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GHANA COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF CONTINUING AND DISTANCE EDUCATON (ICDE)

COURSE CODE:
MATH 121

COURSE TITLE:
ALGEBRA

UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF ALGEBRA &

OPERATIONS
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 WITH NUMBERS
Session 1: The Meaning of Algebra, Its Representation and Significance
Session 2: Algebraic Expressions
Session 3: Algebraic Operations
Session 4: Fundamental Operations with Numbers
Session 5: Properties of Numbers
Session 6: Application of Algebra

UNIT 2: EQUATIONS, INEQUALITIES AND

RATIONAL
FUNCTIONS
Session 1: Polynomial Functions
Session 2: Linear Functions
Session 3: Quadratic Functions
Session 4: Cubic, Quartic, Quintic Functions
Session 5: Inequalities
Session 6: Rational Functions

UNIT 3: EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTIONS
Session 1: Introduction to Exponents and Logarithms
Session 2: Properties and Laws of Exponents
Session 3: Properties and Laws of Logarithms
Session 4: Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
Session 5: Graphing Exponential Functions with Applications
Session 6: Graphing Logarithmic Functions with Applications

UNIT 4: MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

Session 1: Matrices and Types
Session 2: Operations on Matrices and Properties
Session 3: Determinant
Session 4: Crammer Method
Session 5: Inverse Method
Session 6: Gaussian Elimination Method

UNIT 5: SEQUENCES, SERIES

Session 1: Introduction to Sequences and Series
Session 2: Arithmetic Sequence and Series

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Session 3: Geometric Sequence and Series
Session 4: Special Types of Sequence
Session 5: Convergence and Divergence Series
Session 6: Application and Advanced Topics

UNIT 6: INDUCTION
Session 1: Introduction to Mathematical Induction
Session 2: Basic Types of Mathematical Induction
Session 3: Applying Induction to Algebraic Problems
Session 4: Induction in Combinatorics and Number Theory
Session 5: Advanced Applications of Inductions
Session 6: Common Pitfalls and Strategies in Induction

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF ALGEBRA & OPERATIONS WITH NUMBERS .............. 2
UNIT 1 -................................................................................................................................. 7
SESSION 1: THE MEANING OF ALGEBRA, ITS REPRESENTATION AND
SIGNIFICANCE .................................................................................................................. 8
SESSION 2: ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS ..................................................................... 12
SESSION 3: ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS ....................................................................... 16
SESSION 4: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS WITH NUMBERS ...................................... 22
SESSION 5: PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS .................................................................... 27
SESSION 6: APPLICATION OF ALGEBRA ..................................................................... 32
UNIT 2 –.............................................................................................................................. 36
SESSION 1: POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS ....................................................................... 37
SESSION 2: LINEAR FUNCTIONS ................................................................................ 44
SESSION 3: QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS ......................................................................... 49
SESSION 4: CUBIC, QUARTIC AND QUINTIC FUNCTIONS .......................................... 55
SESSION 5: INEQUALITIES .......................................................................................... 61
SESSION 6: RATONAL FUNCTIONS ............................................................................. 69
UNIT 3 –.............................................................................................................................. 75
SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION TO EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS ............................. 76
SESSION 2: PROPERTIES AND LAWS OF EXPONENTS .............................................. 81
SESSION 3: PROPERTIES AND LAWS OF LOGARITHMS ............................................ 85
SESSION 4: SOLVING EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS ................. 91
SESSION 5: GRAPHING EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS WITH APPLICATIONS ........... 97
SESSION 6: GRAPHING LOGARITHM FUNCTIONS WITH APPLICATIONS ............. 103
UNIT 4 –............................................................................................................................. 111
SESSION 1: MATRICES AND TYPES ........................................................................... 111
SESSION 2: OPERATIONS ON MATRICES AND PROPERTIES ................................... 117
SESSION 3: DETERMINANTS..................................................................................... 122
SESSION 4: CRAMMER’S METHOD .......................................................................... 127
SESSION 5: INVERSE METHOD ................................................................................ 131
SESSION 6: GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION METHOD ....................................................... 137
UNIT 5 –............................................................................................................................ 141
SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES AND SERIES .................................... 143
SESSION 2: ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE AND SERIES ................................................. 149
SESSION 3: GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE AND SERIES.................................................. 153
SESSION 4: SPECIAL TYPES OF SEQUENCES ......................................................... 160

