REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the process by which organisms produce their offspring (young ones of the same kind). There are
2 types of reproduction; asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction is the type of reproduction where gametes (sex cells) are not involved in production of their
offspring. In asexual reproduction only one parent is involved. The parent organism produces new cells by mitosis.
Asexual reproduction occurs in unicellular organism and in some plants. Examples of asexual reproduction
include; binary fission, budding, spore formation and vegetative propagation.
BINARY FISSION
This is the type of asexual reproduction where one parent cell divides into two daughter cells. It usually occurs in
single celled organisms like amoeba and certain bacteria. Binary fission (splitting) in amoeba

First the parent cell grows bigger in size by increasing the amount of cytoplasm. The parent cell is the cell that
undergoes cell division. Then the DNA replicates and the nucleus undergoes mitosis, forming two daughter nuclei.
The cell membrane constricts, dividing the cytoplasm into two so that each nucleus is surrounded by its own
cytoplasm. Finally, the two daughter cells separate. Daughter cells are the resulting two cells.

BUDDING
This is the type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell develops an outgrowth called a bud. The daughter cell
continues to grow until it eventually breaks away from the parent cell and survives as an independent cell. Once it
grows and matures, it produces another organism by [Link] of an organisms in which budding occurs
are yeast and hydra.
Budding in yeast;

First an outgrowth (bud) develops. The outgrowth feeds on food from the parent and grows. The outgrowth
becomes larger and breaks off to form a new individual.

1
A group of cells on the column start dividing rapidly and form a bulge, the bulge develops tentacles, the daughter
hydra pulls itself off the parent, and the daughter becomes an independent animal.

SPORE FORMATION
This is the type of asexual reproduction where spores are formed. Spores are reproductive units; they are
produced when conditions are not favourable for sexual reproduction. This type of reproduction occurs in ferns
and fungi such as Rhizopus and Mucor. Fungi carry out sexual reproduction when environmental conditions are
unfavourable producing zygospores.

Importance of fungi and bacteria

Bacteria and fungi play an important role in decomposing dead organic matter. They cause decay of dead organic
matter, releasing nutrients into the soil. They also release carbon and nitrogen. Bacteria convert atmospheric
nitrogen into ammonia and nitrates which can be used by plants and animals. Useful fungi include mushrooms
and penicillin. Mushrooms are a good source of food rich in protein, dietary fibre and vitamin B. penicillin is an
antibiotic used to treat bacterial infection. Harmful fungi and bacteria cause diseases to plants and animals.
Harmful fungi cause disease such as athlete’s foot and ringworms and harmful bacterial cause bacillary dysentery.
Fungus such as moulds may destroy food granaries (large buildings for storing wheat or other similar crops).

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
This is the type of asexual reproduction in which multicellular structures become detached from the parent plant
and develop into new individuals that are genetically identical to the parent plant. New plants are grown from
vegetative parts (roots, stems and leaves) without involving seeds.
NATURAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
This is the type of asexual reproduction in which plants naturally propagate themselves using perennating organs.
Examples of perennating organs are; root tubers, stem tubers, corms, suckers, bulbs, runners and rhizomes.
Perennating organs possess buds and adventitious roots. When vegetative propagation occurs naturally, it usually
results from the growth of a lateral bud on a stem which is close to or under the stem. The bud produces a
complete plant with roots, stem and leaves.
Root Tuber: these are adventitious roots with food reserves. New plants develop from the auxiliary buds at the
base of the old stem. Examples of root tubers are sweet potatoes, cassava and carrots.

2
Stem Tuber: this is an underground stem that has become swollen because of stored food. Stem tubers have eye
buds (buds and leaf scales), the buds produce aerial shoots and adventitious roots grow at the base that are able
to grow into new plants. In suitable conditions, the bud uses the stored food to form shoots from which roots
develop. Irish potatoes and yam are examples of a stem tubers.

If the tubers are left underground or transplanted, the lateral buds at the base of the potato shoot produce
underground shoots (rhizomes). The rhizomes swell up with stored food and form tubers. The buds on the stems
will produce shoots using food stored in tubers.

Corms: this is a swollen vertical underground stem with apical and axillary buds which can grow into new shoots.
Vegetative propagation takes place when a lateral bud on the stem grows into an independent plant. Examples of
corms include; cocoyam, gladiolus, crocus and colocasia.

