the metal M
Question 9:
Why are carbon and its compounds used as fuels for most applications?
Answer:

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Most of the carbon compounds give a lot of heat and light when burnt in air. Saturated
hydrocarbons burn with a clean flame and no smoke is produced. The carbon
compounds, used as a fuel, have high calorific values. Therefore, carbon and its
compounds are used as fuels for most applications.
Question 10:
Explain the formation of scum when hard water is treated with soap.
Answer:
Soap does not work properly when the water is hard. A soap is a sodium or potassium
salt of long chain fatty acids. Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium. When
soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions present in water displace
sodium or potassium ions from the soap molecules forming an insoluble substance called
scum. A lot of soap is wasted in the process.
Question 11:
What change will you observe if you test soap with litmus paper (red and blue)?
Answer:
Since soap is basic in nature, it will turn red litmus blue. However, the colour of blue
litmus will remain blue.
Question 12:
What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial application?
Answer:
Hydrogenation is the process of addition of hydrogen. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are
added with hydrogen in the presence of palladium and nickel catalysts to give saturated
hydrocarbons.

This reaction is applied in the hydrogenation of vegetables oils, which contain long chains
of unsaturated carbons.
Question 13:
Which of the following hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions:
C2H6, C3H8, C3H6, C2H2 and CH4.
Answer:

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Class X Chapter 4 – Carbon and its Compounds Science

Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions. Being unsaturated hydrocarbons,

C3H6 and C2H2 undergo addition reactions.
Question 14:
Give a test that can be used to differentiate chemically between butter and cooking oil.
Answer:
Butter contains saturated fats. Therefore, it cannot be hydrogenated. On the other hand,
oil has unsaturated fats. That is why it can be hydrogenated to saturated fats (solids).
Question 15:
Explain the mechanism of the cleaning action of soaps.
Answer:
Cleansing action of soaps:
The dirt present on clothes is organic in nature and insoluble in water. Therefore, it
cannot be removed by only washing with water. When soap is dissolved in water, its
hydrophobic ends attach themselves to the dirt and remove it from the cloth. Then, the
molecules of soap arrange themselves in micelle formation and trap the dirt at the
centre of the cluster. These micelles remain suspended in the water. Hence, the dust
particles are easily rinsed away by water.

Page 11 of 11

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Grade – X Subject - Chemistry

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS:

Occurrence of carbon: Carbon is obtained from the below sources, namely
• Atmospheric CO2
• Hydrocarbons
• Carbonates like limestone (CaCO3), dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3)
• Fossil fuels
• Plants and animals
Allotropes of carbon: Carbon is found in both crystalline and amorphous forms.
Under the crystalline forms, found three allotropes, namely
• Diamond: Diamond exits as three-dimensional network with strong carbon-
carbon covalent bonds. Diamond is hard in nature with high melting point. It
shines in presence of light and it is a bad conductor of electricity. The most
common use of diamond is in making jewellery. It is also used in cutting and
drilling tools.
• Graphite: Graphite is made from weak van der wall forces. Each carbon atom
is bonded with other three carbon atoms in order to form hexagonal rings. It
serves as good conductor of heat and electricity. It is used as dry lubricant for
machine parts as well as it is used in lead pencils.
• Fullerene: It is a hollow cage which exits in the form of sphere. Its structure is
similar to fullerene. But along with hexagonal rings, sometimes pentagonal or
heptagonal rings are also present.
Covalent bonding in Carbon: The atomic number of carbon is 6. now look at the
electronic configuration of carbon.
C- 1S2 2S2 2P2

Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs to gain or lose four
electrons to attain noble gas configuration. If it were to gain or lose electrons –
(i) It could gain four electrons forming C4– anion. But it would be difficult for
the nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten electrons, that is, four extra
electrons.
(ii) (ii) It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require a
large amount of energy to remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon
cation with six protons in its nucleus holding on to just two electrons.
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
Hence, by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with atoms of
other elements carbon attains noble gas configuration and stability.
The bond formed by sharing of valence electrons between similar elements or
different elements is known as Covalent bonding.
The compounds forming covalent bonding are called as Covalent compounds.
The shared electrons ‘belong’ to the outermost shells of both the atoms and lead to
both atoms attaining the noble gas configuration. some simple molecules formed by
the sharing of valence electrons.
E.g.: The simplest molecule formed in this manner is that of hydrogen. the atomic
number of Hydrogen is 1. Hence hydrogen has one electron in its K shell and it
requires one more electron to fill the K shell. So, two hydrogen atoms share their
electrons to form a molecule of hydrogen, H2. This allows each hydrogen atom to
attain the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas i.e., helium, which has two
electrons in its K shell.

In the case of oxygen, we see the formation of a double bond between two oxygen
atoms. This is because an atom of oxygen has six electrons in its L shell (the atomic
number of oxygen is eight) and it requires two more electrons to complete its octet.

In order to attain an octet, each nitrogen atom in a molecule of nitrogen contributes

three electrons giving rise to three shared pairs of electrons. This is said to constitute a
triple bond between the two atoms.

Covalent bonding in carbon compounds:

Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
Carbon can form three types of covalent bonding.
(i) Single covalent bond
(ii) Double covalent bond
(iii) Triple covalent bond

VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON:

Organic compounds are approximately 90%of the total known compounds and are
more than 5 million in number. Due to this huge number, they are studied separately
and systematically under hydrocarbons of carbon compounds. The main reasons for
such a large number of compounds are:
(i) Tetravalency:
• Since carbon has a valency of four, it is capable of bonding with four
other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
• Compounds of carbon are formed with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
sulphur, chlorine and many other elements giving rise to compounds
with specific properties which depend on the elements other than
carbon present in the molecule.
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
(ii) Catenation:
• Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of
carbon, giving rise to large molecules. This property is called
catenation.
• These compounds may have long chains of carbon, branched chains
of carbon or even carbon atoms arranged in rings.
• Hence, catenation along with tetravalency produces enormous
number of carbon compounds.
• Sulphur stands second under catenation ability after carbon.
Classification of carbon based on number of covalent bonds: Carbon forms two
types of categories, i.e.
(i) Saturated compounds:
Compounds of carbon, which are linked by only single
bonds between the carbon and carbon atoms are called saturated
compounds.
Eg: Alkanes and cycloalkanes

(ethane)
(ii) Unsaturated compounds:
Compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between the
carbon atoms are called unsaturated compounds.
Eg: Alkenes, alkynes, cycloalkenes, cycloalkanes, aromatic and non-
aromatic compounds.

(ethene) (ethyne)
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry

Classification of organic compounds:

IUPAC Nomenclature of carbon compounds:

Hydrocarbons: An organic compound made up of hydrogen and carbon with
covalent bonding.
Naming of organic compounds are of two types, namely:
(i) Trivial / common naming system: Based on their origin or certain
properties of the compound.
(ii) IUPAC system: based on international union of pure and applied
chemistry.
IUPAC nomenclature along with functional groups:
Prefix + Root word + primary suffix + secondary suffix

IUPAC nomenclature of straight chain hydrocarbons:

Root word + primary suffix
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
According to IUPAC number of carbon in an organic compound, the naming as
follows,

1. Root word:
No. of carbon Name No. of carbon Name

1 Meth 7 Hept
2 Eth 8 Oct
3 Prop 9 Non
4 But 10 Dec
5 Pent 11 Undec
6 Hex 12 Dodec

Root word: Total number of carbon atoms present in the long chain of carbons in an
organic compound.
2. Prefixes: (a) All the branches such as Halogen groups like Fluorine, Chlorine,
Iodine and Bromine.
(b) Alkyl groups (alkane-H)
(c) When there are multiple similar prefixes then di, tri, tetra and poly terms
are used.
3. Primary Suffix: Based on the number of covalent bonds between carbon
atoms, hydrocarbons are categorised into alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
Hydrocarbons Primary suffix
Alkanes -ane
Alkenes -ene
Alkynes -yne
Eg: (i) CH3 – CH2 – CH3 ; Prop + ane = propane
CH3 – CH2 = CH2 ; Prop + ene = propene
CH3 – CH2≡ CH ; Prop + yne = propyne
4. Secondary suffix: All the functional groups are included under this category
where by omitting the ‘ e ‘of the primary suffix, if the secondary suffix begins
with a, e, i, o and u.
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
Functional group: An atom or a group of atoms acting as a unique part of organic
compounds and decides chemical properties of a compound is known as Functional
groups.

S. Functional Symbols Suffixes Examples

No Groups
1. Alkane C – C, C − H, −ane CH3 – CH2 – CH3
C−X (Prop )
2. Alkene C=C −ene CH3 – CH2 = CH2
(prop )
3. Alkyne C≡C −yne CH3 – CH2≡ CH
(prop )
4. Halogen C– X Halo− Cl– CH2 – CH2 – CH3
(X = F, Cl, I, (* only (Chloro – propane)
Br) prefix)
5. Alcohol R− OH −ol CH3 – CH2 – CH2 –OH
(Propanol)
6. Aldehyde R−CHO −al CH3 – CH2 – CHO
(Propanal)
7. Ketone R−CO−R −one CH3 – CO– CH2
(Propanone)

Steps of nomenclature:
1. Identify the long chain of the carbon compound.
• The long chain must contain maximum number of carbons.
• The long chain of carbon must be containing the functional groups and
branch groups.
• Give more preference to the long chain of carbon which contains double
or triple covalent bonds.
2. Provide positions to the carbon atoms in terms of numbers.
• Provide numbers such as 1, 2, 3….to the carbon atoms from left to right
and right side to left side as well.
• Pick up the direction which allots the minimum quota of number the
carbon attached to branches(prefix), double or triple bonds and
functional groups.
• Preference for allotting minimum number to the position should be in
the order of Functional group > ≡ > = > branches (prefixes)
3. Apply the rules of nomenclature while naming the organic compound.
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
Eg:

Homologous series and its characteristics: A series of compounds in which the

organic compounds have same general formula the same functional group substitutes
for hydrogen in a carbon chain therefore, similar chemical properties are called as
homologous series.
Eg: CH4 and C2H6 — these differ by a –CH2 unit
C2H6 and C3H8 — these differ by a –CH2 unit
• Homologous series have a characteristic general formula
• Successive member of a homologous series differs by –CH2 group/molecular
weight by 14 u.
• All members have same functional groups.
Eg: The homologous series for alkenes. The first member of the series is ethene and
the succeeding members have the formula C3H6, C4H8 and C5H10.

Isomerism: The property in which two or more compounds have the same molecular
formula but have different properties is known as Isomerism. The compounds
exhibiting this property are known as Isomers.
Eg: (a) 1– Chloro butane 2– chloro butane

Cl – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 CH3 – CH - Cl – CH2 – CH3

Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
(b) Propanal propanone

CH3 – CH2 – CHO CH3 – CO – CH3

Types of chemical reactions in organic compounds:

1. Combustion: Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give

carbon dioxide along with the release of heat and light. Most carbon
compounds also release a large amount of heat and light on burning.
• Saturated hydrocarbons will generally produce clea n and blue
coloured flame on combustion, whereas unsaturated hydrocarbons produce
a yellow flame with lots of smoke.
• Carbon with insufficient oxygen forms carbon monoxide.
• Fuels such as coal and petroleum have some amount of nitrogen and
sulphur in them. Their combustion results in the formation of oxides of
sulphur and nitrogen which are major pollutants in the environment.