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 SESSION 5: CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE...................................................... 165
SESSION 6: APPLICATIONS AND ADVANCED TOPICS .............................................. 171
UNIT 6 –............................................................................................................................ 175
SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION ................................. 176
SESSION 2: BASIC TYPES OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION ..................................... 181
SESSION 3: APPLYING INDUCTION TO ALGEBRAIC PROBLEMS ............................. 186
SESSION 4: INDUCTION IN COMBINATORICS AND NUMBER THEORY ................ 191
SESSION 5: ADVANCED APPLICATION OF INDUCTION ............................................ 196
SESSION 6: COMMON PITFALLS AND STRATEGIES IN INDUCTION ......................... 201

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UNIT 1 - BASIC CONCEPTS OF ALGEBRA AND
OPERATIONS WITH NUMBERS
OVERVIEW:
This unit introduces foundational concepts in algebra, focusing on understanding and performing
operations with numbers, variables, and expressions. The unit emphasizes:
1. Understanding the properties of numbers and operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division).
2. Recognizing how variables represent unknown values.
3. Exploring the rules and structures that govern algebraic manipulations.

KEY TOPICS
1. Basic operations with whole numbers, integers, and rational numbers.
2. Introduction to variables, constants, and basic algebraic expressions.
3. Understanding the order of operations (PEMDAS: Parentheses, Exponents,
Multiplication and Division, Addition and Subtraction).
4. Introduction to simple equations and inequalities.

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SESSION 1: THE MEANING OF ALGEBRA, ITS
REPRESENTATION
AND SIGNIFICANCE
At the end of this session you will be able to understand what Algebra is, how to represent it and
its significance.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To introduce the concept of Algebra as a tool for representing general mathematical
relationships
2. To explore the different ways Algebra is represented, including symbols, variables and
expressions.
3. To discuss the significance of Algebra in Problem-Solving, logical thinking, and its
applications in various fields.
4. To help students understand how algebra provides a foundation for higher – level
mathematics and everyday situations requiring structured thinking.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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1.1.0 DEFINITIONS WITH EXAMPLES

Definition 1.1.1: Algebra

It is a branch of mathematics that uses symbols, letters, and numbers to represent relationships
and solve equations. It allows for generalization and solving of problems with unknown values.

Algebra, like arithmetic, deals with numbers. The two subjects have much in common; indeed,
algebra has been called ‘generalized arithmetic’, though this is a very incomplete description of
it. It would perhaps be more correct to say that algebra is an extension of arithmetic.

Example 1.1.1
The equation x + 3 = 7, where x represents an unknown value, can be solved to find x = 4.

Example 1.1.2:
An algebraic expression 2a + 3b represents a combination of variables, which can change based
on values of a and b.

Definition 1.1.2: General Patterns

In algebra, general patterns refer to recurring relationships or sequences that can be represented
by rules or formulas. They allow for predictions and generalized solutions.

Example 1.1.3:
The pattern 2, 4, 6, 8, … follows the rule "add 2" to each previous term, which can be
generalized by the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛.

Example 1.1.4:
The sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, … represents squares of consecutive numbers, and can be written as
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 2

Definition 1.1.3: Algebraic Forms

These are expressions or equations that represent relationships in algebraic terms, often
involving variables, constants, and operations.

Example 1.1.5:
A linear expression like 3x + 5 represents a straight-line relationship.

Example 1.1.6:
A quadratic expression 𝑥 2 5𝑥 + 6 represents a parabolic shape when graphed, showing the
connection between forms and their graphical representations.

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1.1.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF PATTERNS AND FORMS

Patterns:
Patterns are essential for recognizing relationships and simplifying complex problems. They
allow predicting outcomes, which is particularly useful in sequences and series.

Example 1.1.7:
Identifying an arithmetic sequence pattern in a problem simplifies summing a large series.

Example 1.1.8:
Recognizing a geometric pattern helps in calculating interest in financial applications.

Forms:
Algebraic forms simplify complex relationships by providing structured representations. This
makes it easier to apply operations and solve real-world problems.

Example 1.1.9:
Quadratic forms are crucial in physics for equations involving acceleration.

Example 1.1.10:
Linear forms appear in cost calculations, where a constant rate per unit is involved.

1.1.2 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the purpose of using variables in algebra?
2. Define a linear algebraic expression and give an example.
3. What is the general rule for an arithmetic sequence with a common difference of 3,
starting at 1?
4. Explain why order of operations is important in algebra.

