GE3755 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

Unit 3
KNOWLEDGEMANAGEMENT-THETOOLS
Telecommunications and Networks in Knowledge Management - Internet Search Engines and Knowledge
Management - Information Technology in Support of Knowledge Management - Knowledge Management and
Vocabulary Control - Information Mapping in Information Retrieval - Information Coding in the Internet
Environment - Repackaging Information.

Telecommunications and Networks in Knowledge Management

Knowledge management systems, including the history, basic principles, knowledge representation and role of
the search engine as a means for accessing the knowledge in the knowledge [Link] management
systems can reside on a variety of computer platforms.

It is possible to access a knowledge management system via a workstation/terminal and a mainframe computer,
from a personal computer/workstation connected to a network server or from a personal computer/workstation
connected to the Internet or a corporate wide intranet.
Telecommunications
The Internet and Networks in Knowledge Management

World Wide Web

Whie the Internet still offers the old tried and true services such as file transfer protocol, email, and
remote login, there is a relatively newer service that has grown dramatically in the last few years:
the WWW.

Using a web browser such as Netscape’s Navigator or MS IE, one can download and view web pages on a PC.

1
World Wide Web

– WWW stands for World Wide Web.

– A technical definition of the World Wide Web is : all the resources and users on

the Internet that are using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

– A broader definition comes from the organization that Web inventor Tim

Berners-Lee helped found, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).

– The World Wide Web is the universe of network-accessible information, an

embodiment of human knowledge.

WWW Architecture
WWW architecture is divided into several layers as shown in the following
diagram:

2
 Taxonomies
– RDF Schema (RDFS) allows more standardized description of taxonomy and
other ontological constructs.
Ontologies
– Web Ontology Language (OWL) offers more constructs over RDFS. It comes in
following three versions:
• OWL Lite for taxonomies and simple constraints.
• OWL DL for full description logic support.
• OWL for more syntactic freedom of RDF
Rules
– RIF(Rule Interchange Format) and SWRL(Semantic Web Rule
Language) offers rules beyond the constructs that are available
from RDFs and OWL. Simple Protocol and RDF Query Language (SPARQL) is
SQL like language used for querying RDF data and OWL Ontologies.

Proof

– All semantic and rules that are executed at layers below Proof and their

result will be used to prove deductions.

Cryptography

– Cryptography means such as digital signature for verification of the origin

of sources is used.

User Interface and Applications

– On the top of layer User interface and Applications layer is built for user

interaction.

File Transfer Protocol

The file transfer protocol (FTP) was one of the first services offered on the internet. Its primary function is to
allow a user to download a file from a remote site to the user’s computer.

These files could be data sets or executable computer programs.

3
While the WWW has had a major impact on the retrieval of Text and Image based documents, many people still
find it essential to create a repository of data files or program files.

Using specialized FTP software or even web browser, one can easily access an FTP site.

To access an FTP site via a Web browser and download a file, at lease three pieces of information are
necessary.
1. A user must know the address, or uniform resource locator(URL) of the FTP site.
2. The user must know the directory/subdirectory in which to look for the file
3. The user must know the name of the file that they are trying to download.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

– FTP is used to copy files from one host to another.

– FTP offers the mechanism for the same in following manner:

– FTP creates two processes such as Control Process and Data Transfer

Process at both ends i.e. at client as well as at server.

– FTP establishes two different connections: one is for data transfer and other

is for control information.

– Control connection is made between control processes while Data

Connection is made between FTP uses port 21 for the control connection

and Port 20 for the data connection.

Difference between FTP and TFTP

S.N. Parameter FTP TFTP

1 Operation Transferring Files Transferring Files

2 Authentication Yes No

3 Protocol TCP UDP

4 Ports 21 – Control, 20 – Port 3214, 69, 4012

Data

5 Control and Data Separated Separated

6 Data Transfer Reliable Unreliable

4
Electronic Mail
While most computer users consider email to be such a basic staple of conducting business, one might ask how
a knowledge manager could use email other than for basic operations. Two possible uses are email distribution
lists and email listservs. The email distribution list is simply a table of participants email addresses.

The email software then send a copy of the email to all the email addresses in that list. This could be a simple
but effective way to disseminate information to a group of users.

The email listserv , is a variation on the distribution list theme. Members subscribe to a particular listserv by
sending an email to the listserv’s administration software.

5
6
y

7
TCP/IP

To allow the interconnection of so many types of computers and networks, the internet depends on asset of
protocol standards that allow someone to connect a computer to the internet.

These two standards. TCP and IP, together provide a reliable system for interconnecting to and transferring
information over the internet.

While most would agree that a knowledge manager does not need to know the inner workings of TCP and IP,
one should understand that for any computer to talk to the internet, TCP and IP or one of their other forms is
necessary.

These other forms come with names such as SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) PPP(Point-to-Point) and
WinSock which is found on older versions of Microsoft windows.

Intranet

An Intranet is a TCP/IP network inside a company that links the company’s people and information in a way
that makes people more productive, corporate and non-corporate information more accessible, and navigation
through all the resources and applications of the company’s computing environment more seam less than ever
before.

An Intranet is a perfect vehicle for providing a corporate wide knowledge center. It is very easy to create an
Intranet such that only employees in-house will have access to the Intranet knowledge center.

Network Support Structure

Types of Networks:

Personal Area Network (PAN)

– The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a

wireless modem, a computer or two, phones, printers, tablets, etc., and

revolves around one person in one building.

– These types of networks are typically found in small offices or residences,

and are managed by one person or organization from a single device.

8
 Local Area Network
– A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single

administrative system is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN).

– Usually, LAN covers an organization’ offices, schools, colleges or

universities.

– Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as two to as

much as 16 million.

– LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users.

– The resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily

sharable among computers.

9
 y

Internet Search Engines and Knowledge Management

A search engine is a program that indexes documents, then attempts to match documents relevant to a user's
search requests.
The term search engine is most commonly used to refer to Web search engines.

A Web search engine is a special website that catalogs other web sites and has search capability ;it is an
Internet tool that lets users quickly and simply find the answers to questions or information on topics or
keywords. A search engine uses 'spiders 'or' robots', which are programs to index the Websites, reading the
content of the pages, indexing them and returning that data to the Search Engine. The process is entirely
automated.

Key words are words or phrases entered by people looking for websites via search engines. Keywords are
words or phrases that describe your topic. These are the words the search engine uses to find what it

10
 thinks are sites that match what you're looking for
The more specific a keyword, the more specific the results will be.

Spider
Also known as robots or crawlers, Spiders are the programs that are used by Search Engines for indexing the
web and gathering the HTML information that is on the webpages.
Ex:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

The following elaborates how do search engines work.

 crawlers, spiders: go out to find content
- in various ways go through the web looking for new and changed sites
- periodic, not for each query
no search engine works in real time some search engines do it for themselves, others not
buy content from companies such as Inktomi
for a number of reasons crawlers do not cover all of the web–just a fraction
what is not covered is “invisible web”
 organizing content: labeling, arranging
indexing for searching–automatic
key words and other fields
arranging by URL popularity-Page Rank as Google
classifying as directory

11
 mostly human hand picked and &classified
 as a result of different organization we have basically two kinds of search engines:
 search–input is a query that is then searched and displayed
 directory–classified content–a class is displayed
 and f used: directories have no wal so search capabilities and viceversa

Directory
AWeb directory is an organized, categorized listing of Websites.
Directories use human editors to look at websites and to decide how to categorizes its for inclusion.
[Link] is a popular Directory.
Some more
directories:[Link].c
om
[Link]
[Link]

Difference between a search engine and a directory

A search engine uses automated 'spiders'or'robots' to catalog websites. A
directory uses people to go through a website and catalog the website.
A search engine is a service that is reviewed by an automated search engine spider in order to rank your
website.
A directory is a service that is reviewed manually by individuals who look at the sites for content and
subject matter and ranks them accordingly.
DirectoriesvsSearchEngines
The terms "directory"and"search engine" are often used interchangeably.
Much of the confusion stems from the various combinations of the two models that have developed overtime.
There are advantages and drawbacks to using a Web directory as opposed to a search engine. One vehicle
may be better suited to certain types of searches than the other. Directories place an emphasis on linking to
site home pages and try to minimize deep linking. This makes directories more useful for finding sites
instead of individual pages.