Eg: (i) C + O2 → CO2 + heat and light

(ii) CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light
(iii) CH3CH2OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light

2. Oxidation: Carbon compounds can be easily oxidised on combustion. In

addition to this complete oxidation, we have reactions in which alcohols are
converted to carboxylic acids in the presence of alkaline KMnO4 or acidified
K2Cr2O7 –
[O]
Eg: CH3 – CH2 OH − − − − − − −−→ CH3COOH
KMnO4/ K2Cr2O7

3. Addition of hydrogen: Unsaturated hydrocarbons on addition of hydrogen in

the presence of catalysts such as palladium or nickel to give saturated
hydrocarbons. This reaction is commonly used in the hydrogenation of
vegetable oils using a nickel catalyst. Vegetable oils generally have long
unsaturated carbon chains while animal fats have saturated carbon chain.
Eg:
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry

4. Substitution reaction: Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are

inert in the presence of most reagents. However, in the presence of sunlight,
chlorine is added to hydrocarbons in a very fast reaction. Chlorine can replace
the hydrogen atoms one by one. It is called a substitution reaction because one
type of atom or a group of atoms takes the place of another.

Eg: CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl (in the presence of sunlight)

Catalyst: Catalysts are substances that cause a reaction to occur or proceed at a

different rate without the reaction itself being affected.
(i) Positive catalyst: The catalyst which accelerates or increases the rate of
reaction. Eg: Ni, Pd, Pt, etc.
(ii) Negative catalyst: The catalyst which slows down or terminates a chemical
reaction. Eg: H3PO4 decreases the decomposition process of H2O2.
(iii) Auto catalyst: One of the reactants itself is self-sufficient to accelerate a
chemical reaction. Eg: KMnO4, Rh, etc.

Important other carbon compounds:

1. Ethanol 2. Ethanoic acid

1. ETHANOL:
• The trivial name of ethanol is ethyl alcohol with a formula – C2H5OH.
• Its functional group is alcohol.
• It is one of the useful solvents for organic compounds.
Properties of ethanol:
• It is liquid at room temperature.
• It has a characteristic odour.
• It is hydrophilic in nature hence, it is also used in medicines such as tincture
iodine, cough syrups, and many tonics
• It is an active ingredient in all the alcoholic beverages.
• Consumption of small quantities of dilute ethanol causes drunkenness. Even a
small quantity of pure ethanol (called absolute alcohol) can be lethal.
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
• Reaction with sodium: when ethanol reacts with sodium it forms sodium
ethoxide and liberates hydrogen gas.
2Na + 2CH3CH2OH → 2CH3CH2O–Na + H2
(Sodium ethoxide)
• Dehydration of ethanol: Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon: Heating
ethanol at 443 K with excess concentrated sulphuric acid results in the
dehydration of ethanol to give ethene.
• Concentrated sulphuric acid is a dehydrating agent which removes water from
ethanol.
Hot, conc.
H2SO4
CH3CH2OH − − −−→ CH2=CH2 + H2O

Uses:
• It is also used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and many
tonics.
• Used in thermometers due to its low freezing points.
• Used as tincture of Iodine (Iodine in alcohol).
• Used as solvents for glues, resins, paints and varnishes.
• Used in alcohol beverages.

2. ETHANOIC ACID:
• The trivial name is acetic acid and formula is CH3COOH.
• The functional group of this compound is carboxylic acid.
• It shows acidic property.
Properties of ethanoic acid:
• Colourless liquid with characteristic pungent smell.
• Hygroscopic in nature (absorbs moisture from the atmosphere).
• Miscible in water.
• 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a
preservative in pickles.
• The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often freezes
during winter in cold climates. This gave rise to its name glacial acetic acid.
• unlike mineral acids like HCl, which are completely ionised, carboxylic acids
are weak acids.
• Esterification reaction: Ethanoic acid reacts with absolute ethanol in the
presence of an acid catalyst to give an ester. Esters are most commonly formed
by reaction of an acid and an alcohol.
Acid
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
CH3COOH + C2H5OH − − −−→ CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O
(Ethanoic (ethanol) (Ethyl ethanoate)
acid)
• Esters are sweet-smelling substances. These are used in making perfumes and
as flavouring agents.
• Saponification: On treating with sodium hydroxide, which is an alkali (base),
the ester is converted back to alcohol and sodium salt of carboxylic acid. This
reaction is known as saponification because it is used in the preparation of
soaps.

CH3COOCH2CH3 + NaOH − − −−→ CH3COONa + C2H5OH

(Sodium acetate)
• Esterification and saponification reactions are reversible to each other.

• Reaction with alkali: Ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as sodium
hydroxide, it gives a salt (sodium ethanoate or commonly called sodium
acetate) and water.

CH3COOH + NaOH − − −−→ CH3COONa + H2O

• Reaction with Metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates: Ethanoic
acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to give rise to a salt,
carbon dioxide and water. The salt produced is commonly called sodium
acetate.

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 − − −−→ 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

CH3COOH + NaHCO3 − − −−→ CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Uses:
• As a lab reagent
• To prepare vinegar
• In medicines
• To produce perfumes, dyes, etc
• For the coagulation of rubber from latex

Soaps and detergents:

• Sodium or potassium salt of carboxylic acid is known as Soap.
• They work most effectively in soap water.
• Detergents are sulphonate or ammonium salt of long chain of carboxylic acid.
They can work effectively on soft as well as hard water.
Cleansing action of soaps and detergents:
• Most dirt is oily in nature and as you know, oil does not dissolve in water.
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
• The molecules of soap are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic
acids.
• The ionic-end of soap interacts with water while the carbon chain interacts with
oil. The soap molecules, thus form structures called micelles.
• Where one end of the molecules is towards the oil droplet while the ionic-end
faces outside. This forms an emulsion in water. The soap micelle thus helps in
pulling out the dirt in water and we can wash our clothes clean.

Detergents: Sometimes while bathing that foam is formed with difficulty and an
insoluble substance (scum) remains after washing with water. This is caused by the
reaction of soap with the calcium and magnesium salts, which cause the hardness of
water. Hence you need to use a larger amount of soap. This problem is overcome by
using another class of compounds called detergents as cleansing agents.
• Detergents are generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts
with chlorides or bromides ions.
• The charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with
the calcium and magnesium ions in hard water. Thus, they remain effective in
hard water.
NCERT SOLUTIONS
Question 1:
What would be the electron dot structure of carbon dioxide which has the
formula CO2?
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
Answer:
Electron dot structure of CO2 is

Question 1:
Why is the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid an oxidation reaction?
Answer:

Since the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid involves the addition of oxygen to
ethanol, it is an oxidation reaction.

Question 2:
A mixture of oxygen and ethyne is burnt for welding. Can you tell why a mixture
of ethyne and air is not used?

Answer:

When ethyne is burnt in air, it gives a sooty flame. This is due to incomplete
combustion caused by limited supply of air. However, if ethyne is burnt with oxygen,
it gives a clean flame with temperature 3000°C because of complete combustion. This
oxy-acetylene flame is used for welding. It is not possible to attain such a high
temperature without mixing oxygen. This is the reason why a mixture of ethyne and
air is not used.

Question 1:
How would you distinguish experimentally between an alcohol and a carboxylic
acid?
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
Answer:
We can distinguish between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid on the basis of their
reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates. Acid reacts with carbonate and
hydrogen carbonate to evolve CO2 gas that turns lime water milky.

Alcohols, on the other hand, do not react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.
Question 2:
What are oxidising agents?
Answer:
Some substances such as alkaline potassium permanganate and acidified potassium
dichromate are capable of adding oxygen to others. These are known as oxidising
agents.

Question 1:
Would you be able to check if water is hard by using a detergent?
Answer:
Detergents are ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids. Unlike
soap, they do not react with calcium and magnesium ions present in hard water to
form scum. They give a good amount of lather irrespective of whether the water is
hard or soft. This means that detergents can be used in both soft and hard water.
Therefore, it cannot be used to check whether the water is hard or not.

Question 2:
People use a variety of methods to wash clothes. Usually after adding the soap,
they ‘beat’ the clothes on a stone, or beat it with a paddle, scrub with a brush or
the mixture is agitated in a washing machine. Why is agitation necessary to get
clean clothes?

Answer:
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
A soap molecule has two parts namely hydrophobic and hydrophilic. With the help of
these, it attaches to the grease or dirt particle and forms a cluster called micelle. These
micelles remain suspended as a colloid. To remove these micelles (entrapping the
dirt), it is necessary to agitate clothes.

Question 1:
Ethane, with the molecular formulaC2H6
has (a) 6 covalent bonds. (b) 7 covalent
bonds.

(c) 8 covalent bonds.

(d) 9 covalent bonds.
Answer:
(b) Ethane has 7 covalent bonds.
Question 2:
Butanone is a four-carbon compound with the functional
group (a) carboxylic acid.

(b) aldehyde.
(c) ketone.
(d) alcohol.
Answer:
(c) The functional group of butanone is ketone.
Question 3:
While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is getting blackened on the outside, it
means that
(a) the food is not cooked completely.
(b) the fuel is not burning completely.
(c) the fuel is wet.
(d) the fuel is burning completely.
Answer: (b) While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is getting blackened on the
outside, then it means that the fuel is not burning completely.
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
Question 4:
Explain the nature of the covalent bond using the bond formation in CH3Cl.
Answer:
Carbon can neither lose four of its electrons nor gain four electrons as both the
processes require extra amount of energy and would make the system unstable.
Therefore, it completes its octet by sharing its four electrons with other carbon atoms
or with atoms of other elements. The bonds that are formed by sharing electrons are
known as covalent bonds. In covalent bonding, both the atoms share the valence
electrons, i.e., the shared electrons belong to the valence shells of both the atoms.

Here, carbon requires 4 electrons to complete its octet, while each hydrogen atom
requires one electron to complete its duplet. Also, chlorine requires an electron to
complete the octet. Therefore, all of these share the electrons and as a result, carbon
forms 3 bonds with hydrogen and one with chlorine.

Question 5:
Draw the electron dot structures
for (a) ethanoic acid.
(b) H2S.
(c) propanone.
(d) F2.
Answer:
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
(a) Ethanoic acid

( b) H 2 S

( c) Propanone

( d) F 2

Question 6:
What is a homologous series? Explain with an example.
Answer:
A homologous series is a series of carbon compounds that have different numbers of
carbon atoms but contain the same functional group.

For example, methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc. are all part of the alkane
homologous series. The general formula of this series is CnH2n+2.

Methane CH4
Ethane CH3CH3
Propane CH3CH2CH3
Butane CH3CH2CH2CH3
It can be noticed that there is a difference of −CH2 unit between each successive
compound.

Question 7:
How can ethanol and ethanoic acid be differentiated on the basis of their physical
and chemical properties?
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
Answer:
• Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature with a pleasant odour while ethanoic
acid has vinegar-like smell. The melting point of ethanoic acid is 17°C. This is below
room temperature and hence, it freezes during winters.

• Ethanoic acid reacts with metal carbonates and metal hydrogencarbonates to

form salt, water, and carbon dioxide gas while ethanol does not react with them.

For example,

For example,

Question 8:
In the electrolytic refining of a metal M, what would you take as the anode, the
cathode and the electrolyte?

Answer:
In the electrolytic refining of a metal M:
Anode → Impure metal M
Cathode → Thin strip of pure metal M
Electrolyte → Solution of salt of the metal M
Question 9:

Why are carbon and its compounds used as fuels for most applications?
Answer:
Most of the carbon compounds give a lot of heat and light when burnt in air. Saturated
hydrocarbons burn with a clean flame and no smoke is produced. The carbon
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
compounds, used as a fuel, have high calorific values. Therefore, carbon and its
compounds are used as fuels for most applications.

Question 10:
Explain the formation of scum when hard water is treated with soap.
Answer:
Soap does not work properly when the water is hard. A soap is a sodium or potassium
salt of long chain fatty acids. Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium.
When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions present in water
displace sodium or potassium ions from the soap molecules forming an insoluble
substance called scum. A lot of soap is wasted in the process.

Question 11:
What change will you observe if you test soap with litmus paper (red and blue)?
Answer:
Since soap is basic in nature, it will turn red litmus blue. However, the colour of blue
litmus will remain blue.

Question 12:
What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial application?
Answer:
Hydrogenation is the process of addition of hydrogen. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are
added with hydrogen in the presence of palladium and nickel catalysts to give
saturated hydrocarbons.