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SESSION 2: ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
At the end of this session you will be able to understand what Algebraic expressions are and how
to represent and correctly interpret them.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To introduce the concept of Algebraic expressions and their structure.
2. To explore the use of symbols, terms, coefficients and grouping in algebraic expression.
3. To help students understand how to simplify, expand, and factorize algebraic expressions.
4. To develop skills in manipulating algebraic expressions for problem-solving in real-world
scenarios.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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1.2.0 USE OF SYMBOLS/VARIABLES IN ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Symbols in algebra are used to represent unknown values, constants, and operations, providing a
way to model and solve problems in a general form.

Example 1.2.1:
In the expression 5x + 3y, symbols x and y represent unknown values, and the symbols + and
numbers are operations and constants that form the expression.

Explanation:
Using x and y makes it possible to represent different possible values without specifying them,
allowing for a general approach to solving equations.

Example 1.2.2:
In the formula 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 (Pythagorean theorem), symbols a, b, and c represent sides of a
right triangle.

Explanation:
This symbolic representation provides a universal rule applicable to any right triangle, regardless
of specific measurements.

1.2.1 SYMBOLS OF OBERATIONS

Certain symbols of operation, such as +, -, x, +, V, are common to arithmetic and algebra, since
they are used for operations which are performed in both subjects. Usually, however, there is a
certain difference in the way they are employed. It is evident that while such operations as

5 + 7; 10 − 3; 6 × 4; 15 ÷ 3; √9

can be, and usually are, carried out at once with definite numerical results, expressions such as

𝑎 + 𝑏; 𝑎 − 𝑏; 𝑎 × 𝑏; 𝑎 ÷ 𝑏; √𝑎
cannot be evaluated numerically while a and b represent any numbers. Until numerical values are
assigned to a and b you cannot proceed further with the operation. But you can, and will, operate
with the expressions themselves, without any reference to their numerical values. In addition to
the above, many other symbols of operation are used in algebra, among them the following.

SYMBOL MEANING
= is equal to
≠ is not equal to
≈ is approximately equal to
> is greater than
< is less than

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1.2.2 DEFINEITONS IN AN ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION

Definition 1.2.1: Term

Terms are parts of an expression separated by addition or subtraction. Each term consists of
numbers, variables, or both.

Example 1.2.3:
In 7x + 3y − 5, the terms are 7x, 3y, and – 5

Explanation:
Each term is a unique part of the expression, which can be combined or simplified separately.

Example 1.2.4:
In 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 6, the terms are 𝑥 2 , − 4x, and 6.

Explanation:
Terms represent distinct parts that make up the overall expression, each with its degree and
coefficient.

Definition 1.2.2: Degree

The degree of an algebraic term is the highest power of the variable in that term.

Example 1.2.5:
In 5𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 7, the degree is 3, as 𝑥 3 is the highest power.

Explanation:
The degree indicates the order or complexity of the expression and can impact its graph's shape
and behavior.

Example 1.2.6:
For 2𝑦 4 + 𝑦 3 − 8, the degree is 4.

Explanation:
The degree affects how quickly the function grows or shrinks and plays a key role in identifying
polynomial types.

Definition 1.2.3: Coefficient

A coefficient is the numerical factor of a term that contains a variable.

Example 1.2.7:
In 6𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4, the coefficients are 6 (for 𝑥 2 ) and -3 (for x).

Explanation:
Coefficients give weight or magnitude to each term and can change the expression's value when
manipulated.

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Example 1.2.8:
In −7a + 9b, the coefficients are -7 and 9

Explanation:
Coefficients allow scaling terms up or down, which is essential for balancing equations and
simplification.

Definition 1.2.4: Grouping

Grouping refers to organizing terms using parentheses or brackets to clarify which operations to
perform first.

Example 1.2.9:
In (3x + 4)(x − 2), the grouping helps in expanding the expression by focusing on each term
within parentheses.

Explanation:
Grouping is key to simplifying expressions, especially when expanding or factoring, to avoid
mistakes in operations.

Example 1.2.10:
In 2(x + 5) − 3(y − 2), grouping shows which terms are multiplied by 2 and -3.

Explanation:
Grouping guides the order of operations, making complex expressions easier to understand and
solve.

1.2.3 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the degree of the expression 4𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 7?
2. Identify the coefficients in the expression 5y – 3z + 8.
3. Explain the purpose of grouping in 3(x + 2) + 4(y − 5).
4. What are the terms in 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6?

SESSION 3: ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS

At the end of this session you will be able to understand what Algebraic operations are and how
to represent and correctly interpret them.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To introduce the fundamental operations in algebra: addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division.
2. To explain the use of brackets and how they affect the order of operations.