3
Adventitious roots arise randomly from the stem. Shoots are produced by terminal buds. Vegetative propagation
takes place when a lateral bud grows into an independent plant. Runners: these are horizontal stems growing
above the ground.

Runners have buds at nodes, which may develop into shoots and roots. Before the roots and shoots develop, the
buds obtain their food from the parent plant. Buds develop into young plants which make their own food. When
internodes of the runner decay, a number of new plants become independent of the parent plant. Examples are
strawberry plants, sweet potatoes and lawn grass.

Suckers: these are underground lateral branches of stems with terminal buds at the tips. suckers grow from the
base of the underground stem just beneath the soil surface and adventitious roots develop at the base of the
stem. Examples are bananas. The sucker produces aerial shoots with adventitious roots. When fully grown, this
new plant will produce suckers.

Bulbs: a bulb is an underground stem with nodes bearing fleshy scale leaves surrounded by some dry scale leaves.
The internodes of the stem are close to each other so that leaves overlap tightly over each other (forming bulbs).
Food is stored in the leaves which are modified to form bulbs. The stored food is used by the rapidly growing
terminal bud. Vegetative propagation occurs when the food is sent to the lateral buds and leaf bases. The lateral
bud grows inside the parent bulb and adventitious roots arise directly from the stem. E.g. garlic and onion.

4
Rhizome: this is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger. At the nodes of rhizomes are terminal buds
which form shoots, the lateral buds develop into branches, and the adventitious roots grow from the stem.
Shoots become independent when the connecting rhizome dies.

ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION

This is the growing of plants from vegetative propagative parts of plants. Examples include budding, grafting,
cutting and layering.
Cutting: it is a type of artificial vegetative propagation in which a part of the stem is cut from a parent plant and
then planted. The best place to cut is just below a node. The cutting is either put in a jar of water or in moist soil
until adventitious roots appear. Leaves are removed from the stem to prevent transpiration. Sugar cane and
cassava are propagated this way.

Grafting: it is a type of artificial vegetative propagation in which part of a plant (especially the stem) is attached
onto another plant of the same species or genus. The scion is the cut plant; it is the part that has the desired
stem, leaves, fruits or flowers. The stock (host) provides an already established root system. The stock and scion
are cut with shapes that fit into each other before being tied together; the cambia from the two plants should be
brought into direct contact. Grafting is used in growing of citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons.

5
Illustration of grafting;

Layering: This method is used to grow plants that do not produce seeds. It is best for plants that have a flexible
stem. First a branch close to the ground is selected, and then a ring of bark is removed from a low lying branch to
expose the cambium. It is then carefully bent so that it touches the soil (moist soil to stimulate the development
of adventitious roots). Then the part of the plant touching the soil is buried and pegs are placed to keep the
branch in the soil. The buried part is regularly watered. Roots develop and once established its cut and
transplanted elsewhere. Strawberry plants can be propagated in this way.

Budding: it is a type of artificial vegetative propagation that involves cutting a bud from one plant and joining it to
another plant of the same or related species with an established root system. The bud is called the scion while the
plant to which the bud is joined is called the root stock. The bud is cut in such a way that it has some cambium.
The cambium from the two parts has to be in contact. The two parts are tied together leaving the bud exposed.
Citrus fruits can be propagated in this way.

6
Advantages of vegetative reproduction

1. Plants can be produced even when seed production fails.

2. It ensures that varieties of useful plants are kept unchanged as new plants are produced from one parent.
3. There is more production and population increases fast.
4. It is a cheap way of producing plants on a large scale.
Disadvantages of vegetative propagation

1. Plants are not widely dispersed and as such they do not colonise new areas.
2. Plants are usually crowded and compete for light, water and nutrients. 6
3. Since all the plants are genetically the same, there is a danger of them being wiped out in case of disease
outbreak.
Advantages of asexual reproduction:
1. A mate is not required for offspring to be produced.
2. Only one parent needed.
3. Large numbers of offspring can be produced within a short period.
4. Desirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged.
5. No pollination and dispersal agents for plants required.
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:
1. Undesirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged.
2. Lack of dispersal leads to overcrowding and competition for resources (water, nutrients, light).
3. Lack of genetic variation makes it difficult to adapt to a variety of habitats.
4. If the parent has no resistance to a particular disease, none of the offspring will have resistance.