This reaction is applied in the hydrogenation of vegetables oils, which contain long
chains of unsaturated carbons.
Grade – X Subject - Chemistry
Question 13:
Which of the following hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions:
C2H6, C3H8, C3H6, C2H2 and CH4.
Answer:
Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions. Being unsaturated
hydrocarbons, C3H6 and C2H2 undergo addition reactions.

Question 14:
Give a test that can be used to differentiate chemically between butter and
cooking oil.
Answer:
Butter contains saturated fats. Therefore, it cannot be hydrogenated. On the other
hand, oil has unsaturated fats. That is why it can be hydrogenated to saturated fats
(solids).

Question 15:
Explain the mechanism of the cleaning action of soaps.
Answer:
Cleansing action of soaps:
The dirt present on clothes is organic in nature and insoluble in water. Therefore, it
cannot be removed by only washing with water. When soap is dissolved in water, its
hydrophobic ends attach themselves to the dirt and remove it from the cloth. Then, the
molecules of soap arrange themselves in micelle formation and trap the dirt at the
centre of the cluster. These micelles remain suspended in the water. Hence, the dust
particles are easily rinsed away by water.
NAME:
GRADE: X M

Subject : Chemistry Class : X (CBSE)

Carbon & Its Compounds
INTRODUCTION:
Organic compounds: The compounds like urea, sugars, fats, oils, dyes, proteins vitamins etc., which were isolated
directly or indirectly from living or indirectly from living organism such as animals and plants were called organic
compounds. The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of these compounds is called ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY.
BONDING IN CARBON- THE COVALENT BOND:
. Element forming ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining or losing electrons from the outermost shell.
In the case of carbon, it has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs to gain or lose four electrons to attain noble
gas configuration. It is were to gain or lose electrons –
(i) it could gain four electrons forming C4- anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six protons to
hold on to ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons.
(ii) It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require a large amount of energy to remove
four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding on to just two electrons.
Thus, carbon forms covalent bond by sharing electrons to attain octet configuration.
Some Molecules Formed by the Sharing of Valence Electrons are as follows (electron dot structure):

(a) H + H → H2 (or) H−H (or) H● ●H

Shared electrons (valence electrons)

(b)

Shared electrons

(c)

Different kinds of covalent bonds are:

Electron pair shared between two atoms results in the formation of a covalent bond. This shared pair is also
called bonding pair of electron.
1. ALKANE: If two atoms share one electron pair, bond is known as single covalent bond and is represented by one
dash (-).
2. ALKENE: If two atoms share two electron pairs, bond is known as double covalent bond and is represented by two
dashed (=).
3. ALKYNE: If two atoms share three electron pairs, bond is known as triple covalent bond and is represented by
three dashes (≡).
VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON:
(i) Catenation: The property of self-linking of carbon atoms through covalent bonds to form long straight or
branched chains and rings of different sizes is called catenation. Carbon shows maximum catenation in the periodic
table due to its small size, electronic configuration and unique strength of carbon - carbon bonds.

(ii) Tetravalency of carbon: Carbon belongs to group 14 of periodic table. Since the atomic number of carbon is
6. The electronic configuration of carbon atom is 2, 4. It has four electrons in the outermost shell. Therefore, its
valency is four.

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:
Homologous series may be defined as a series of similarly constituted
compounds in which the members possess similar chemical characteristics and the two consecutive
members differ in their molecular formula by - CH2.
NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:
Nomenclature means the assignment of names to organic compounds. There are two
main systems of nomenclature of organic compounds –

(a) Trivial system ( common names)

(b) IUPAC system (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)

(i) Word root: The basic unit is a series of word rot which indicate linear or continuous number of carbon atoms.

(ii) Secondary suffix: Suffixes added after the primary suffix to indicate the presence of a particular functional group in the
carbon chain are known as secondary suffixes.

Name of Straight Chain Hydrocarbons

The name of straight chain hydrocarbon may be divided into two parts
(i) Word root (ii) Primary suffix

Word roots for carbon chain lengths:

Chain length Word root Chain length Word root
C1 Meth- C8 Hex –
C2 Eth – C7 Hept –
C3 Prop – C8 Oct –
C4 But – C9 Non –
C5 Pent - C 10 Dec -

Primary suffix:
Class of Cmpounds Primary suffix General name

C-C - ane Alkane

Saturated

C=C - ene Alkene

Unsaturated

C ≡C - yne Alkyne
Unsaturated

Examples:
Molecular formula Word root Primary suffix IUPAC Name
CH4 Meth – - ane Methane
CH3-CH 3 Eth – - ane Ethane
CH 3CH2CH3 Prop – - ane Propane
CH 3CH2CH 2CH 3 But – - ane Butane
CH2 = CH2 Eth – - ane Ethene
CH3 –CH = CH2 Prop – - ane Propene
CH3 -C ≡ CH Prop - - yne Propyne
Names of Branched Chain Hydrocarbon :
. These side chain carbon atoms constitute the alkyl group or alkyl radicals. An alkyl group is obtained from
an alkane by removal of a hydrogen. General formula of an alkyl group = CnH2n+1
An Alkyl group is represented by R.

i.

A Branched Chain Hydrocarbon is Named Using the Following General IUPAC Rules :

Rule 1 : Longest chain rule : Select the longest possible continuous chain of carbon atoms. If some multiple bond is
present, the chain selected must contain the multiple bonds.
(i) The number of carbon atoms in the selected chain determines the word root.
(ii) Saturation or unsaturation determines the primary suffix.

(iii) Alkyl substituents are indicated by prefixes.

eg:

Rule 2 : Lowest number Rule:

(i) The numbering is done in such a way that the substituents carbon atom has the lowest possible number.

(ii) If some multiple bond is present in the chain, the carbon atoms involved in the multiple bond should get lowest possible
numbers.
The name of the compound, in general, is written in the following sequence. (Position of substituents) - (prefixes) (word root) (p -
suffix)
Rule : 3 Use of prefixed di, tri etc. : If the compound contains more than one similar alkyl groups, their positions
are indicated separately and an appropriate numerical prefix, di, tri, etc., is attached to the name of the substituents. The
positions of the subsistent are separated by commas (,).

eg:

Rule 4 : Alphabetical arrangement of prefixes : If there are different alkyl substituents present in the compound their names
are written in the alphabetical order.

eg:

Rule 5 : Naming of different alkyl substituents at the equivalent positions :

If two alkly substituents are present at the equivalent position then numbering of the chain is done is such a way that the alkyl
group which comes first in alphabetical order gets the lower position.
 FUNCTIONAL GROUP :
An atom or group of atoms in an organic compound or molecule that is responsible for the compound’s characteristic reactions
and determines its properties is known as functional group.
(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH) : All organic compounds containing - OH group are known as alcohols.
For e.g. Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3 - CH2 - OH) etc.

(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO) : All organic compounds containing CHO group are known as aldehydes.
For e.g. Methanol (HCHO), Ethanol (CH3CHO) etc.

(iii) Ketone group (-CO-) : All organic compounds containing -CO- group are known as ketones.
For e.g. 2- Propanone (CH3COH3), 2-Butanone (CH3COCH 2CH3) etc.

(iv) Carboxyl group ( -COOH) : All organic acids contain carboxyl group. Hence they are also called carboxylic
acids.

For e.g. CH3COOH (Ethanoic acid)

CH3CH2COOH (Propanoic acid)

Nomenclature of Compounds Containing Functional Group :

Class Functional General Prefix Suffix IUPAC Name

Group Formular
Carboxylic acid O O Carboxy - oic acid Alkanoic acid

− C − OH R − C − OH

(R  CnH2n 1
Ester O O Carbalkoxy Alkyl (r;) – oate Alkyl alkanoate

− C − OR R − C − O − R'

(R ≠ R' )
Aldehyde - CHO R – CHO Formyl or oxo - al Alkanal
Ketone −C− R−C −R oxo - one Alkanal

O O
Alcohol -OH R – OH Hydroxy - ol Alkanol
Alkenes C =C CnH2n - - ene Alkene
Alkynes C≡ C CnH2n-2 - - yne Alkene
Halides -X R–X Halo - Haloalkane
(X = F, CI, Br, I)

1 : The carbon atoms of the parent chain are numbered in such a way so that the carbon atom of the functional group gets the
lowest possible number. In case the functional group does not have the carbon atom, then the carbon atom of the parent
chain attached to the functional group should get the lowest possible number.
2 : The name of the compound is written as -
Prefixes - word root - primary suffix - secondary suffix

NOTE: The number of carbon atoms in the parent chain decides the word root.

1.
 2.

ISOMERS & ISOMERSISM:

(a) Introduction :
Such compounds which have same molecular formula but different in some physical or chemical properties are
known as isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.
(b) Structural Isomerism:
Such compounds which have same molecular formula but different structural arrangement of atoms in their
molecules are known as structural isomers and the phenomenon is known as structural isomerism.

(i) Chain isomerism : The isomerism in which the isomers differ from each other due to the presence of
different carbon chain skeletons in known as chain isomerism.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS :

(a) Combustion:
Carbon in all its allotropic forms burns in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide and releases energy in the form of heat and light.
Most carbon compound also release a large amount of heat and light on burning.
(c) Oxidation :
Oxidation is a process in which oxygen is added to a substance. The substances which add oxygen to
other substances are called oxidising agents. There are many oxidising agents such as alkaline potassium
permanganate (alk. KMnO4), acidified potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), nitric acid (HNO3) etc. which are commonly
used in organic chemistry. Some common reactions of oxidation are -

(d) Substitution Reaction:

The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or substituted by different atoms
or group of atoms are called substitution reactions.

(e) Addition Reaction:

The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product Unsaturated compounds such as alkenes
contain double bond they undergo addition reaction.
 IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS :
(a) Ethanol or (Ethyl alcohol):
Ethanol is the second member of the homologous alcoholic series.

Structural formula:

(i) Properties of Ethanol:

(A) Physical properties.

Ethanol is colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.

Ethanol boils at 351 K.

It is miscible with water in all proportions.

It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)

It is neutral to litmus.

(b) ETHANOIC ACID (OR ACETIC ACID) :

(i) Molecular formula : CH3COOH

(ii) Structural formula:

(iii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether. Its dissolution in water takes place with the evolution of heat and
decrease in volume of the solution.

(iv) The melting point of ethanoic acid in 290 K and hence it often freezes during winter in cold climates. Therefore,
it is names as glacial acetic acid.

1 (b) Chemical properties :

(i) Acidic character : Ethanoic acid is a monobasic acid. It has a replaceable hydrogen atom in its - COOH
group. Therefore, it neutralizes alkali.
SOAPS AND DETERGENT:
(a) Soap:

A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of some long chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). Sodium salts of fatty acids are
known as hard soaps and potassium salts of fatty acid are known as soft soaps. A soap has a large non-ionic hydrocarbon
group and an ionic COO-Na + group. The structure of soap can be represented as:

where represents the hydrocarbon group and  represents negatively charged carboxyl group.
(ii) Limitation of soaps : Soap is not suitable for washing clothes with hard water because of the following reasons.

(A) Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and
magnesium ions of hard water react with soap forming insoluble calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids.

(B) When hard water is used, soap forms insoluble precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts, which stick to the cloth
being washed. Therefore, it interferes with the cleaning ability of the soap and makes the cleaning process difficult.

Note: These calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acid are insoluble in water and separate as
cruddy white precipitate.

Cleaning Action of Soaps and Detergents :

A molecule of soap is made up of two parts : a non polar part consisting of a long chain 12 - 18 carbon atoms
and a polar part, COO- Na +. The polar end in water soluble and is thus hydrophilic whereas hydrocarbon part
is insoluble in water and is thus hydrophobic. In a soap solution, the hydrocarbon portions of several soap molecules
huddle together to form aggregates of molecules (or ions) called micelles. The soap micelles are negatively charged
due to the presence of carboxylate ions at the surface. Repulsion between similarly charged micelles keeps them
dispersed in the solution.