Domains
Com
EDU
NATO
ORG
INT
GOV
NET
MIL

Other searching Destinations

1. Subject Directories
2. Usenet News
3. Meta-search Engines
4. Natural language searching

12
Information Technology in Support of Knowledge Management

13
14
15
16
17
18
The challenge is to develop innovative applications of information technology to support knowledge
management so as to enable getting the nugget of knowledge in a timely fashion when and where needed,
including when new knowledge becomes available.

19
Knowledge Management and Vocabulary Control

Comprised of more than half a million words, the English language offers aseemingly infinite array of possible
terms that convey similar concepts.

Controlled Vocabulary

Basically an authority list, a controlled vocabulary, is a consistent set of index terms used to represent a
document or work and assist searchers in locating it.

These index terms are usually a subset of a master list previously compiled by a professional indexer.

Frequently referred to as descriptors, these index terms are assigned to the content and concepts of. or embodied
in, documents for which each descriptor has a high degree of relevance.

Descriptors are used to index subject matter of documents of all types books, articles, media, art, films, etc. and
to retrieve items on that subject matter from a collection.

Controlled vocabulary serves as a powerful searching aid for information scientistsand end users that, in many
instances, can effectively navigate the English language.

Once the searcher establishes the correct term or terms for a concept, all similar items, whether or not they are
used within a document, should be collocated.

In contrast to natural language searching, a controlled vocabulary greatly reduces the number of search terms
that are needed to locate materials on a given subject.

An additional benefit of a controlled vocabulary is the reduced time spent retrieving those items that are most
relevant for the research query.

The significance of a thoughtfully constructed controlled vocabulary and useful thesaurus may be seen in the
growing arena of knowledge management.

There is very little in the literature about indexing the evolving and expanding vocabulary of knowledge
management.

However, several companies, most notably the consulting firms, employ full-time indexers to index their
internal (and external) documents.

Applying the general theories and rules of indexing in creating an indexing system. a controlled vocabulary and
thesaurus with terms specific to a company's knowledge management needs, has proven to be of much greater
value in the precise retrieval of relevant information than using pre-existing generic thesauri.

When assigning terms to documents for information retrieval, an indexer can only select from those descriptors
that appear in the controlled vocabulary list that is utilized by the organization for which she/he is employed.

A controlled vocabulary is an indexing language, however, that goes far beyond being a mere list of terms.

Representing a conceptual structure of a subject area that presents the user with a guide to the index, a
controlled vocabulary embodies a semantic structure that controls synonyms to increase consistency,

20
distinguishes among homographs defines ambiguous terms and brings together terms that are closely related.

Cross-references reveal the horizontal and vertical relationships among the terms.

Formats for Controlled Vocabulary

The three major formats for controlled vocabularies consist of bibliographic classification schemes, such as the
Dewey Decimal Classification, subject headings lists and thesauri.

All three devices provide authority by controlling synonyms, distinguishing between homonyms, grouping
closely related terms and presenting terms both alphabetically and systematically.

Bibliographic classifications generally employ a primary arrangement that is hierarchical, within which the
alphabetical arrangement of the index is secondary.

Subject headings, standardized terms used to describe a particular topic, are similar to the thesaurus in that they
are both alphabetically based.

However, the traditional list of subject headings, unlike the thesaurus, does not clearly distinguished between
the hierarchical and the associative term relationships.

Unlike a thesaurus, in which the descriptors are frequently dependent on other terms, subject headings normally
can stand by themselves.

Thesaurus

Descriptors in a thesaurus are frequently combined with other terms to create a taxonomy in order to express
more specific concepts.

Additionally, the thesaurus normally employs a primary arrangement that is alphabetical, within which a
secondary hierarchical structure is incorporated by the use of cross-references.

Thesaurus generally utilizes a number of pre-coordinated phrases descriptors that are combined prior to
searching and that are not under the control of the user in order to reduce the number of false drops.
Additionally, some thesauri allow for the permutation of individual words in a concept phrase.

Initially, thesauri were simple alphabetical term lists showing exact relationships among the words to be used in
post-coordinated indexing systems terms that are combined at the time of searching by the user and
classification systems were to be used with pre-coordinated indexing systems.

Stemming from continued attempts by librarians at vocabulary control, the contemporary thesaurus has evolved
into a much more complex tool and is used in pre-coordinated systems, while classification schemes are used in
post-coordinate systems.

A thesaurus can be used at either the indexing or searching stages. Professional indexers use a thesaurus to
select the exact term or terms they need to represent document concepts. Users consult the thesaurus to locate
the correct descriptor to gain entry to the index.

An indispensable tool for indexers and searchers, the taxonomy of a thesaurus is an elaborate hierarchical
structure of authorized terms and phrases, including term variants and synonyms, within which the specific
relationship between the terms is displayed.

21
It is almost always developed to serve the needs of a particular audience, subject, and/or database. As such, the
thesaurus functions as a powerful information storage and retrieval system for that specific topic and its
particular audience.

The thesaurus also controls the vocabulary by providing specificity of the language and by distinguishing
between terms that are valid and those that are invalid to use, resulting in a reduction in vocabulary size.

Some fields seem to benefit from thesauri more than others do. For example, far more thesauri are available in
the areas of science and technology than in the humanities.

Similarly, some forms of documents lend themselves better to a thesaurus than others. For example,
monographs usually do not require a separate thesaurus as the index in the back of bock, along with the cross-
references, serve as the "thesaurus" for that entity.

An already existing thesaurus may be useful, though, in determining terminology for an index.

A thesaurus can be valuable. However, for large ongoing indexes, or when several indexers are involved, as a
way to maintain consistency.

Thesaurus Construction

Constructing a thesaurus is a complex and challenging undertaking that requires numerous decisions.

Building a thesaurus can be approached in two ways. The top-down method centers on gathering a group of
subject experts who determine the scope and broad categories and term relationships to be included in the
thesaurus.

This method is not document based, it relies on the knowledge of the subject specialists to supply all the terms
they believe are necessary to retrieve items about the subject for which the thesaurus is being constructed.

Already existing thesauri and dictionaries aid in this process. After a preliminary set of terms is reviewed and
organized, selecting preferred terms narrows the vocabulary.

Use references are constructed from the variants and synonyms and the hierarchical and associative relations
among the preferred terms are constructed. A draft thesaurus is then tested and revised.

In the second approach, the bottom-up method, a group of subject experts is convened to serve as advisors,
indexers work with the team of experts to deter- mine the scope of the thesaurus.

Unlike the top-down method, this method is document based. If an existing set of representative documents has
already been indexed, the index terms from this set act as the preliminary term list. If this is not the case,
indexers assign natural language terms to the document set and use the index terms from this set as the
preliminary list of terms. Reviewing and organizing the terms further develops the thesaurus.