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 3. To explore algebraic operations involving fractions and complex expressions.
4. To develop students' skills in performing algebraic operations accurately and simplifying
expressions for problem-solving.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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1.3.0 OPERATIONS AND COMMON ALGEBRAIC PHRASES

1.3.1 BRACKETS:
Brackets (parentheses, square brackets) are used to group parts of an expression to clarify the
order in which operations should be performed.

Example 1.3.1:
In 3(x + 4), the expression inside the bracket is calculated first, giving 3 × (x + 4).

Explanation:
Brackets ensure that additions or subtractions inside them are handled before applying
multiplication.

Example 1.3.2:
In (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑐 − 𝑑), brackets help separate two expressions to be multiplied.

Explanation:
This allows for the distribution method or FOIL (First, Outer, Inner, Last) to expand the
expression correctly.

1.3.2 ADDITION
Addition in algebra combines terms and can be represented by phrases like “the sum of” or
“plus.”

Example 1.3.3:
In x + 5, "the sum of x and 5" represents adding 5 to x.

Explanation:
This operation results in a new term combining both values.

Example 1.3.4:
The expression a + b + c represents “the sum of a, b, and c.”

1.3.3 OTHER WORDS THAT MEANS SUM (ADDITION)

1. SUM OF
2. INCREASED BY
3. MORE THAN
4. ADDED TO
5. COMBINED WITH
6. PLUS

1.3.4 SUBTRACTION
Subtraction in algebra finds the difference between terms, often represented by phrases like
“minus” or “less than.”

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Example 1.3.5
x − 3 could be described as “3 less than x.”

Explanation:
This operation deducts a quantity, decreasing the term’s value.

Example 1.3.6:
In a − b, “the difference between a and b” is represented.

Explanation:

Subtraction expresses how much one term is smaller than another.

1.3.5 OTHER WORDS THAT MEANS SUBTRACTION

1. DIFFERENCE OF
2. DECREASED BY
3. LESS THAN
4. MINUS
5. REDUCED BY
6. SUBTRACTED FROM

1.3.6 MULTIPLICATION
Multiplication combines quantities in groups, represented by “times,” “of,” or “product.”

Example 1.3.7:
4x means “4 times x.”

Explanation:
This operation scales x by 4, adjusting its magnitude.

Example 1.3.8:
a × b or ab represents “the product of a and b.”

Explanation:
Multiplying terms produces a larger expression based on the values of a and b.

1.3.7 OTHER WORDS THAT MEANS MULTIPLICATION

1. PRODUCT OF
2. TIMES
3. MULTIPLIED BY
4. OF (AS IN “HALF OF”)
5. DOUBLE OR TRIPLE (FOR 2x OR 3x)
6. TWICE (FOR MULTIPLYING BY 2)

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1.3.8 DIVISION
Division in algebra splits one quantity by another, often represented by “divided by” or
“quotient.”

Example 1.3.9:
𝑥
represents “x divided by 2.”
2

Explanation:
Division reduces x into smaller portions by splitting it in half.

Example 1.3.10:
𝑎
means “the quotient of a and b.”
𝑏

Explanation:
Division finds how many times b fits into a, yielding a simplified or fractional result.

1.3.9 OTHER WORDS THAT MEANS DIVISION

1. QUOTIENT OF
2. DIVIDED BY
3. SPLIT EQUALLY
4. PER (AS IN “MILES PER HOUR”)
5. RATIO OF

1.3.10 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS INVOLVING FRACTIONS

Algebraic fractions represent expressions where the numerator, denominator, or both contain
algebraic terms. Operations with these expressions follow fraction rules combined with algebraic
simplification.

Example 1.3.11:
3𝑥+2
is an expression where 3x + 2 is divided by x – 1.
𝑥−1

Explanation:
This fraction represents a ratio between two algebraic expressions and simplifying it may involve
factoring or reducing terms.

Example 1.3.12:
2𝑎 3𝑏 2𝑎+3𝑏
+ = shows addition of fractions with a common denominator.
5 5 5

Explanation:
When denominators are the same, add numerators directly, making it a straightforward addition
of terms.

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1.3.10 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. What does (a + b) (c − d) represent, and how can it be expanded?