(i) Cleansing action of soap : Mostly the dirt is held to any surface such as cloth by the oil or grease which is present
there. Now since the oil and grease are not soluble in water, the dirt particles cannot be removed by simply
washing the cloth with water. However, when soap is applied, the non polar hydrocarbon part of the soap
molecules dissolves in oil droplets while the polar - COO- NA+ groups remain attached to water molecules. In this
way, each oil droplet gets surrounded by negative charge.
 NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

Question-1
Which of the given statements about the reaction below are incorrect?

a. Lead is getting reduced

b. Carbon dioxide is getting oxidised
c. Carbon is getting oxidised
d. Lead oxide is getting reduced
(i) (a) and (b)
(ii) (a) and (c)
(iii) (a), (b) and (c)
(iv) all
Solution:
(i) (a) and (b)
Question-2

The above reaction is an example of a

(i). Combination reaction
(ii). Double displacement reaction
(iii). Decomposition reaction
(iv). Displacement reaction
Solution:
(iv) Displacement reaction

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

 NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

Question-3
What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to iron fillings? Tick the correct
answer.
a. Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced
b. Chlorine gas and iron hydroxide are produced
c. No reaction takes place
d Iron salt and water are produced
Solution:
Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced
Question-4
What is a balanced chemical equation? Why should chemical equations be balanced?
Solution:
An equation for a chemical reaction is an equation in which the number of atoms for each
element in the reaction and the total charge are the same for both the reactants and the
products. In other words, the mass and the charge are balanced on both sides of the reaction.
Question-5
Translate the following statements into chemical equations and then balance them.
a. Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia
b. Hydrogen sulphide gas burns in air to give water and sulphur dioxide
c. Barium chloride reacts with Aluminium sulphate to give Aluminium chloride and a
precipitate of barium sulphate
d. Potassium metal reacts with water to give a potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas
Solution:
a. 3H2 + N2 ---> 2NH3
b. 2H2S + 3O2 ---> 2H2O + 2SO2
c. 3BaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3 ---> 2AlCl3 + 3BaSO4
d. 2K + 2H2O ---> 2KOH + H2
Question-6
Balance the following chemical equations.

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

 NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

Question-7
Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions:

Question-8

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

 NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

Write the balanced chemical equation for the following and identify the type of reaction of
each case.

Solution:
a. 2KBr + BaI2 ---> 2KI + BaBr2 -- Double Displacement reaction

b. ZnCO3 ---> ZnO + CO2 -- Decomposition reaction

c. H2 + Cl2 ---> 2HCl -- Combination reaction

d. Mg + 2HCl --> MgCl2 + H2 -- Displacement reaction

Question-9
What is meant by exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give examples.
Solution:
An exothermic reaction is one that releases heat.
If 1 mole of N2 molecule reacts with 1 mole of O2 molecule, the heat of 184 KJ has to be
supplied to initiate the reaction to give 1 mole of NO molecule. This means that the bonds
between N – N and O – O are so strong that they do not break easily. N2 has triple covalent
bond between the two N atoms. O2 has a double covalent bond. Thus energy has to be put
into the reaction to break the strong bonds. Thus the above reaction is a good example of an
endothermic reaction.
Question-10
Why respiration is considered an exothermic reaction?
Solution:
During respiration, glucose combines with oxygen in the cells of our body to form carbon
dioxide and water along with the production of energy.
Glucose + oxygen ---> carbon dioxide + water + energy
It is an exothermic reaction, because energy is produced during this process.
Question-11
Why decomposition reactions are called the opposite of combination reactions? Write
equations for decomposition reactions.
Solution:
Essentially, decomposition reactions are the opposite of combination reactions. A compound
decomposes (i.e., "splits-up") into two or more compounds and/or elements. For example,
mercury (II) oxide will, decompose into mercury metal and oxygen, upon heating:
2HgO ---> 2Hg + O2
Since heat had to be added to make this reaction occur, it is an endothermic reaction. Most
decomposition reactions are endothermic. Another example of decomposition reaction is the
heating of calcium carbonate (sea shells, chalk):

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

 NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

Question-12
Write one equation each for decomposition reactions in which energy is supplied in the form
of heat, light or electricity?
Solution:
When calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes to give calcium oxide and carbon dioxide:

Question-13
What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reactions? Write
relevant equations for the above?
Solution:
The difference between the displacement and double displacement reactions is that in a
displacement reaction one element displaces another by virtue of it being more reactive
whereas in a double displacement two anions and two cations switch places between two
compounds respectively.
For example:
CuSO4 (aq) + Zn(s) ---> ZnSO4 + Cu(s)
Blue copper sulphate solution reacting with solid zinc will give rise to colourless zinc
sulphate solution and solid copper. Thus Zn displaces Cu in the salt form. Zn is more reactive
than Cu.
An example of double displacement reaction is the reaction between sodium carbonate and
calcium chloride, both in aqueous
Solution:
Na2CO3 (aq) + CaCl2 (aq) ---> CaCO3 (ppt) + 2NaCl(aq)
Question-14
In the refining of silver, the recovery of silver from silver nitrate solution involves
displacement by copper metal. Write down the reaction involved.
Solution:

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

 NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

Question-15
What do you mean by a precipitation reaction? Explain by giving examples:
Solution:
A precipitation reaction is a reaction in which soluble ions in separate solutions are mixed
together to form an insoluble compound that settles out of solution as a solid. This insoluble
compound is called a precipitate.

An example of a precipitation reaction

Aqueous silver nitrate (AgNO3) when added to a solution containing potassium chloride
(KCl) precipitates a white solid, and silver chloride is observed.
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl(aq) ---> AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)
The silver chloride (AgCl) has formed a solid, which is observed as a precipitate.

Question-16
A shiny brown coloured element ‘X’ on heating in air becomes black in colour. Name the
element ‘X’ and the black coloured compound formed.
Solution:
The shiny brown coloured element X is copper metal (Cu).When copper metal is heated in
air, it forms a black coloured compound copper oxide. So, the black coloured compound is
copper oxide or copper (II) oxide, CuO.

Question-17
Why do we apply paint on iron articles?
Solution:
Rust is a soft and porous substance, which gradually falls from the surface of an iron object,
and then the iron below starts rusting. Thus, rusting of iron (or corrosion of iron) is a
continuous process which, if not prevented in time, eats up the whole iron object. So, when
we apply paint on iron articles it reduces the rusting of iron.

Question-18
Oil and fat containing food items are flushed with nitrogen. Why?
Solution:
Packaging fat and oil containing foods in nitrogen gas can prevent rancidity. When the fat
and oil present in food materials gets oxidised (in air), their oxidation products have an
unpleasant smell and taste. When it is surrounded by unreactive gas, nitrogen, there is no
oxygen (of air) to cause its oxidation and make it rancid.

Question-19
Explain the following term with one example .
Corrosion
Solution:
a. Corrosion is the process in which metals are eaten up gradually by the action of air,
moisture or a chemical on their surface. Corrosion is caused mainly by the oxidation of
metals by the oxygen of air.
Example: Rusting of iron is the most common form of corrosion. When an iron object is left
in damp air for a considerable period of time, it gets covered with a red-brown flaky
substance called ‘rust’. This is called rusting of iron.

.
Question-20

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

 NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science
Why should a magnesium ribbon be cleaned before burning in air?
Solution:
To remove the oxide layer and facilitates rapid burning.

Question-21
Write the balanced equation for the following chemical reactions.
i. Hydrogen + Chloride ---> Hydrogen chloride
ii. Barium chloride + Aluminium sulphate ---> Barium sulphate + Aluminium chloride
iii. Sodium + water ---> Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen
Solution:
i. H2 + Cl2 ---> 2HCl
ii. 3BaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3 ---> 3BaSO4 + 2AlCl3
iii. 2Na + 2H2O ---> 2NaOH + H2

Question-22
Write a balanced chemical equation and state symbols for the following reactions.
a. Solutions of barium chloride and sodium sulphate in water react to give insoluble barium
sulphate and the solution of sodium chloride
b. Sodium hydroxide solution (in water) reacts with hydrochloric acid solution (in water) to
produce sodium chloride solution and water.
Solution:

Question-23
A solution of a substance ‘X’ is used for white washing.
Name the substance ‘X’ and write its formula.
(i) Write the reaction of the substance ‘X; named in (ii) above with water
Solution:

Question-24
Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution change when an iron nail is dipped into it?
Solution:
In this reaction, iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution. The deep blue colour of
copper sulphate solution fades due to the formation of light green solution of iron sulphate. A

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

 NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

red-brown coating of copper metal is formed on the surface of the iron metal. This
displacement reaction occurs because iron is more reactive than copper.
Question-25
Identify the substances that are oxidised and the substances that are reduced in the following
reactions.

In this reaction, copper oxide (CuO) gives the oxygen required for the oxidation of hydrogen;
therefore, copper oxide is the oxidizing agent. Hydrogen is responsible for removing oxygen
from copper oxide; therefore, hydrogen is the reducing agent here.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

Question 1.
When crystals of lead nitrate are heated strongly in a dry test tube
(a) crystals immediately melt
(b) a brown residue is left
(c) white fumes appear in the test tube
(d) a yellow residue is left
Answer:
(b) Pungent smelling, brown fumes are evolved due to NO2 gas and brown coloured residue
of lead oxide (PbO) is left.

Question 2.
A dilute ferrous sulphate solution was gradually added to the beaker containing acidified
permanganate solution. The light purple colour of the solution fades and finally disappears.
Which of the following is the correct explanation for the observation? [NCERT Exemplar]
(a) KMnO4 is an oxidising agent, it oxidises FeSO4
(b) FeSO4 acts as an oxidising agent and oxidises KMnO4
(c) The colour disappears due to dilution, no reaction is involved
(d) KMnO4 is an unstable compound and decomposes in the presence of FeSO4 to a
colourless compound
Answer:
(a) Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in the presence of dil. H2SO4, i.e. in acidic medium,
acts as a strong oxidising agent. In acidic medium, KMnO4 oxidises ferrous sulphate to ferric

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

 NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

sulphate.

Question 3.
Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to granulated zinc taken in a test tube. The following
observations are recorded. Point out the correct observation.
(a) The surface of metal becomes shining
(b) The reaction mixture turns milky
(c) Odour of a pungent smelling gas is recorded
(d) A colourless and odourless gas is evolved
Answer:
(d) Zinc metal reacts with dil. HCl to form zinc chloride and bubbles of colourless and
odourless hydrogen gas is evolved.

Question 4.
When a magnesium ribbon is burnt in air, the ash formed is
(a) black
(b) white
(c) yellow
(d) pink
Answer:
(b) When a Mg ribbon is burnt in air, the ash formed is of magnesium oxide which is white in
colour.
2Mg(r) + O2(g) --------> 2MgO(f)

Question 5.
Three beakers labelled as A, B and C each containing 25 mL of water were taken. A small
amount of NaOH, anhyd. CuSO4 and NaCl were added to the beakers A, B and C,
respectively. It was observed that there was an increase in the temperature of the solutions
contained in beakers A and B whereas, in case of beaker C, the temperature of the solution
falls. Which one of the following statements is/are correct?
I. In beakers A and B, exothermic process has occurred.
II. In beakers A and B, endothermic process has occurred.
III. In beaker C, exothermic process has occurred.
IV. In beaker C, endothermic process has occurred.
(a) Only I
(b) Only II
(c) I and IV
(d) II and III
Answer:
(c) As in case of beakers A and B, heat is given out, so temperature became high, hence it is
an exothermic reaction while in beaker C, heat is absorbed from water, so temperature falls,
hence it is an endothermic process.