Existing dictionaries and thesauri are used as aids in the same manner as in the top- down method. The group of
subject experts is consulted on those terms with unclear meanings or usage, as well as for variant or synonym
preference. A draft thesaurus is then tested and revised.

Regardless of which approach is used, constructing and maintaining a thesaurus involves a major investment of
intellectual effort, time and money.

22
An effective thesaurus is not a static tool, but rather an ongoing process for however long it is being used for
indexing and/or its database is being updated.

Constructing a high-quality thesaurus is a costly project, involving salaries for professional indexers and clerical
staff, as well as materials, equipment and space. And the maintenance of a thesaurus is a continuing expense.

To remain an effective, essential tool for information retrieval, it is imperative that a thesaurus is maintained
and allows for the addition of current terminology.

Updating involves more than including new terms; it also necessitates replacement of some terms and changes
in the structural hierarchy of older terms.

Several thesaurus management software programs aimed toward the needs of professional indexers are
available to automate the clerical tasks of maintenance.

Traditionally, thesauri have been available in print and in the past few decades, in some commercial online
databases.

More recently, however, a wide range of thesauri with varying search and browse features is available on the
Internet and World Wide Web.

Conventional thesauri, such as Medical Subject Headings (MESH) and Educational Resources Information
Center (ERIC), as well as such innovative and wonderfully inventive thesauri as the Plum Design Visual
Thesaurus, which displays three- dimensional clusters of synonyms in varying degrees of brightness when the
user enters a word or words, reside on the Internet.

A Model for a Knowledge Management THESAURUS

Constructing a mini-thesaurus provided me with a window into the challenges, complexities, intellectual efforts
and time investment involved in thesaurus construction.

Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors, 13th edition served as the structural model on which the mini-thesaurus,
Thesaurus of Knowledge Management Descriptors, Ist edition was based.

The development process itself entailed numerous intellectual decisions, revisions and refinements, attention to
detail, a great deal of patience, and considerable time.

In order to keep the effort manageable, not all entries fror: the initial list of candidate terms appear as entries in
the mini-thesaurus reproduced for this chapter.

An asterisk indicates terms selected from the candidate list that appear as full entries in the mini-thesaurus.

Reflections on the preparation of the mini-thesaurus for knowledge management resulted in a general method
that should be applicable to most, if not all, thesauri constructions for emerging areas of knowledge
management.

Step 1: Compile a Candidate list

I choose to designate the specialized topic of knowledge management around which the mini-thesaurus is built
and envisioned the needs of an audience whose organization practices knowledge management principles and
concepts.

23
The approach began with the compilation of an initial list of eighty candidate terms taken from natural language
words.

In selecting candidate terms, a broad base of literature on the topic was consulted.

Because this area is continuously evolving, several decisions regarding synonymsand preferred terms had to be
made.

Step 2: Determine the Hierarchical Relationship Between Terms

After the initial candidate list was formulated, the design of the Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors, 13th edition
was studied to gain an understanding of the terminology used and the taxonomic relationships among the terms.

Subsequent steps involved selecting the preferred descriptor for all synonyms, assigning "use" and "use for" to
invalid terms, identifying the broad terms, determining the narrower terms and related terms and arranging the
hierarchical structure.

This was a reiterative process that continued until an internal consistency emerged.

Scope notes were used extensively in the mini-thesaurus to define the context inwhich the terms are used.

The determination of the hierarchy and the relationship among terms underwentnumerous revisions and
refinements.

Step 3: Formatting and Typing

The formatting and typing of the mini-thesaurus was time consuming. It is in this aspect of building a thesaurus
that thesaurus management software is of most benefit and draws on automation to support the process rather
than lead it.

A segment of the Thesaurus of Knowledge Management Descriptors, 1st edition, follows. It contains an
alphabetical, word-by-word listing of terms used for indexing and searching in the knowledge management
system.

Modelled after the Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors, 13th edition-which extensively covers the areas of
education, information science and library science-this partial thesaurus consists of a listing of terms primarily
constructed from the initial candidate list of eighty terms that centered on knowledge management.

Knowledge management is defined in this thesaurus as the systematic creation, capture, exchange, use,
distribution, and leverage of an organization's intellectual capital. This relatively new arena of thought
necessitated the use of several new descriptors, as well as the frequent assignment of narrower terms to more
than one broader term.

As the partial thesaurus began to evolve, incorporated terms expanded well beyond the initial candidate list.

Due to increasing implementation of knowledge management initiatives with-in organizations, scope notes (SN)
brief statements of the intended usage of descriptors are used for every term to define usage with the context of
knowledge management.

24
In some instances, the scope notes for particular terms were derived directly from ERIC, while others were
modified to best reflect the nuances of the context within which they are used.

With respect to the scope notes for specific knowledge management terminology in the mini-thesaurus,
definitions were derived from (concepts and descriptions in) current literature.

The used for (UF) reference is frequently employed to solve problems of synonymy occurring in natural
language. UF references required several decisions regarding descriptor terms as the emergence of knowledge
management terminology is rapidly evolving.

Within this framework, the USE reference, the mandatory reciprocal of the UF, refers the user from a non-
usable, less current or prevalent term to the preferred indexable, current or prevalent term or terms.

The broader term (BT) and narrower term (NT) notations are used to indicate the existence of a hierarchical
relationship between a class cad its subclasses. Narrower terms are included in the broader class represented by
the main entry. The BT is the mandatory reciprocal of the NT. Broader terms include, as a sub-class, the
concept represented by the NT. A term may have more than one BT.

The related term (RT) has a close conceptual relationship to the main term, but not the direct class/subclass
relationship described by BTs/NTS.

Part-whole relationships, near-synonyms, and other conceptually related terms, which might be helpful to the
user, appear as RTs.

Because this is a first edition, as well as only a partial thesaurus, the entries do not contain add dates, former
descriptor dates, posting notes, etc.

As a thesaurus develops from edition to edition, these notations should be included. as well.

While the hierarchical thesaurus arrangement requires an entry for each BT, NT,and RT, some of these were
deleted to limit the length here.

Selected descriptors from the original candidate list appear as full entries and are denoted with an asterisk
following the term.

Every OF term, however, appears as an entry. These relationships and structures are illustrated in the following
excerpts from the Thesaurus of Knowledge Management Descriptors.

Behavior

SN The aggregate of observable responses of a human being to internal and external stimuli
UF Conduct Department
NT Behavior Change*
Collaboration
Competition
Group Behavior
Leadership
Resistance to Change
Group Dynamics*
RT Attitudes
Coaches

25
Development
Knowledge Politics
Networks
Information Politics
Informal Networks
Spontaneous Behavior
Teamwork

Behavior Change
SN Complete or partial alteration in the observable activities or responses of a human being
NT Behavior Modification
BT Behavior*
Change*
RT Attitude Change
Behavior*
Change Strategies*
Compensation
Incentives
Performance Evaluation
Professional Development
Resistance to Change
Brainpower
USE INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL

Brainstorming
SN Activity or technique to encourage the creative generation of ideas, usually a group process, in which group
members contribute suggestions in a spontaneous, non- critical manner
BT Creative Activities
RT Divergent Thirking
Group Discussion
Group Dynamics*
Innovation
Spontaneous Behavior

Change
SN The process of altering, modifying, transforming, substituting, or making or becoming different (Note: Do
not confuse with "development," which refers to sequential, progressive changes. Use a more specific term if
possible.)

UF Transformation
NT Attitude Change
Behavior Change*
Change Agents
Change Strategies*
Organizational Change
RT Change Management Development
Professional Development
Innovation
Resistance to Change

Change Strategies

26
SN Methods used by those who would alter the practice of an organization, institution or other group to
incorporate knowledge, products, procedures, or values toward improved service or results
BT Change* Methods
RT Attitude Change
Behavior Change*
Change*
Change Agents
Change Management
Knowledge Management*
Compensation
Incentives
Organizational Change
Resistance to Change
Strategic Planning

Chief Knowledge Officers

SN Senior management who advocates for, designs, implements, and oversees an organization's knowledge
infrastructure, knowledge culture, knowledge processes and strategic approaches

BT Roles
RT Anecdote Management
Chief Information Officers
Chief Learning Officers
Information Politics
Knowledge Culture
Knowledge Management
Knowledge Managers
Knowledge Politics
Knowledge Workers
Leadership
Organizational Culture*
Professional Development
Strategic Planning

Coaches
SN Experienced and trusted knowledge workers who have direct and personal interest in the professional
development and/or education of less experienced individuals within an organization
UF Mentors
BT Role Models
RT Behavior Change
Change Agents
Incentives
Development
Knowledge Transfer
Professional Development

Conduct
USE BEHAVIOR
Department
USE BEHAVIOR

27
Economy
SN The management of the resources, revenue, expenditures, and investments of a household, organization,
private business, community, or government.
NT Knowledge-Based Economy
New Economy
RT Intangible Assets
Intellectual Capital*
Knowledge Workers
Return on Assets
Return on Investment
Tangible Assets

Group Dynamics

SN Formation and functioning of human groups-includes both the interaction both within and among groups -
UF Group Interaction
Group Processes
BT Behavior Interaction
RT Brainstorming*
Collaboration
Group Behavior
Groups
Interpersonal Communication
Organizational Communication
Spontaneous Behavior
Teamwork

Group Interaction
USE GROUP DYNAMICS
Group Processes
USE GROUP DYNAMICS
Human Capital

USE INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL

Insight
USE KNOWLEDGE
Information Professionals
USE INFORMATION SCIENTISTS
Intellectual Assets
USE INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL

Intellectual Capital

SN Intellectual material that has been formalized in some useful order, captured in a way that allows it to be
described, shared, distributed and leveraged to produce a higher valued asset; packaged, useful knowledge

UF Brainpower Human Capital Intellectual Assets Knowledge Assets

BT Assets Knowledge*
RT Corporate Knowledge Innovation
Intangible Assets

28
Knowledge-Based Economy
Knowledge Culture
Knowledge Management*
Knowledge Management Systems
Knowledge Management Technology*
Knowledge Workers

Knowledge

SN The fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information and expert insight that provides a
framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information often embedded not only in
documents or repositories but also in organizational routines, processes, practices and norms
UF Insight
Wisdom

NT
Corporate Knowledge
External Knowledge
Individual Knowledge
Intellectual Capital
Internal Knowledge
Knowledge Culture
Knowledge Repositories
Knowledge Transfer*
Knowledge Workers
Organizational Knowledge
Soft Knowledge
RT
Data Information
Knowledge-Based Economy
Knowledge Management*
Knowledge Management Technology

Knowledge Assets
USE INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL
Knowledge Exchange
USE KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER

Knowledge Management

SN The systematic creation, capture, exchange, use, dissemination and leverage of an organization's intellectual
capital
BT Administration
RT
Anecdote Management
Chief Knowledge Officers
Competitive Intelligence
Information Scientists
Intellectual Capital*
Knowledge Access
Knowledge Codification

29
Knowledge Culture
Knowledge Generation
Knowledge Management Systems
Knowledge Management Technology
Knowledge Mapping
Knowledge Repositories
Knowledge Roles*
Knowledge Transfer
Knowledge Workers

Knowledge Management Technology

SN The application of modern communication and computing technologies to the creation, exchange,
dissemination, management and use of knowledge
BT Technology
RT
Communications
Computer Software
Computers
Corporate Intranets
Downloading
Electronic Text
Group Ware
Knowledge Access
Knowledge Codification
Knowledge Dissemination
Knowledge Generation
Knowledge Management*
Knowledge Repositories
Knowledge Management Software
Knowledge Management Systems
Knowledge Transfer
Telecommunications
Vendors
Web-Based Intranets

Knowledge Politics
SN The engagement in practices by an individual or individuals who advocate for, or, more often, impede
knowledge access, capture, generation, exchange, distribution, and/or leverage, across an organization
NT Knowledge Freedom
BT Politics
RT
Knowledge Access
Behavior*
Behavior Change*
Change*
Chief Knowledge Officers*
Competition
Corporate Culture Incentives
Individual Power
Information Policy

30
Information Politics
Intellectual Capital*
Knowledge Culture
Knowledge Mapping
Organizational Culture*
Organizational Knowledge
Individual Power
Power Structure
Professional Development
Resistance to Change
Work Environment

Knowledge Roles

SN Professional positions within an organization designed to generate, capture, exchange, distribute, use and
leverage knowledge
NT Chief Knowledge Officers Knowledge Managers
BT Roles
RT Abstractors
Chief Information Officers
Chief Learning Officers
Coaches
Corporate Librarians
Indexers
Information Scientists
Knowledge Culture
Knowledge Gatekeepers
Knowledge Workers
Professional Development

Knowledge Transfer
SN The process of both formalized and spontaneous unstructured knowledge exchange
UF Knowledge Exchange
Knowledge sharing
BT Knowledge
Rt Coaches
Chat Rooms
Communications
Compensation
Incentives
Informal Conversations
Informal Networks
Interpersonal Communications
Knowledge Culture
Knowledge Dissemination
Knowledge Repositories
Networks
Mentors
USE Coaches

Organizational Climate\

31
Organizational Culture

Organizational Culture

SN Properties, Procedures, conditions etc. of an organization that influence or interact with its members

UF Organizational Climate
NT Corporate culture
Knowledge culture
BT Environment
RT Collaboration
Behavior
Behaviour change
Group Behavior
Compensation
Competition
Creative activities
Incentives
Information polices
Power Structure
Work Environment

Transformation
USE Change
Wisdom
Use Intellectual capital

INFORMATION MAPPING IN INFORMATION RETRIEVAL

The capability and capacity in handling the topology of a special subject informationfield have made
infomapping techniques and systems instrumental in informationsearching, monitoring and navigation.

The revelation of the communication networks can show intellectual interrelationshipsamong senior and junior
researchers in the field.

It can also show the continuing popularity of a particular researcher's citation recordwithin a period. This
reports the use of Java in making a cartoon series ofchronological maps based on citation analysis on a special
subject field.

The map-making methods, Java programming, and statistical analysis on mapwill be presented. Also, the
advantage and significance of constructing Java mapsin enhancing information retrieval will be discussed.

Information retrieval is considered to be the center of information business.

It mainly includes searching printed reference sources, online, CD-ROM,hypermedia, and Internet databases.

To maintain high-quality control in information production and services in the highlycompetitive information
business world, the speed of retrieval, the accuracy ofretrieved information, and the cost in searching a very
large scale of informationfield must be strategically planned and tactically coordinated. These concerns arethe
focus of "information economics" and "knowledge discovery:'

32
Information economics can be defined as the study of scarce information resourcesthat enables managers and
policy makers "to quantify the benefits and costs foreach stakeholder (people or groups with an interest in the
decision) and makeeconomically efficient decisions" (Kingma, 19%).