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

 NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

Question 6.
Which of the following will be required to identify the gas evolved when dilute hydrochloric
acid reacts with zinc metal?
(a) Red litmus paper
(b) pH paper
(c) Lime water
(d) A burning splinter
Answer:
(d) On reacting with dil. HCl, zinc metal forms zinc chloride and hydrogen gas is evolved.
Presence of hydrogen gas can be checked by a burning splinter because H4 gas burnt in a
splinter with a pop sound.

Question 7.
On immersing an iron nail in CuSO4 solution for few minutes, you will observe that
(a) no reaction takes place
(b) the colour of solution fades away
(c) the surface of iron nails acquire a black coating
(d) the colour of solution changes to green
Answer:
(b) Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) ------> FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
Fe is present above in the reactivity series of metals. Hence, Fe displaces Cu from CuSO4
solution. And the colour of the solution fades away. This is an example of displacement
reaction.

Question 8.
What happens when ferrous sulphate crystals are heated? [CCE 2014]
(a) A gas having the smell of burning sulphur is evolved
(b) No gas is evolved
(c) Brown coloured gas is evolved
(d) Colourless and odourless gas is evolved
Answer:
(a) The green colour of ferrous sulphate crystals changes to brownish black ferric oxide and
smell of burning sulphur is evolved due to SO2 and SO3.

Question 9.
The colour of the precipitate formed when barium chloride solution is mixed with sodium
sulphate solution is
(a) blue
(b) black
(c) white
(d) green
Answer:
(c) This is an example of a double displacement reaction and a white precipitate of barium

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

 NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

sulphate is formed.

Question 10.
How the colour changes when the gases after thermal decomposition of ferrous sulphate
come in contact with an acidified solution of potassium dichromate?
(a) Green to orange
(b) Red to colourless
(c) Orange to green
(d) Blue to green

Answer:
(c) The colour changes from orange to green due to the formation of iron (III) sulphate

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science

 CHAPTER – 1
Chemical Reactions and Equations
q Chemical Reaction: – Whenever a chemical change occurs we can say that
a chemical reaction has taken place
eg – Food gets digested in our body

– Rusting of iron.

q Chemical Equation: – A chemical reaction can be expressed symbolically

by using chemical equation
eg magnesium is burnt into air to form magnesium oxide can be represented
as
Mg + O2 MgO

– We can observe or recognise a chemical reaction by observing change

in state, colour, by evolution of gas or by change in temperature.

q Physical state of the reactant and products are mentioned to make chemical
reaction more informative. eg we use (g) for gas, (l) for liquid, (s) for solid
and (aq) for aqueous.

q Balancing Equation: – We balance the chemical equation so that no. of

atoms of each element involved in the reaction remain same at the reactant
and product side.

eg Fe + H2O Fe2O3 + H2 can be written as

3 Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe2O3(s) +4H2(g)

q Combination Reaction: – The reaction in which two or more substances
combine to form a new single substance

3 X –Science

AK
 eg CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Calcium Water Calcium hydroxide
oxide (slaked lime)

Quick lime

– Ca(OH)2 slaked lime is used for white washing walls. It reacts will CO2 to
form CaCO3 and gives a shiny finish to the walls.
Ca(OH)2 + CO 2 CaCO3 + H2O (l)
(aq) (g) (s)

Calcium Calcium

hydroxide Carbonate

– Burning of Coal

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) + heat + light

– Formation of water

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

q Exothermic Reactions: – Reaction in which heat is released along with the

formation of products.

eg. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

– Respiration is also exothermic reaction.

– De composition of vegetable matter into compost.

q De composition Reactions: – The reaction in which a single substance

decomposes to give two or more substances. De composition reactions can
be of three types
Thermal Decomposition :– When a decomposition reaction is carried out
by heating

4 X –Science

AK
– Silver bromide behaves similarly

2Ag Br Sunlight 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)

– The above two reactions are used in black and white photography.

5 X –Science

AK
– Endothermic Reactions – The reactions which require energy in the form
of heat, light or electricty are called Endothermic Reactions.

2Ba (OH) 2 + NH4Cl 2BaCl2 + NH4OH

– Displacement Reaction: The chemical Reaction in which an element

displaces another element from its solution

Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4 + Cu(s)

Copper (aq)
Sulphate Iron Sulphate

– The nail becomes brownish in colour and the blue colour of Copper Sulphate
solution fade.

– Other examples Zn(s) + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu(s)

(aq) (aq)

Copper Zinc
Sulphate Sulphate

Pb(s) + CuCl2 PbCl2 + Cu(s)

(aq) (aq)

Copper Lead
Chloride Chloride
– Zinc and lead are more reactive elements than copper. They displace copper
from its compounds.

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– Double Displacement Reaction: The reaction in which two different atoms
or group of atoms are mutually exchanged
eg. Na2 SO4 + BaCl2 BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl
(aq) (aq) (aq)

Sodium Barium Barium Sodium

Sulphate Chloride Sulphate Chloride
A white substance is formed due to above reaction. The insoluble substance
is called precipitate.

Precipitation Reaction – Any reaction that produces a precipitate is called a

precipitation reaction.
eg. Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI PbI2 +2KNO3
(aq) (aq) (aq)

Lead Nitrate Potassium Lead Potassium

Iodide Iodide Nitrate
– Oxidation: Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen
eg. 2Cu + O2 Heat 2CuO

When Copper is heated a black colour appears. If this CuO is reacted with
hydrogen gas then again Cu becomes brown as reverse reaction takes place
CuO + H2 Heat Cu + H2O

– Reduction: Reduction is the loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen.

– Redox Reaction: The reaction in which one reactant gets oxidised while
other gets reduced

eg. ZnO + C Zn + CO
MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2

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– Corrosion: When a metal is attacked by substances around it such as
moisture, acids etc.
eg. Reddish brown coating on iron.

(ii) Black coating on Silver.

EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
(1 Mark)
Answer the following questions very briefly
1. What happens when the milk is left at room temperature during summer?
2. Write a chemical equation when magnesium is burnt in air to give magnesium
oxide.
3. A substance under goes chemical reactions to produce simpler products,
what type of reaction is this?
4. Why do copper vessels lose their shine when exposed to air?
5. Which gas is produced by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on zinc
granules?
6. Fe2O3 + 2Al Al2O3 + 2Fe
The above reaction is an example of which type of reaction.
7. Name the type of reaction in which energy is absorbed.
8. Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution change when an iron nail is
dipped into it?
9. Give an example of decomposition reaction which proceeds by absorbing
electric energy.
10. Why do we balance the chemical equation?

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Answer the following questions briefly (2 mark)
1. Write down the observations which indicate the occurrence of a
chemical reaction.
2. Why is respiration considered as an exothermic reaction? Explain.
3. Transfer the following statements into Chemical equations and then balance
them.
a) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.
b) Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
4. Identify the substances that are oxidised and the substances that are reduced
to the folllowing reactions.
1. Na + O2 Na2O
(s) (g) (s)

CuO + H2 Cu + H2 O(l)
(s) (g) (s)

5. What happens when silver chloride is exposed to sunlight? Give one practical
application of this reaction. Write the equation also.
6. Why is the bag used for potato chips flushed with nitrogen gas?
Answer the following questions in detail (3 marks)
1. Write down the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.
a) Zinc Carbonate(s) Zinc Oxide + Carbon Dioxide(g)
b) Aluminium(s) + Chlorine (g) Aluminium Chloride(s)
c) Magnesium(s)+ Water(l) Heat Magnesium Hydroxide(l)+ Hydrogen(g)

2. Choose combination, displacement and double displacement reactions out of

the given reactions.
i) MnO2 + 4HCl (l) MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
(s) (s) (g) (l)

ii) CaO + CO2 CaCO3

(s) (g) (s)

iii) 2AgCl(s) 2Ag(s) + Cl2

(g)

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3. What happens when CO2 is passed through slaked lime? Write the balanced
(g)

Chemical equation. Write the type of reaction that has occurred.

Explain the following questions detail (5 marks)

1. Balance the following chemical equation and identify the type of reaction they
represent

KClO3 KCl + O2

NH3 + O2 NO + H2O

Na2O + H2O NaOH

Na + H2O NaOH + H2

FeCl3 + NaOH Fe (OH)3 + NaCl.

2. Define various types of chemical reactions. Write one chemical equation for
each type.

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 Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

METALS AND NON-METALS

Elements are classified as metals and non-metals based on different properties.
The properties of metals and non-metals are given in the form of table below-
DIFFERENCIATION BETWEEN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS AND
NON-METALS:

Metals Non-metals
Metals are lustrous, that is, they have a property to
They are not lustrous, that is, they do not have
shine due to electronic vibrations of free electrons in
shining surface. except, diamond and iodine.
pure form.
All metals exist as solids except Mercury (Hg),
They exist in all the three forms of matter.
which is liquid at room temperature.
All metals are hard and rigid except Hg They are generally soft, except diamond.
They can be drawn into wires; this behaviour is
They are non-ductile.
known as Ductility, except Hg.
Metals can be converted into thin sheets, this is
known as Malleability due to elastic nature of metal They are non-malleable.
to bear the stress, except Mercury (Hg).
They are good conductors of electricity and heat. They are poor conductors of electricity and heat.
Except Lead and Mercury. Except Graphite, it is good conductor of electricity.
They have high density and high melting point. They have low density compared to metals and low
Exception-Sodium and potassium have low melting melting point except Diamond which has high
points. Cs and Ga even melt on one’s palm. melting point.
Metals readily loose electrons to form positive ions Non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions
(cations), except Hydrogen. (anions), except Hydrogen.
Metals can transfer heat called Thermal conductivity Non-metals can’t transfer heat called Thermal
, except Cs, Ga and Lead. insulator.
Metals are Sonorous. Non-metals are non-Sonorous.

Chemical Properties of Metals

1. Reaction with oxygen: Metals react with air or oxygen to form metal oxide.
Eg: Copper reacts with oxygen to form copper oxide.

Metal + O2 → Metal oxide

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Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
Metal oxide + Water → Metal hydroxide
Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH
K2O + H2O → 2KOH
• Mg doesn’t react with oxygen at room temperature. On heating Mg, burns in air with
intense burning and forms oxides and produces large amount of heat. Later on
reaction with water gives Magnesium hydroxide.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
MgO + H2O → Mg (OH)2
Copper being one of the low reactive metals takes a prolonged time and on strong
heating the metal reacts with oxygen and forms its respective oxide and on further
reaction with water forms copper hydroxide.
Note: Oxides of metals such as Aluminium oxide and zinc oxide, etc can react with both
acids and bases to produce salt and water. Such oxides are known as Amphoteric
Oxides.
Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2O
Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 (aq) + H2O

2. Reaction with water: Metals also reacts with water to form metal oxide. Metal oxide
in turn can react with water to form metal hydroxide.

With highly reactive metal:

Metal + Water → Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
Eg: 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2
These above metals vigorously and violently react with water, produce large amount of
heat which provokes the liberated hydrogen to catch fire.
Ca + 2H2O → Ca (OH)2 + H2
Calcium with water reacts less violently, hence doesn’t produce sufficient amount of heat
to burn the liberated hydrogen gas.
Magnesium can’t react with cold water; hence it reacts with hot water and forms
magnesium hydroxide and liberates hydrogen gas.
Mg + 2H2O (Hot water) → Mg (OH)2 + H2

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Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

With less reactive metal:

Metal + Water → Metal Oxide + Hydrogen gas
Eg: 2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2
4Fe + 6H2O → 2Fe2O3 + 6H2
Low reactive metals can neither react with cold or hot water; hence shows reactivity with
the steam (Water) and forms its respective metal oxide and liberates hydrogen gas.
Note: Metals such as lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with water at all.