It is "a collection of research methods and topics dealing with how individualsproduce, transmit, and use
knowledge and ideas" (Noll, 1993).

Both research areas study the efficiency and the effectiveness of the informationretrieval process.

The researchers in studying information economics may include people fromcomputer science, business
administration, communication science, and library andinformation science.

Information science research that focuses on the application of informatics indeveloping techniques and systems
for promoting efficiency and effectiveness ofinformation retrieval operation is called infomapping.

As an important component in visual programming and graphical representation ofknowledge, infomapping has
become a significant searching, monitoring, andnavigation instrument for its capability and capacity in handling
the topology of aspecial subject information field (Murray and McDaid, 1993).

Vigil suggested to use graphics to represent "the dynamics of the algebra of setsinvolved in information
retrieval" and to provide spatial interpretation and searchdialog (Vigil, 1986).

Infomapping involves scholarly communications and mainly applies citation analysison data collected from the
Science Citation [Link] arranging constructed citation maps in chronological order (time series), itwas
found that an animated map series can be automatically formed.

By applying the virtual reality technology, any map in the series can be transformedinto 3-D citation data
blocks.

With the arrival of the Java language and the virtual reality modelling language(VRML), the infomapping
techniques can be further developed to help advancedsubject researchers in reviewing the historical
development of a subject field.

As applied in making dynamic Web pages for institutions, companies, and the public,Java can enhance the
outlook of graphics and provide animated cartoon series onWeb pages.

More companies' commercial logos are adopting animation to provide a dynamicand attractive presentation
format.

This technique should be and can be applied in the academic activities, particularlyin the searching, monitoring
and navigation of a special subject information field.

The time for Web-based subject infomapping has arrived.

Making JAVA-Animated citation MAPS

A set of ninety-nine significant contributors in the field of nutrition and dietetics waschosen for infomapping.
This set was used as the guidebook for collecting citationdata from the Science Citation Index, 1961-1993.
Thirty bitmap-based annualcitation maps were constructed (Figure 3.1 to 3.10)

33
The mapping operation applies animation techniques for compiling and displaying chronological electronic
citation maps into a continuous series. The electronic format of citation maps was originally two-dimensional.

Figure 3.1: Animated Citation Map of 1961

Aided by Sun's new technology, the Java programming language, the static 2-D electronic slide shows (map
series) can be converted into a dynamic continued cartoon series.

Figure 3.2: Animated Citation Map of 1961

Applets can be inserted for translating the animated map series into Web pages that allow researchers to view
through the network browsers such as Netscape, Virtus Voyager and Microsoft Internet Explorer (Figure 3.11).

34
Figure 3.3: Animated Citation Map of 1975

The animation can be used to show the changing organization (appearance and disappearance) and growth
(cumulative recurrence), and migration and oscillation of points, lines, strings, and clumps (Dorling and
Openshaw, 1992; Dorling, 1992).

35
Figure 3.4: Animated Citiation Map of 1977

More importantly, the animation series allows a researcher to immediately visualize the cumulative strengths
and easily identify groups of frequently/highly cited leading (senior) contributors with their collaborators and
(junior) followers.

Figure 3.5: Animated Citation Map of 1979

36
The dynamic displaying of these visual data series has become a highly significant instrument for statistical
analysis.

Figure 3.6: Animated Citation Map of 1981

The operation requires a control of the speed of representation in animation and the threshold value-the
filtration of the frequency of citation.

37
Figure 3.7: Animated Citation Map of 1990

The frequency of citation can be decided by counting the number of times that a document is cited within a
specified period.

Figure 3.8: Animated Citation Map of 1991

38
For example, if a document was cited five times in a particular year such as 1993 its frequency of citation in
1993 would be five.

Figure 3.9: Animated Citation Map of 1992

The filtering device is a number-checker used as a threshold to select qualified items (e.g., contributors or
documents). A user or a research agent arbitrarily determines the threshold value.

Figure 3.10: Animated Citiation Map of 1993

For instance, a user or a research agent can set a threshold value to fifteen, which means that the research
requests for retrieving those items were cited at least fifteen times within the desired time frame such as 1993.

The filtration of citation frequency can be conducted from the lowest to the highest number usually ranging
from zero to ten for recent publications or from fifteen to ninety for older ones.

A user or a research agent can freely choose a desirable threshold value, view its display, and determine which
accessing point(s) to take-as well as determine what other telepaths one could take

Although the determination of a threshold value seems arbitrary, an objective choiceof a number may be
derived from scanning and compromising the values of citation frequencies that appeared in the neighbourhood.

By raising/lowering the threshold value, a set of qualified items can be captured to suit a user or a research

39
agent's need.

The speed control of animation presentation and the frequency filtering of qualified items yield a smooth
display with a proper (human-readable) density of maps on the computer screen. In other words, the duration of
time (allowing each slide image in an animation series to stay ir. the vision/mind of a viewer) and the amount of
information (shown on the computer screen) greatly affect the viewer's attention and appreciation. They, in
return, strengthen the viewer's cognitive ability and help the viewer stay focused on the subject.

The filtering device equips a set of threshold values for dissecting each annual map into several topological
layers.

The images of map layers can be captured starting from the lowest citation frequency, which will include and
display all citers (citing contributors/documents) and citees (cited contributors/documents).

The overpopulated items that appeared on the monitor screen might cause viewers some difficulty in visualizing
overcrowded citation data, as well as some difficulties in relocating cross lines on maps.

To avoid jamming and to improve visualization, the threshold value T might be gradually increased.

As the results showed in various threshold levels ([Link] T> 15, 55, or 90), the mapswith a higher threshold value
excluded non-qualified citers and citees and displayedless complicated citation relationships that were much
clearer and easier to read(Figure 3.3).

When the threshold value reached its optimal number (i.e., ninety times of citations),a most concise map with
highly qualified (ninety or more citations) items (usuallyless than twenty-five in this case) was generated.

The flexible selectivity of concise layers of the maps enables flows of citation datato be easily visualized in a
dynamic cartoon series and in chronological order.

Figure 3.1 to 3.10 shows a long-term (more than three decades) animation mapseries (1961-1993). A slice of its
short-term, Java-supported animated map seriesfocusing on the 1990-1993 citation relations can be viewed
through the Netscapeor other network browsers (Figure 3.13).

From this animation map series, a cumulative leadership in this subject field from1961-1993 was easily
recognized.

Using citation counting, the academic leadership and contribution of a subjectinformation field can be weighed.

The higher the frequency of occurrence of an element (a contributor or a document)on the map series, the
greater its academic leadership and contribution scored.

The viewing of this long series (1961-1993) of animated citation maps enables aresearcher to visualize the
historical development of the academic leadership andcontribution of this special field.

This chronological map series can help an experienced subject researcher inefficiently identifying the academic
leadership and contribution relations within thefield in a particular time frame.

Apparently the 2-D animation map series is a less cumbersome approach than its3-D counterpart.

Although the 2-D animation mapping approach may not provide the spatial impactthat the one in a 3-D virtual
environment does, it is obviously more process-efficient,cost-effective and informationally economical.

40
Statistical Analysis of the Java-Animated Citation Map Series

As aforementioned, the Java-aided animation series of citation maps shows the continuum of citees
contributions to the subject field.

Besides visualizing the animated maps, a researcher can use the statistical data derived from reading the maps.