3. Reaction with acids: Metals also reacts with dilute acids to form salt and
hydrogen. Magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form magnesium
chloride and hydrogen.
Metal + Acid → Metal Salt + Hydrogen
Eg: Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

Note: (i) Conc.HNO3 as it is a strong oxidising agent. So, it converts the liberated
hydrogen gas into water. Hence highly diluted (1%) of HNO3 is used.
(ii) As copper is less reactive than hydrogen hence cannot displace hydrogen in
dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acids (non-oxidizing acids).
But concentrated sulphuric acid itself is an oxidizing agent, hence it gives Redox
reaction with copper, here Cu is oxidized to Cu2+ and SO42- is reduced to SO2.

4. Reaction with salts: This is a displacement reaction; where a highly reactive element
displaces a low reactive metal from its salt solution.
Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A + Metal B
Eg: Mg + CuCl2 → MgCl2 + Cu
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
Ag + NaCl → No reaction

Chemical Properties of Non-metals:

There are total numbers of 18 non-metals in the
periodic table.
1. Reaction with Oxygen: Non-metals reacts with oxygen to form non-metal oxide
and on dilution with water they become acidic in nature.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metal oxide
Eg: C + O2 → CO2
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

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Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

• Non-metals do not react with water and acids to evolve hydrogen gas.
Reactivity Series: The series in which metals are arranged in the decreasing order of
reactivity, it is known as Reactivity Series.

Fig.1. Reactivity Series

Ionic Compounds:
• Compounds formed due to the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal are
known as Ionic Compounds.
• Actually, metals have tendency to lose electron and non-metals have tendency to gain
electrons to attain stability of inert gas configuration.
• The number of lost or gained electrons by an atom during the formation of ionic bond
are known as Electro valency or valency.
• Hence compounds containing ionic bonds are called as Ionic compounds.
• Eg: Formation of NaCl compound in the form of Electron dot structure:

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Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

Formation of NaCl compound in the form of Atomic orbit diagram:

Note: Only the outer most valence electrons participate in ionic bonding.

Properties of Ionic Compounds

• They are generally hard (due to strong electrostatic force of attraction) and solid (due
to strong electrostatic force of attraction) at room temperature.
• They have a high melting and boiling point.
• They are soluble in water but insoluble in inorganic solvents such as ether, acetone,
toluene, etc.
• They are conductors of electricity only in molten (fused) and solution(aqueous) state.
In solid state because of restriction of the movement of ions conduction is not
possible.
• Ionic compounds show fast reactions, due to the presence of oppositely charged ions.

Occurrence of Metals:
• Elements or a compound which occurs naturally in earth crust are known
as Minerals.
• Minerals from which pure metals can be extracted are known as Mineral Ores.
• The process of extraction pure metals from its ore is called as Metallurgy.
• In nature some metals are found in the earth’s crust in the Free State as they are
less reactive in nature. Eg: Au, Ag, Pt, etc.
• Some are found in the form of their combined compounds such as oxides and
carbonates as they are highly reactive. Eg: C, Na, Mg, Ca, etc.
Ores:

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Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

Types Name of ore Composition

(oxides) Haematite Fe2O3
Magnetite Fe3O4
Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O
(carbonates) Magnesite MgCO3
Limestone CaCO3
Calamine ZnCO3

Extraction of pure metals from its ores/steps for extraction of metals from its ore
• The first step is enrichment of the ore.
• Second step includes extraction of metals
• Third steps involve refining of metal

Enrichment of Ores:
• Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large amounts of
impurities such as soil, sand, etc., called gangue or matrix.
• The impurities must be removed from the ore prior to the extraction of the metal.
• The processes used for removing the gangue from the ore are based on the
differences between the physical or chemical properties of the gangue and the ore.

Steps involved in the extraction of metals from ores:

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Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

Extracting Metals which are low in activity series

Metals which are low in activity series are unreactive. The oxides of such metals can be
reduced to metals by heating alone. For Example, Cinnabar (HgS)

Extracting Metals in the middle of the Activity Series:

• These metals are moderately reactive.
• They exist as sulphides or carbonates in nature.
• Before reduction, metal sulphides and carbonates must be converted into metal
oxides.
• Sulphide ores are converted into oxides by heating strongly in presence of excess
air, this is known as Roasting.
• Carbonate ores are converted into oxides by heating in limited air. This is known
as Calcination.

Roasting (in the presence of oxygen):

Calcination (in the absence of oxygen):

Reduction-metal oxides can be reduced to metals using reducing agent such as such
as Carbon. when zinc oxide is heated with carbon, it is reduced to metallic zinc.
ZnO (s) + C (s) → Zn (s) + CO (g)
Besides using carbon (coke) to reduce metal oxides to metals, sometimes displacement
reactions can also be used. The highly reactive metals such as sodium, calcium,
aluminium, etc., are used as reducing agents because they can displace metals of lower
reactivity from their compounds. For example, when manganese dioxide is heated with
aluminium powder, the following reaction takes place –
Eg: 3MnO2 (s) + 4Al (s) → 3Mn (l) + 2Al2O3 (s) + Heat

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Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) → 2Fe (l) + Al2O3 (s) + Heat

Extracting metals towards the top of the activity series

The metals are highly reactive. They cannot be obtained by heating. For Example,
Sodium, magnesium and calcium are obtained by the electrolysis of their molten
chlorides.
At cathode Na+ + e- → Na
At anode 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-

Refining of Metals
Refining of impure metal is done using electrolytic refining. Impure copper is used as
anode and strip of pure copper is used as Cathode. Acidified copper sulphate is used as
electrolyte. When electric current is passed through this, impure metal from the anode
gets deposited in the electrolyte solution, whereas pure metal from the electrolyte is
deposited at cathode.
Deposition of insoluble residue formed from the dissolution of anode during commercial
electrolysis.

.
Corrosion:
Metals when exposed to moist and air (oxygen) for a long period of time, they turn
corroded. This is known as Corrosion.
Eg:
• Silver reacts with moist air and becomes black in colour due to silver sulphide
coating. This is because it reacts with sulphur in the air to form a coating of silver
sulphide.
2Ag + O2 → 2Ag2O

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Ag2O + H2S → Ag2S + H2O

• Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in the air and slowly loses its shiny
brown surface and gains a green coat. This green substance is basic copper
carbonate.
2Cu + CO2 + O2 + H2O → Cu (OH)2 + CuCO3
• Iron when exposed to moist air for a long time acquires a coating of a brown flaky
substance called rust.
Fe + O2 + H2O → Fe3O4 . X H2O
Prevention of Corrosion:
• Rusting of iron can be prevented by oiling, galvanizing, painting, greasing, chromium
plating etc.
• To protect steel and iron from rusting, a thin layer of zinc is coated on them. This is
known as Galvanization.
Alloy:
Mixture of two or more metals or metal and non-metal is known as Alloy. For Example,
• Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
• Bronze in an alloy of copper and tin.
• Solder is an alloy of lead and tin.
• Gun metal is an alloy of copper, tin and zinc.

NCERT SOLUTIONS:
1. Explain the meanings of malleable and ductile.
Solution: (a) Metals which can be beaten to sheets are said to be malleable.
(b) Metals which can be drawn into thin wires are said to be ductile.
2. Why is sodium kept immersed in kerosene oil?
Solution: Sodium is a reactive metal, if kept open it will react with oxygen to explore
and catch fire. Sodium metal is kept immersed in kerosene to prevent their reaction
with oxygen, moisture and carbon dioxide of air.

3. Write equations for the reactions of

(i) iron with steam
(ii) calcium and potassium with water
Solution:
(i) Iron reacts with steam to form a magnetic oxide of Fe with the liberation of H2.
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) → Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
(ii) Calcium reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide and hydrogen.

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Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

Ca(s) + 2H2O(I) → Ca (OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Potassium reacts with cold water violently immediately with evolution of
H2 which catches fire.
2K(s) + 2H2O(I) → 2KOH (aq) + 2H2(g)

4. Samples of four metals A, B, C and D were taken and added to the following solution
one by one. The results obtained have been tabulated as follows.

Metal Iron(II) Copper(II) Zinc Silver Nitrate

sulphate sulphate sulphate

A No reaction Displacement – –

B Displacement – – –

C No reaction No reaction No reaction Displacement

D No reaction No reaction No reaction No reaction

Use the Table above to answer the following questions about metals A, B, C and D.

(i) Which is the most reactive metal?

(ii) What would you observe if B is added to a solution of Copper (II) sulphate?
(iii) Arrange the metals A, B, C and D in the order of decreasing reactivity.

Solution:
(i) Metal B is the most reactive as it gives displacement reaction with iron (II) sulphate.
(ii) When metal B is added to copper (II) sulphate solution, a displacement reaction will
take place because of which the blue colour of copper (II) sulphate solution will fade and
a red-brown deposit of copper will be formed on metal B.
(iii)Metal B is the most reactive because it displaces iron from its salt solution. Metal A is
less reactive because it displaces copper from its salt solution. Metal C is still less
reactive because it can displace only silver from its salt solution and metal D is the least
reactive because it cannot displace any metal from its salt solution. Hence, the decreasing
order of reactivity of the metals is B > A > C > D.

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Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

5. Which gas is produced when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a reactive

metal? Write the chemical reaction when iron reacts with dilute H2SO4.

Solution: Hydrogen gas is liberated when dilute HCl is added to a reactive metal.
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)

6. What would you observe when zinc is added to a solution of iron (II) sulphate?
Write the chemical reaction that takes place.
Solution: Zinc is more reactive (more electro positive) than iron. Therefore, Zinc
displaces Iron from its salt solution. The colour of ferrous sulphate is pale green,
which turns colourless.
FeSO4 + Zn → ZnSO4 + Fe(s)
Light green Zinc sulphate (Colourless)

7. Why do ionic compounds have high melting points?

Solution: Ionic compounds are the ones which has both positive and negative
charges. Hence there will be strong force of attraction between them. This makes
expenditure of lot of heat to break this force of attraction hence ionic compounds
have high melting points.

8. Define the following terms.

(i) Mineral (ii) Ore (iii) Gangue
Solution:

(i)Minerals are compounds (also known as elements) which are found naturally in
the earth’s crust. E.g., Alums, K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O, etc.

(ii)Ores are minerals from which metal can be extracted Ex: Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O
is the ore of Al, copper pyrite [Link] minerals are not considered as ores but
all ores are also minerals.

(iii)Ores mined from the earth are naturally contaminated with sand, rocky
materials. There are impurities present in the ore which are known as gangue.

8. Name two metals which are found in nature in the free state.
Solution: Gold and platinum.

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Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

9. What chemical process is used for obtaining a metal from its oxide?
Solution: Reduction method is used to obtain metal from its oxide. Ex: Zinc oxide
is reduced to metallic zinc by Heating with carbon.
ZnO + C → Zn + CO
E.g.: Lead oxide is reduced to lead by heating with carbon.
PbO +C → Pb + CO

10. Metallic oxides of zinc, magnesium and copper were heated with the following
metals.
Solution: A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its oxide.
Among Zinc, Magnesium, and Copper metals, magnesium is the most reactive,
copper is the least reactive metal and zinc is less reactive. The displacement
reaction will take place in the following cases

Metal Zinc Magnesium Copper

Zinc Oxide – Displacement –

Magnesium Oxide – – –

Copper Oxide Displacement Displacement –

11. What are alloys?

Solution: An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal
and a non-metal.
12. Which of the following pairs will give displacement reactions?
(a) NaCl solution and copper metal
(b) MgCl2 solution and aluminium metal
(c) FeSO4 solution and silver metal
(d) AgNO3 solution and copper metal
Solutions: Option (d)
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3 (aq) → Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2Ag

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Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

13. You are given a hammer, a battery, a bulb, wires and a switch.
(a) How could you use them to distinguish between samples of metals and
non- metals?
(b) Assess the usefulness of these tests in distinguishing between metals and
non-metals.
Solution:

1. Metals are malleable and can be easily drown into sheets by hitting with hammer.
On the other hand, if we beat non-metals they break down and they cannot be
drawn into sheets as they are non-malleable. Metals of good conductors of
electricity hence they make bulb when you connect metals with a battery, wire and
bulb. Similarly, if non-metals are bad conductors of electricity chance, they fail to
lit up the bulb on connecting with wire and battery.
2. These experiments can be helpful to demonstrate the malleability and electric
conductivity of the metals and non-metals.

14. What are amphoteric oxides? Give two examples of amphoteric oxides.
Solution: Oxides that react with both acids and bases to form salt and water are
known as amphoteric oxides. Examples: PbO and Al2O3.
Amphoteric oxides are the one which reacts with both acids and bases to form salt
and water. Examples: Lead oxide – PbO and Aluminium oxide – Al2O3.
15. Name two metals which will displace hydrogen from dilute acids, and two metals
which will not.
Solution: Zinc (Zn) and Magnesium (Mg) are the two metals which will displace
Hydrogen from dilute acids as they are very reactive metals. Gold (Au) and Silver
(Ag) are the metals which will not replace Hydrogen from dilute acids as these
metals are less reactive.
16. In the electrolytic refining of a metal M, what would you take as the anode, the
cathode and the electrolyte?
Solution: In the process of electrolytic refining of metal called ‘M’, An impure
and thick block of metal M. is considered as anode, Thin strip or wire of pure
metal M is taken as cathode. A suitable salt solution of metal M is considered as
the electrolyte.
17. Pratyush took sulphur powder on a spatula and heated it. He collected the gas
evolved by inverting a test tube over it, as shown in figure below.

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Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

(a) What will be the action of gas on

(i) dry litmus paper? (ii) moist litmus paper?
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction taking place.
Solution:
(a) When sulphur powder is burnt in the air sulphur-di-oxide is formed.
(i) Sulphur-di-oxide does not have any effect on dry litmus paper.
(ii) Sulphur-di-oxide turn the moist litmus paper from blue to red as contact of
SO2 with water turns to sulphurous acid.
(b) S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
SO2(g) + H2O →H2SO3 (aq)
18. State two ways to prevent the rusting of iron.
Solution:

(a) Iron can be prevented from rusting by coating the surface of the iron with
rust proof paints.
(b) By applying Oil/grease on the surface of iron objects as it will prevent the
iron surface to get in contact with air consisting of moisture.
19. What type of oxides are formed when non-metals combine with oxygen?
Solution: When non-metals combine with oxygen it forms either acidic or neutral
oxides. Ex: N2O5 or N2O3 is an acidic oxide; CO is a neutral oxide.
20. Give reasons
(a) Platinum, gold and silver are used to make jewellery.
(b) Sodium, potassium and lithium are stored under oil.
(c) Aluminium is a highly reactive metal, yet it is used to make utensils for
cooking.
(d) Carbonate and sulphide ores are usually converted into oxides during the
process of extraction
Solution:
(a) Platinum, gold and silver are used to make jewellery for these metals are very less
reactive hence they are not affected by air, water or most chemicals. These metals have a
lot of lustre and they are malleable and ductile in nature and also high corrosion
resistance in nature.
(b) Sodium, potassium and lithium readily react with water to produce a lot of heat. As a
result, Hydrogen evolved in the reaction results in a fire. On exposure to water, they react

pg. 14
Grade – X Subject-Chemistry

with moisture (water droplets) present in the atmosphere, in order to prevent contact with
water hence these metals are stored under oil.
(c) Aluminium forms on its surface a nonreactive surface of aluminium oxide. Such
coating prevents other compounds from reacting to aluminium. So aluminium is being
used to produce utensils for cooking.
(d) Reducing metal oxide into free metal is easy. Additionally, because it is easier to
obtain metals directly from their oxides than from their carbonates or sulphides, the
carbonate and sulphide ores are first transformed to oxides to obtain the metals.
22. You must have seen tarnished copper vessels being cleaned with lemon or
tamarind juice. Explain why these sour substances are effective in cleaning the
vessels.

Solutions: Tarnished copper vessels being cleaned with lemon or tamarind because this
sour substance contains acids which dissolve the coating of copper oxide or basic copper
carbonate present on the surface or tarnished copper vessels. This makes them shining
red-brown again. Hence, they are very effective in cleaning tarnished copper vessels.

21. Differentiate between metal and non-metal on the basis of their chemical
properties.
Solutions: Given in the material.

22. A man went door to door posing as a goldsmith. He promised to bring back the
glitter of old and dull gold ornaments. An unsuspecting lady gave a set of gold
bangles to him which he dipped in a particular solution. The bangles sparkled
like new but their weight was reduced drastically. The lady was upset but after a
futile argument the man beat a hasty retreat. Can you play the detective to find
out the nature of the solution he had used?
Solutions: Goldsmith used the solution called Aqua regia which is called as royal
water in Latin. It is the mixture of concentrated Hydrochloric acid and concentrated
nitric acid in the ratio of 3:1. Aqua regia is capable of dissolving noble metals like
gold and platinum. When upper-layer of dull gold ornament is dissolved they lose
their weight.
23. Give reasons why copper is used to make hot water tanks and not steel (an alloy
of iron).
Solutions: Copper is used to make hot water tanks and not steel (an alloy of iron)
because copper does not react with either water or steam whereas iron reacts with
steams to corrode the tank.

pg. 15
Class X Chapter 3 – Metals and Non-metals Science

Question 1:
Give an example of a metal which
(i) is a liquid at room temperature.
(ii) can be easily cut with a knife.
(iii) is the best conductor of heat.
(iv) is a poor conductor of heat.
Answer
(i) Metal that exists in liquid state at room temperature → Mercury
(ii) Metal that can be easily cut with a knife → Sodium
(iii) Metal that is the best conductor of heat → Silver
(iv) Metals that are poor conductors of heat → Mercury and lead

Question 2:
Explain the meanings of malleable and ductile.
Answer
Malleable: Substances that can be beaten into thin sheets are called malleable. For
example, most of the metals are malleable.
Ductile: Substances that can be drawn into thin wires are called ductile. For example,
most of the metals are ductile.

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Class X Chapter 3 – Metals and Non-metals Science

Question 1:
Define the following terms.
(i) Mineral (ii) Ore (iii) Gangue
Answer
(i) Mineral: Most of the elements occur in nature as in combined state as minerals. The
chemical composition of minerals is fixed.
(ii) Ore: Minerals from which metals can be extracted profitably are known as ores.
(iii) Gangue: The impurities (sand, silt, soil, gravel, etc.) present in the ore are called
gangue.

Question 2:
Write equations for the reactions of
(i) iron with steam
(ii) calcium and potassium with water
Answer

Question 3:
Samples of four metals A, B, C and D were taken and added to the following solution one
by one. The results obtained have been tabulated as follows.

Metal Iron (II) sulphate Cooper (II) sulphate Zinc sulphate Silver nitrate

A. No reaction Displacement

B. Displacement No reaction

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Class X Chapter 3 – Metals and Non-metals Science

C. No reaction No reaction No reaction Displacement

D. No reaction No reaction No reaction No reaction

Use the Table above to answer the following questions about metals A, B, C and D.
(i) Which is the most reactive metal?
(ii) What would you observe if B is added to a solution of copper (II) sulphate?
(iii) Arrange the metals A, B, C and D in the order of decreasing reactivity.
Answer
Explanation
A + FeSO4 → No reaction, i.e., A is less reactive than iron
A + CuSO4 → Displacement, i.e., A is more reactive than copper
B + FeSO4 → Displacement, i.e., B is more reactive than iron
B + ZnSO4 → No reaction, i.e., B is less reactive than zinc
C + FeSO4 → No reaction, i.e., C is less reactive than iron
C + CuSO4 → No reaction, i.e., C is less reactive than copper
C + ZnSO4 → No reaction, i.e., C is less reactive than zinc
C + AgNO3 → Displacement, i.e., C is more reactive than silver
D + FeSO4/CuSO4/ZnSO4/AgNO3 → No reaction, i.e., D is less reactive than iron, copper,
zinc, and silver
From the above equations, we obtain:

(i) B is the most reactive metal.

(ii) If B is added to a solution of copper (II) sulphate, then it would displace copper.
B + CuSO4 → Displacement
(iii) The arrangement of the metals in the order of decreasing reactivity is:
B>A>C>D

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Class X Chapter 3 – Metals and Non-metals Science

Question 4:
Which gas is produced when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a reactive metal? Write
the chemical reaction when iron reacts with dilute H2SO4.
Answer
Hydrogen gas is evolved when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a reactive metal.
When iron reacts with dilute H2SO4, iron (II) sulphate with the evolution of hydrogen gas
is formed.

Question 5:
What would you observe when zinc is added to a solution of iron (II) sulphate? Write the
chemical reaction that takes place.
Answer
Zinc is more reactive than iron. Therefore, if zinc is added to a solution of iron (II)
sulphate, then it would displace iron from the solution.

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Class X Chapter 3 – Metals and Non-metals Science

Question 1:
(i) Write the electron-dot structures for sodium, oxygen and magnesium.
(ii) Show the formation of Na2O and MgO by the transfer of electrons.
(iii) What are the ions present in these compounds?
Answer
(i) The representation of elements with valence electrons as dots around the elements is
referred to as electron-dot structure for elements.

(ii)

(iii) The ions present in Na2O are Na+ and O2− ions and in MgO are Mg2+ and O2− ions.

Question 2:
Name two metals which are found in nature in the free state.
Answer
The metals at the bottom of the reactivity series are mostly found in free state. For
example: gold, silver, and platinum.

Question 3:
What chemical process is used for obtaining a metal from its oxide?
Answer
The chemical process used for obtaining a metal from its oxide is reduction. In this
process, metal oxides are reduced by using suitable reducing agents such as carbon or
by highly reactive metals to displace the metals from their oxides.
For example, zinc oxide is reduced to metallic zinc by heating with carbon.

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Manganese dioxide is reduced to manganese by treating it with aluminium powder. In

this case, aluminium displaces manganese from its oxide.

Oxides of more reactive metals are reduced by electrolysis.

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Class X Chapter 3 – Metals and Non-metals Science

Question 1:
Metallic oxides of zinc, magnesium and copper were heated with the following metals.

Metal Zinc Magnesium Copper

Zinc oxide - - -

Magnesium oxide - - -

Copper oxide - - -

In which cases will you find displacement reactions taking place?

Answer

Metal Zinc Magnesium Copper

Zinc oxide No reaction Displacement No reaction

Magnesium oxide No reaction No reaction No reaction

Copper oxide Displacement Displacement No reaction

Question 2:
Which metals do not corrode easily?
Answer
More reactive a metal is, more likely it is to be corroded. Therefore, less reactive metals
are less likely to get corroded. This is why gold plating provides high resistance to
corrosion.

Question 3:
What are alloys?
Answer
Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of two or more elements. The elements could be two
metals, or a metal and a non-metal. An alloy is formed by first melting the metal and
then dissolving the other elements in it. For example, steel is an alloy of iron and
carbon.

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Class X Chapter 3 – Metals and Non-metals Science

Question 1:
Which of the following pairs will give displacement reactions?
(a) NaCl solution and copper metal
(b) MgCl2 solution and aluminium metal
(c) FeSO4 solution and silver metal
(d) AgNO3 solution and copper metal.
Answer
(d) AgNO3 solution and copper metal

Question 2:
Which of the following methods is suitable for preventing an iron frying pan from
rusting?
(a) Applying grease
(b) Applying paint
(c) Applying a coating of zinc
(d) all of the above.
Answer
(c) Applying a coating of zinc
(We can also apply grease and paint to prevent iron from rusting. However, in case of
iron frying pan, grease and paint cannot be applied because when the pan will be heated
and washed again and again, the coating of grease and paint would get destroyed.)

Question 3:
An element reacts with oxygen to give a compound with a high melting point. This
compound is also soluble in water. The element is likely to be
(a) calcium
(b) carbon
(c) silicon
(d) iron
Answer
(a) The element is likely to be calcium.