Figure 3.11 can help researchers quickly identify significant contributors with continuously and heavily cited
authors such as B4, B9, B 11, DI, F2, G6, G7, H5, H7,11, K2, K3, M3, P2, P5, S2, S4, S6, S8,12, W2.

The checking of the authority file immediately reveals the list of the names of the above significant contributors
with information on their research interests, and linkages to their collaborators' information file.

Figure 3.11 Continuum of Frequently and Heavily Cited Authors (1980-1993)

41
Figure 3.13: 2D Animated Map has been generated for 1990-1993

INFORMATION CODING IN THE INTERNET ENVIRONMENT

Most of us are interested in data for some function it has for us, whether as information, as images, as programs.
But before information can be stored, manipulated or used it must be encoded.

Most familiar is the ASCII code for representing textual information, consisting of alphanumeric data and
control information. But modem times increase the demands made on information systems and codes for
information must adapt to these.

In particular, codes must be defined for a broader range of information types, such as images and audio. These
codes must represent these data in a useful way, but the modem computer environment also puts enormous
pressure on system designers to develop formats that meet a wide variety of requirements.

In spite of tremendous technological progress, storage resources remain limited, so storage efficiency is a
consideration.

Increasingly, computers are able, and required, to communicate with one anotherover noisy and insecure
channels, introducing the issues of privacy and data integrity. Although how information is represented plays a
key role in our ability to control it, much of the details of how information is stored are ignored by information
systems managers.

When implemented well, they act at lower levels of the protocol hierarchy and are invisible to the user.

But an understanding of their function and importance is essential for a complete command of the data
management process.

Much of coding technology consists of specialized mechanisms designed to solve particular problems (consider,
by way of illustration of the diversity of existing codes, the bar codes on retail merchandise, the ISBN in
publishing, or the Gray codes used to sense the position of rotors in machines).

42
But several problems recur, and three bodies of codes that deal with these now exist and are based on highly
developed theory and experience. The purpose of a code is to represent information in a way that solves a
problem.

The problems that the three bodies of code that I have in mind to respond to are:
Efficient use of resources (data compression);
Privacy and data-integrity (encryption); and
Reliability of stored and transmitted data (error correction).

Each of these problem areas has an extensive body of literature associated with it,and is based on highly
developed and often mathematically rigorous theory.

It is rare, and satisfying, to find a body of technique that is at the same time both so elegant and useful.
Interestingly, the theoretical foundations for each were laid in a pair of extraordinary articles by Shannon.

On reading them, one is struck by how much of what is of concern today was already broached in these articles,
now half a century old!

Data Compression

Data Compression subsumes the body of techniques by which a stream of bits (or bytes, for textual data) is
transformed into a stream of bits reduced in size .It might appear curious that such techniques should be getting
attention at a time when computer memory and storage devices are increasing so dramatically in capacity.

But, as much else in life, our appetite for data grows at a far greater rate than our bility to satisfy it.

For example, earlier in the history of information systems, the databases associated with information retrieval
systems were made up of records allowing access to printed information. Today we demand online access to the
full text itself.
Another voracious consumer of storage resources is image-based data. Consider for example, the resources that
would be required to store a simple image if no space conserving mechanism were adopted.

We may think of an image as consisting of a rectangular block of picture elements, or pixels, each of which
must be represented in the file storing the image.

For example, this composed on an antiquated Sun workstation, whose monitor has a usable resolution of 900
lines, with 1,152 pixels per line.

To represent a black and white image (for example an engineering drawing, or the scanned image of a book
page), each pixel need store only the values zero or one.

Thus, we need allocate only one bit per pixel, but 1,035,800 bits all told. If the image is expressed in shades of
gray, then a full representation might need eight bits to represent the gray scale value of each pixel, or
8,294,400 bits for the image.

Finally, if color is introduced, each pixel might be represented by a vector of three bytes each, to indicate the
values of the three primary colors for each element. This now requires 24,883,200 bits, or about three
megabytes of storage for a single color image in standard resolution.

It is easy to see how multimedia databases, including images, can greatly expand our requirements for storage.

43
Medical databases, including multiple X-rays per patient geophysical or weather-oriented satellite databases and
motion pictures each involve large numbers of images,each of which, naively stored, is expensive.

Similar considerations apply to audio information. For example, the standard music CD could hold as much as
eighty minutes of music: the music is represented by40,000 samples of audio level per second, each in turn
requiring sixteen bits of storage. The CD requires about three gigabits of data for the program information alone
(with additional data needed for error-correction and formatting information).

However, in a large database, we must store not only the target data, but also the data structures that allow us to
access the data. This can be considered: for a full text database, the concordance to the database can equal the
database in size.

Compression is valuable not only for data storage, but also for data transmission. Whether our concern is the
flow of data over the Internet, the broadcasting of high-definition TV programming, or the transmission of
satellite information to earth ,the magnitude of information being moved is stressing the capacity of available
channels.

Of course, much costly attention is being given to improving the quality of the channels (for example, replacing
copper wires with fiber optics), but we must realize that reducing a file to ten percent of its original size is
equivalent to developing adata channel with capacity increased by a factor of ten! It is the existence of such
compression techniques that has made even old technology, such as fax transmission of pages from a book,
practical.

How effectively can information be compressed? Here recognizes the existence of two classes of techniques:
Lossless compression and Lossy compression.

The former, which requires that it be possible to accurately reconstitute the original database, is used most
heavily for text and number-based data, such as might appear in business files.

Huffman coding is typical of the techniques used for lossless compression, as wellas often appearing as a
component in lossy techniques.

Huffman-coding-based techniques logically divide into two stages: first some mechanism (or model) is created
to estimate the probability, within a given context,of the next unit to be encoded assuming a particular value.
Then, given these probabilities, the Huffman algorithm is invoked to derive the code words that maybe used
next.

Considerable compression can be achieved. A Huffman code is a variable length code, with frequently
occurring units receiving short code words and rarely occurring units receiving longer code words.

Whenever the entities being encoded have widely differing occurrence frequencies, savings are possible. In its
simplest form, a single character of text may be encoded, assuming a global, context-independent, frequency
distribution for characters.

For example, we would exploit the fact that the character "e" occurs frequently, while characters such as "q" or
"x" are rare in standard English text.

With more complex models, sensitive to context, and by using larger encoding units (e.g., diagrams or even
words), compression could be improved. Huffman codes can be proven to be optimal among the class of codes
to which they belong.

44
The Huffman algorithm is described in almost all good books on data-structures, for example Cormen et al. It is
put more directly into a data management context in Witten et al, which too discusses an alternative, also
probably optimal, technique, arithmetic encoding.

A discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of Huffman coding relative to arithmetic encoding appears in
Bookstein and Klein.

A variety of popular formats for storing and transmitting images exist that incorporate compression techniques.

In the GIFF format, for example, a color map or palette, is defined, and the image itself is expressed as a
sequence of indices to the color map, it is then compressed using a form of L-Z encoding.

McIntyre and Pechura describe an experiment in which the codebook approach is compared to static Huffman
coding.

The sample used for comparison is a collection of 530 source programs in four languages. The codebook
contains a Pascal code tree, a FORTRAN code tree, a COBOL code tree, a PL/1 code tree and an ALL code
tree.
The Pascal code tree is the result of applying the static Huffman algorithm to the combined character
frequencies of all of the Pascal programs in the sample.

ALL code tree is based upon the combined character frequencies for all of the programs. The experiment
involves encoding each of the programs using the five codes in the codebook and the static Huffman algorithm.

The data reported for each of the 530 programs consists of the size of the coded program for each of the five
predetermined codes, and the size of the coded program plus the size of the mapping (in table form) for the
static Huffman method.

In every case, the code tree for the language class to which the program belongs generates the most compact
encoding.

Although using the Huffiman algorithm on the program itself yields an optimal mapping,the overhead cost is
greater than the added redundancy incurred by the less-than-optimal code.

In many cases, the ALL code tree also generates a more compact encoding thanthe static Huffman algorithm.

In the worst case, an encoding constructed from the codebook is only 6.6% largerthan that constructed by the
Huffman algorithm. These results suggest that, for filesof source code, the codebook approach may be
appropriate.

The JPEG protocol is among the most highly developed and complex of the standard image compression
methods.

It is a suite of methods incorporating a wide variety of options. Central is the possibility of throwing away
Fourier components of the image to which the eyeisn't sensitive, and applying a variety of compression
encoding methods (e.g.,Huffman or arithmetic coding) for the rest.

Other image compression methods, going under the rubric of "vector quantization",rely on creating a relatively
small dictionary of "vectors" representing common blocks of pixel values and encoding actual pixels by an
index to a good approximating value within the dictionary. The use of color maps noted above is a simple
example of this approach.

45
Since an index to an entry in the dictionary requires fewer bits than the precise representation of a block of pixel
values, considerable compression is possible.

These methods are sensitive to the manner in which the dictionary is constructed, and how well actual pixel
blocks are mapped into the dictionary.

Some protocols rely heavily on ad hoc prediction methods; if on the basis of already encoded information, we
can reasonably predict the value taken by the next item, it is often more efficient to encode the deviation from
the prediction than the true value directly.

Cryptography

Cryptography, the methods for transforming a message to make it unreadable by anyone but the intended target,
has long been the concern of the military and diplomatic corps of government

Examples go back to classical times. A cryptographically technique still widely discussed is known as the
Casar cipher.
Cryptography is both the practice and study of the techniques used to communicate and/or store information or
data privately and securely, without being intercepted by third parties.
The advent of computer and the networks connecting them have radically changed the situation.

Most conspicuously, they have greatly transformed the consumer base of cryptographic technology.

A Common use case for aVPN is using a VPN provider to encrypt all network traffic through their connection,
to protect online privacy and identity.

During the connection process, a VPN sets up an encrypted tunnel for communication to take place through -
meaning that all data both to and from yourconnection is encrypted, before it is sent and after it is received.

This means that your data is protected from eavesdropping not just from say, people on the network you're
connecting through (such as a public WiFi network), but even from your internet service provider inspecting
what packets they are transferring
for you.

When it comes to online privacy, a VPN provider shifts where you must place yourtrust-instead of trusting
anyone else on your network (such as WiFi eavesdroppersor router-level inspection), as well as your internet
service provider and any intermediaries between them and the destination of your connection (a connection
being anything from a web page request to a streaming video connection), you instead must only trust your
VPN provider.

For this reason, many VPN providers have policies such as not keeping connection data logs, and try to be
transparent about how their network operates.

REPACKAGING INFORMATION

In the competitive corporate environment, managers need fast and easy access to information for decision
making.

Knowledge management systems have, therefore, evolved specifically to support the information needs of their

46
organizations. Such systems, however, cannot anticipate the circumstances, information needs and use
characteristics of individual managers in the organization.

For instance, most managers lack the time, relevant knowledge and skills to efficiently search for, evaluate,
interpret, synthesize and adapt information for their tasks.

A service that provides them information already processed and tailored to fit their decision plans would boost
work efficiency and productivity.

Information repackaging is such a service. Repackaging combines the concepts of information counseling and
consolidation. It consists of the knowledge management processes of adding value to information to facilitate
physical and conceptual access to information.

The physical level of repackaging includes restructuring the symbol, code, channel,and media systems of
information sources, while the conceptual level entails analysis,editing, interpreting, translating and
synthesizing information from several sourcesto create a new document.

Unlike traditional information services that are evaluated largely by the provision ofrelevant sources,
repackaging services are evaluated by the degree to which theclient's need is satisfactorily resolved.

For example, an information professional manager assisting a manager in preparinga budget proposal for his/her
department does not stop at providing access torelevant documents, but customizes information from
documentary (e.g., professionaland government literature) and non-documentary (e.g., organizational archives,
lore,and "stories") internal and external sources into a persuasive package.

Repackaging might entail creating graphs from these sources to illustrate trends, relationships and projections.

Primary data from diverse sources would be analyzed and checked for accuracy, comprehensiveness and
timeliness.

It is then synthesized and edited into a single document pertinent to the manager's needs and circumstances.

Repackaging services may entail a series of inter-actions between the manager and the information professional
and may lead to development of several documents.

Purpose and Goals of Repackaging

The need for repackaging information derives from the phenomenon that RichardWurman described as
"information anxiety": a situation "produced by the ever-widening gap between what we understand and what
we think we should understand.

When information doesn't tell us what we want or need to know".

This phenomenon which has been attributed to the information explosion, has created a number of information
problems. Some of these problems are:

Volume of information sources relevant to a client's needs might mitigate against efficient use.

The sources might not be written or recorded in the language or at the comprehension level of the client.

47
Information synthesis is the editing, re-purposing, merging and restructuring of document units to convey new
focus, purpose or perspective.

Information contained in these sources needs to be evaluated to ascertain its validity, reliability and intrinsic
merit.

Evaluation at this stage is based largely on intrinsic qualities of the content. For critical data such as health
information, emphasis is placed on accuracy, timeliness and utility values.

Some disciplines, particularly in the hard sciences have standardized data that enhance technical
communication.

Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA) of the International Council of Scientific Unions
(ICSU) produces the CODATA Bulletin where data evaluation and critical tables are published.

Less hard data (such as statistical and observational data). However, are less suitable for standardization by
disciplinary and professional bodies. Interpretations of such data may be more subjective.

Analysis and evaluation of such data are, therefore, more oriented to interpretations of user goals in the context
of the problem situation in question.

Where non-document sources are used (e.g., resource persons, and real-life
activity), their information would need to be verified and the credibility of the sources ascertained.

Information Analysis

Information analysis may be defined as the process of breaking down a body of information into its component
units on the basis of their relevance to the task or problem of the client.

The process consists of the following steps:

Reading/viewing/auditing the relevant documents and ensuring that their contents are pertinent to the client's
needs by way of his/her goals

Categorizing the sources on the basis of selection and evaluative criteria relevant to the task, i.e., their language
and subject/topic subdivisions (see information diagnostic model above)

Extracting the most relevant pieces and aspects from the documents; com- paring redundancies and selecting for
extraction only those features that best reflect the client's needs

Where no documents exist on an aspect of the client's needs, the informationprofessional may fill the gap by
creating the information (e.g., locating andinterpreting relevant data) or recording it (interviewing resource
persons or videotaping a live process) as the case may be.

A Verification of the contents or data in individual extracts by checking their accuracy, timeliness, and
credibility of sources

A Arranging the extracted information into categories according to a helpful table of contents, classification
scheme, or typology as dictated by the client's goals (Saracevic and Wood, 1981)

Information Synthesis

48
Information synthesis is the process of integrating and consolidating the information called from the selected
sources into a new structure.

Synthesis process may involve changing the symbol, code, channel and media systems of the documents.

Merging the extracted pieces of information that belong to the same categories.

The process entails:

A Comparing and evaluating the different pieces, checking for coherence or consistencies and contradictions.