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Class X Chapter 3 – Metals and Non-metals Science

Question 4:
Food cans are coated with tin and not with zinc because
(a) zinc is costlier than tin.
(b) zinc has a higher melting point than tin.
(c) zinc is more reactive than tin.
(d) zinc is less reactive than tin.
Answer
(c) Food cans are coated with tin and not with zinc because zinc is more reactive than
tin.
Question 5:
You are given a hammer, a battery, a bulb, wires and a switch.
(a) How could you use them to distinguish between samples of metals and non-metals?
(b) Assess the usefulness of these tests in distinguishing between metals and non-
metals.
Answer
(a) With the hammer, we can beat the sample and if it can be beaten into thin sheets
(that is, it is malleable), then it is a metal otherwise a non-metal. Similarly, we can use
the battery, bulb, wires, and a switch to set up a circuit with the sample. If the sample
conducts electricity, then it is a metal otherwise a non-metal.
(b) The above tests are useful in distinguishing between metals and non-metals as these
are based on the physical properties. No chemical reactions are involved in these tests.

Question 6:
What are amphoteric oxides? Give two examples of amphoteric oxides.
Answer
Those oxides that behave as both acidic and basic oxides are called amphoteric oxides.
Examples: aluminium oxide (Al2O3), zinc oxide (ZnO)

Question 7:
Name two metals which will displace hydrogen from dilute acids, and two metals which
will not.
Answer

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Class X Chapter 3 – Metals and Non-metals Science

Metals that are more reactive than hydrogen displace it from dilute acids. For example:
sodium and potassium. Metals that are less reactive than hydrogen do not displace it.
For example: copper and silver.

Question 8:
In the electrolytic refining of a metal M, what would you take as the anode, the cathode
and the electrolyte?
Answer
In the electrolytic refining of a metal M:
Anode → Impure metal M
Cathode → Thin strip of pure metal M
Electrolyte → Solution of salt of the metal M

Question 9:
Pratyush took sulphur powder on a spatula and heated it. He collected the gas evolved
by inverting a test tube over it, as shown in figure below.

(a) What will be the action of gas on

(i) dry litmus paper?
(ii) moist litmus paper?
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction taking place.
Answer
(a) (i) There will be no action on dry litmus paper.

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Class X Chapter 3 – Metals and Non-metals Science

(ii) Since the gas is sulphur dioxide (SO2), it turns moist blue litmus paper to red
because sulphur dioxide reacts with moisture to form sulphurous acid.
(b)

Question 10:
State two ways to prevent the rusting of iron.
Answer
Two ways to prevent the rusting of iron are:
(i) Oiling, greasing, or painting: By applying oil, grease, or paint, the surface
becomes water proof and the moisture and oxygen present in the air cannot come into
direct contact with iron. Hence, rusting is prevented.
(ii) Galvanisation: An iron article is coated with a layer of zinc metal, which prevents
the iron to come in contact with oxygen and moisture. Hence, rusting is prevented.

Question 11:
What type of oxides is formed when non-metals combine with oxygen?
Answer
Non-metals combine with oxygen to form acidic oxides.
For example:

Question 12:
Give reasons
(a) Platinum, gold and silver are used to make jewellery.
(b) Sodium, potassium and lithium are stored under oil.
(c) Aluminium is a highly reactive metal, yet it is used to make utensils for cooking.

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(d) Carbonate and sulphide ores are usually converted into oxides during the process of
extraction.
Answer
(a) Platinum, gold, and silver are used to make jewellery because they are very
lustrous. Also, they are very less reactive and do not corrode easily.
(b) Sodium, potassium, and lithium are very reactive metals and react very vigorously
with air as well as water. Therefore, they are kept immersed in kerosene oil in order to
prevent their contact with air and moisture.
(c) Though aluminium is a highly reactive metal, it is resistant to corrosion. This is
because aluminium reacts with oxygen present in air to form a thin layer of aluminium
oxide. This oxide layer is very stable and prevents further reaction of aluminium with
oxygen. Also, it is light in weight and a good conductor of heat. Hence, it is used to
make cooking utensils.
(d) Carbonate and sulphide ores are usually converted into oxides during the process of
extraction because metals can be easily extracted from their oxides rather than from
their carbonates and sulphides.

Question 13:
You must have seen tarnished copper vessels being cleaned with lemon or tamarind
juice. Explain why these sour substances are effective in cleaning the vessels.
Answer
Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in air to form copper carbonate and as a result,
copper vessel loses its shiny brown surface forming a green layer of copper carbonate.
The citric acid present in the lemon or tamarind neutralises the basis copper carbonate
and dissolves the layer. That is why, tarnished copper vessels are cleaned with lemon or
tamarind juice to give the surface of the copper vessel its characteristic lustre.

Question 14:
Differentiate between metal and non-metal on the basis of their chemical properties.
Answer

Metal Non-metal

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Class X Chapter 3 – Metals and Non-metals Science

Metals are electropositive. Non-metals are electronegative.

They react with oxygen to form basic oxides. They react with oxygen to form
acidic or neutral oxides.

These have ionic bonds.

These have covalent bonds.

They react with water to form oxides and hydroxides. They do not react with water.
Some metals react with cold water, some with hot
water, and some with steam.

They react with dilute acids to form a salt and evolve They do not react with dilute
hydrogen gas. However, Cu, Ag, Au, Pt, Hg do not acids. These are not capable of
react. replacing hydrogen.

They react with the salt solution of metals. Depending These react with the salt
on their reactivity, displacement reaction can occur. solution of non-metals.

They act as reducing agents (as they can easily lose These act as oxidising agents
electrons). (as they can gain electrons).

Question 15:
A man went door to door posing as a goldsmith. He promised to bring back the glitter of
old and dull gold ornaments. An unsuspecting lady gave a set of gold bangles to him
which he dipped in a particular solution. The bangles sparkled like new but their weight
was reduced drastically. The lady was upset but after a futile argument the man beat a

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hasty retreat. Can you play the detective to find out the nature of the solution he had
used?
Answer
He must have dipped the gold metal in the solution of aqua regia − a 3:1 mixture of
conc. HCl and conc. HNO3. Aqua regia is a fuming, highly corrosive liquid. It dissolves
gold in it. After dipping the gold ornaments in aqua regia, the outer layer of gold gets
dissolved and the inner shiny layer appears. That is why the weight of gold ornament
reduced.

Question 16:
Give reasons why copper is used to make hot water tanks and not steel (an alloy of
iron).
Answer
Copper does not react with cold water, hot water, or steam. However, iron reacts with
steam. If the hot water tanks are made of steel (an alloy of iron), then iron would react
vigorously with the steam formed from hot water.

That is why copper is used to make hot water tanks, and not steel.

Question 1:
Why is sodium kept immersed in kerosene oil?
Answer
Sodium and potassium are very reactive metals and and combine explosively with air as
well as water. Hence, they catch fire if kept in open. Therefore, to prevent accidental
fires and accidents, sodium is stored immersed in kerosene oil.

Question 2:
Why do ionic compounds have high melting points?
Answer

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Ionic compounds have strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the ions.
Therefore, it requires a lot of energy to overcome these forces. That is why ionic
compounds have high melting points.

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 Revision Notes on Metals and Non-metals
Elements are classified as metals and non-metals based on different properties. The properties
of metals and non-metals are given in the form of table below-

Metals Non-metals

They are not lustrous, that is, they do not have shining surface.
Metals are lustrous, that is, they have a property to shine.
except, graphite and iodine
All metals exist as solids except mercury which is liquid at room
They are generally soft, except diamond.
temperature.
They can be drawn into wires, this is known as Ductility. They are non-ductile.
Metals can be converted into sheets, this is known
They are non-malleable
as Malleability, except mercury
They are good conductors of electricity and heat. Except Lead They are poor conductors of electricity and heat. Exception-
and mercury. graphite is good conductor of electricity
They have high density and high melting point. Exception- They have low density compared to metals and low melting point
sodium and potassium have low melting points except Diamond which has high melting point
Chemical Properties of Metals
• Metals react with air or oxygen to form metal oxide.

For Example, Copper reacts with oxygen to form copper oxide.

Metal + O2 → Metal oxide
2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
• Oxides of metals can react with both acids and bases to produce salt and water. Such oxides
are known as Amphoteric Oxides.
Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + H2O

• Metals also reacts with water to form metal oxide. Metal oxide in turn can react with water to
form metal hydroxide. For Example
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + 1H2
2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2
• Metals also reacts with dilute acids to form salt and hydrogen. For example, magnesium
reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride and hydrogen.
Metal + Acid → Metal Salt + Hydrogen
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Chemical Properties of Non-metals
• Non-metals reacts with oxygen to form non-metal oxide.

Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metal oxide

C + O2 → CO2
• Non-metals do not react with water and acids to evolve hydrogen gas.

• Non-metals can react with salt solution; more reactive element will displace the less reactive
non-metal.

2 NaBr (aq) + Cl2(aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)

• Non-metals can also react with hydrogen to form hydrides.

H2(g) + S(l) → H2S(g)

Reactivity Series
The series in which metals are arranged in the decreasing order of reactivity, it is known
as Reactivity Series.

Fig.1. Reactivity Series

Ionic Compounds
Compounds formed due to the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal are known
as Ionic Compounds.
Covalent Bond
Bond formed by sharing of electrons between the two atoms. They share their valence electrons
to gain stability.

Properties of Ionic Compounds

• They are generally hard and solid.

• They have a high melting and boiling point.

• They are soluble in water but insoluble in inorganic solvents such as ether etc.

• They are conductors of electricity in molten and solution state.

Occurrence of Metals
Elements or compounds which occurs naturally in earth crust are known as Minerals. Minerals
from which pure metals can be extracted are known as Mineral Ores.

Extraction of pure metals from its ores/steps for extraction of metals from its ore
• The first step is enrichment of the ore.

• Second step includes extraction of metals

• Third steps involve refining of metal

Gangue - Ores contain different impurities in it such as sand, soil etc. These impurities are
known as Gangue.
Extracting Metals which are low in activity series
Metals which are low in activity series are unreactive. The oxides of such metals can be reduced
to metals by heating alone. For Example, Cinnabar (HgS)

Extracting Metals in the middle of the Activity Series

These metals are moderately reactive. They exists as sulphides or carbonates in nature. Before
reduction, metal sulphides and carbonates must be converted into metal oxides. Sulphide ores
are converted into oxides by heating strongly in presence of excess air, this is known
as Roasting. Carbonate ores are converted into oxides by heating in limited air. This is known
as Calcination.
Roasting

Calcination

Reduction-metal oxides can be reduced to metals using reducing agent such as such
as Carbon.
Extracting metals towards the top of the activity series
The metals are highly reactive. They cannot be obtained by heating. For Example, Sodium,
magnesium and calcium are obtained by the electrolysis of their molten chlorides.
At cathode Na+ + e- → Na
At anode 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-
Refining of Metals
Refining of impure metal is done using electrolytic refining. Impure copper is used as anode and
strip of pure copper is used as Cathode. Acidified copper sulphate is used as electrolyte. When
electric current is passed through this, impure metal from the anode gets deposited in the
electrolyte solution, whereas pure metal from the electrolyte is deposited at cathode.
Deposition of insoluble residue formed from the dissolution of anode during commercial
electrolysis.
 Fig.2. Electrolytic refining
Corrosion
Metals when exposed to moist air for a long period of time, they become corroded. This is known
as Corrosion. For Example, Silver reacts with moist air and becomes black in colour due to
silver sulphide coating.
Iron + oxygen → Iron (III) oxide
Fe + O 2 → Fe2O3
Prevention of Corrosion
• Rusting of iron can be prevented by oiling, galvanizing, painting, greasing etc.

• To protect steel and iron from rusting, a thin layer of zinc are coated on them, this is known
as Galvanization.
Alloy
Mixture of two or more metals or metal and non-metal is known as Alloy. For Example,
• Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

• Bronze in an alloy of copper and tin.

• Solder is an alloy of lead and tin.

• Amalgam is one metal is mercury.