Validating their relative accuracies, e.g., inconsistencies may be accounted for by differences in publication
dates of sources, units of analyses or projections.

A Choosing which pieces, perspectives, and data to present. Here again decisions have to be made between
redundancies and contradictions.

There may be a need to present conflicting data so as to appraise the client of his/her respective contexts and
rationales.

In presenting options for decision making, this approach may enable the client

to appreciate the scenarios of the different options before committing to one. Integrating the information in an
appropriate package(s) for presentation to the client.

The client should have the opportunity to preview or audit the package so as to provide feedback on fine-tuning
the package.

Ideally, the processes of analysis and synthesis should be undertaken in conjunction with the client.

The client's feedback at strategic points are crucial to ensuring that the final product is not only pertinent to the
client's need but applicable to executing the task.

Repackaging at the Physical Level

Repackaging may be undertaken at symbol, channel and media system (defined below) levels of documents to
enhance physical and conceptual access.

Symbols, Channels and Media

Symbols are signs that represent something other than themselves, e.g., words, pictures, and graphs.

Their use is governed by systems of rules and conventions known as codes, e.g., grammar for language and
aesthetics for art or graphic works.

Meanings of symbols may be obvious (denotative), or implied through cultural use and norms (connotative).

Channel is used here to denote the physical means by which signs may be transmitted or perceived such as light,
sound and radio waves.

49
Relationships between symbols, channels and codes may be illustrated using human speech.

Speech uses verbal language as a primary code. Words can, however, be re- encoded into secondary codes such
as paralanguage forms (e.g., intonation, stress, volume) and other codes: deaf-and-dumb sign language, Morse,
Braille, printing, etc.

The codes of camera angle and movement (e.g., close-ups, long and medium shots, frontal or side views,
panning, and zooms), lighting, color, speed, framing and editing are examples of TV medium-specific codes.

A Medium is the physical or technical means of convening the symbols into formats capable of being
transmitted along the chosen channel.

For example, our voices are the media for transmitting word symbols as sound waves (channel). Text on paper
constitutes the print medium: Letters, pictures and graphs symbols are perceived by the aid of light waves
(channel) on the paper medium.

TV and radio broadcast media use the channels of light and radio (electromagnetic) waves for transmission.
Again, the words and pictures on TV are the symbols that bear information.

Some symbols and channels are best coded and transmitted via particular media, e.g., radio for sound symbols
and TV for moving images with sound.

Effectiveness of different media in transmitting information is a function of the symbol and channel systems
they carry and the human cognitive processes necessary to decode them.

Repackaging Symbol, Channel, and Media Systems

Documents may be repackaged without changing the symbol system as in preparing a textual executive
summary from reports in text format.

When the text is converted to charts, graphs and pictures. However, the symbol system has been altered.

A change in the symbol system may entail a change in the code as well. If the executive summary were
documented in diagrams and charts on paper, for instance, codes for textual grammar and vocabulary would
have been switched for graphic codes.

For example, with pie charts the codes would consist of the rules for translating percentages to slices of a pie in
relative sizes and the use of color to enhance contrasts and aesthetics.
Codes for transferring text on paper to electronic text, on the other hand, entail word-processing codes, e.g.,
WordPerfect protocols. The channel for the symbol systems (i.e., light waves) however, remains the same.
If the executive summary was recorded on audiotape, the channel in which symbols are transmitted would have
been changed from light waves to sound waves. Consequently, the new channel requires a new medium for
transmission.

The three categories are:

Locational and access tools

Representation (analysis and synthesis) sources
Interpretation and evaluation services

Locational and Access Tools

50
Some repackaging services entail the design and provision of guides that facilitatethe identification and retrieval
of primary documents that are of interest to clients.

Clients who are initiating research on a problem may need to scan the literature broadly to better define their
problem.

Information professionals supporting this information-gathering quest need to construct guides to assist their
clients.

These guides, unlike those provided commercially or by libraries, need to be tailoredto the client's unique needs.
Some examples of guides are pathfinders, source lists, bibliographies, indexes, abstracts and customized
databases.

Representational (Analysis and Synthesis) Sources

Unlike the locational and access tools that identify and assist in the selection and location of sources,
representational tools are reformulations of primary documents into secondary and tertiary documents.

The primary documents are merged and represented in a variety of new formats.

The merging and recreation of new document formats are based on analysis of theprimary document contents
and their synthesis as dictated by the needs of potential clients.

Examples include translations, reviews, state-of-the-art reports, handbooks and manuals.

Interpretation and Evaluation Sources

These are customized documents or services to help the client resolve his/her information need.

Information is interpreted within the perspectives, goals and context of the client.

The information professional who engages in evaluation briefs the manager on the options available for
resolving the problem at hand and recommends appropriate actions.

To play such a role, however, the information professional must have a close and long-term working
relationship with the client.

Examples include executive summaries/briefings, analysis of options and recommendations.

Evaluation of Repackaging Services

Repackaging services may be evaluated at two levels:

A Quality of the information provided
A Usefulness or utility value of the service for the client

Quality of Information Provided

Criteria for evaluating the quality of information are applied in selection and analysis of information for
repackaging.

51
In selecting information sources for repackaging, the information professional checks to ensure that the sources
and their content have intrinsic merit in terms of their validity and reliability.

Criteria for evaluation include accuracy, currency, comprehensiveness, balance andcredibility of information.

Application of these criteria might vary, depending on the nature of information and the manager's needs.

For research-based services, the research paradigm or orientation of the sources must be in accord with those of
the client.

Other criteria for research and non-research works include the following:

A Authority of the source-author(s), publisher, sponsoring and funding institution, reviews, citation indexes,
etc.

A Comparison and correlation of the information units with other sources of repute. Comparisons and
correlation may confirm or reveal discrepancies.

This is especially useful for critical data meant for planning experiments and projects, verifying information to
establish conditions for different variables and comparing descriptions of such variables within and between
records.

For instance, if one description of a phenomenon is correct, by implication, other measures found in other
sources should meet calculated estimates, e.g., by normal distributions, historical facts, etc.

A Common sense, intuition, and impressions based on one's knowledge.

A Experience, matched with those of the client as well as reputable and impartial third parties.

Usefulness of Service to Clients

Whereas the criteria for evaluating the quality of information may be deemed"objective", those for assessing its
usefulness are subjective because they are largelydependent on the task, goals and information use
characteristics of the client.

Task, Goals, and Information Use Characteristics of the Client

The information diagnostic model (mentioned previously) may be used to assess compatibility of the client's
characteristics (knowledge, skills, perspective) and demands of task (context, complexity) with the repackaged
product.

When there are good matches between the two sets of characteristics, the repackaged product should be easy to
understand and apply. Other factors that affect ease of use differ from media to media.

For textual symbols, for example, such factors include legibility (e.g., visual clarity and aesthetic appeal) and
the use of comprehension aids (e.g., use of identifiers that highlight key elements of content).

Ultimate goal of repackaging is that the manager's information needs are satisfactorily resolved. Since the
client's "satisfaction" is a subjective criterion, it should be complemented with use of more objective measures,
such as improvement. in the problem situation that necessitated the quest for information and an increase in the
manager's productivity.

52
Overall evaluation must also include the extent to which the client learned and was empowered in the course of
the repackaging service, for example, by becoming more self-reflective of his/her information use
characteristics and more knowledgeable about information sources.

As a result, a higher level of service building on the experience gained by both the client and the professional
from the previous service would mark interactions between the information professional and the manager on
subsequent projects.

53