3𝑥 5𝑥
2. Simplify the expression +
4 4

𝑦 𝑦
3. How would you describe − in words?
2 3

4. Solve for x in the equation 2(x + 3) = 8.

SESSION 4: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS WITH NUMBERS

At the end of this session you will be able to identify the various families of numbers, and their
operations.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To introduce different types of numbers (natural, whole, integers, rational, irrational, and
real) and understand their properties.
2. To explore basic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) and their
rules.
3. To familiarize students with how operations differ across number types.
4. To provide a foundation for more advanced mathematical concepts by mastering
fundamental arithmetic with all types of numbers.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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1.4.0 TYPES OF NUMBERS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXPLANATIONS

1.4.1 NATURAL NUMBERS:

Natural numbers are positive counting numbers starting from 1 and increasing without end.

Example 1.4.1:
3 and 14 are natural numbers.

Explanation:
Both are positive numbers and part of the set {1, 2, 3, …}.

Example 1.4.2:
7 and 50.

Explanation:
These numbers count items and exclude zero or any negative values.

1.4.2 WHOLE NUMBERS:

Whole numbers include all natural numbers plus zero.

Example 1.4.3:
0 and 15.

Explanation:
Whole numbers extend natural numbers to include zero.

Example 1.4.4:
8 and 100.

Explanation:
Whole numbers form the set {0, 1, 2, 3, …}, with no negative values.

1.4.3 INTEGERS
Integers include all whole numbers and their negative counterparts.

Example 1.4.5:
- 5 and 4.

Explanation:
Integers can be negative, positive, or zero, forming the set {…,−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.

Example 1.4.6:
- 10 and 0.
Explanation:
This category includes all numbers without fractional parts, positive or negative.

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1.4.4 RATIONAL NUMBERS:
𝑎
Rational numbers are numbers that can be expressed as a fraction where a and b are integers,
𝑏
and b ≠ 0.

Example 1.4.7:
𝑎
and 0.75.
𝑏

Explanation:
3
Both can be expressed as fractions (0.75 = ).
4

Example 1.4.8:
7
- 3 and .
2

Explanation:
−3
Integers like −3 are also rational as (− 3 = ).
1

1.4.5 IRRRATIONAL
Irrational numbers cannot be expressed as a simple fraction; they have non-terminating, non-
repeating decimal expansions.

Example 1.4.9:.
𝜋 (3.14159 … ) and √2 = (1.41421 … )

Explanation:
Both have non-repeating decimal forms and cannot be precisely written as fractions.

Example 1.4.10:
e (approximately 2.71828) and √3 .

Explanation:
Like 𝜋, 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 √3 have non-repeating decimals and cannot be expressed as exact fractions.

1.4.6 REAL NUMBERS

Real numbers include all rational and irrational numbers.

Example 1.4.11:
5 and -4.75.
Explanation:
Real numbers encompass both integers and decimals.

Example 1.4.12:
2
𝜋 and
3

Explanation:

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Real numbers cover all values on the number line, without imaginary components.

1.4.7 VARIOUS RULES AND OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS

(a) ADDITION:
The sum of two numbers follows the commutative and associative properties.

Example 1.4.13:
3 + 5 = 8 and 5 + 3 = 8.

Explanation:
The commutative property shows that order doesn’t change the result.

Example 1.4.14:
(2 + 3) + 4 = 2 + (3 + 4)

Explanation:
Associative property allows grouping numbers without affecting the sum.

(b) SUBTRACTION:
Subtraction does not follow commutativity; the order matters.

Example 1.4.15:
7 – 3 = 4 and 3 – 7 = − 4.

Explanation:
Switching the order changes the outcome.

Example 1.4.16:
9 − (4 − 2) = 9 – 2 = 7.

Explanation:
Grouping affects subtraction differently than addition

(c) MULTIPLICATION:
Like addition, multiplication follows commutativity and associativity.

Example 1.4.17:
4 × 5 = 5 × 4 = 20.

Explanation:
The order of factors doesn’t change the product.

Example 1.4.18:
(2 × 3) × 4 = 2 × (3 × 4).

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Explanation:
The associative property simplifies grouping without altering the product.

(d) DIVISION:
Division is non-commutative and doesn’t follow the associative property.

Example 1.4.19:
8 ÷ 2 = 4, but 2 ÷ 8 = 0.25.

Explanation:
Reversing the order changes the result significantly.

Example 1.4.20:
(16 ÷ 4) ÷ 2 = 2 is different from 16 ÷ (4 ÷ 2) =8

Explanation:
Grouping changes the order and outcome in division.

1.4.8 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What type of number is √3 ?

2. State whether − 7 is a natural, whole, integer, or real number?
3. Simplify (5 + 2) + 4 using the associative property?
4. Does 9 ÷ 3 = 3 ÷ 9 hold true in division?

SESSION 5: PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS

At the end of this session you will be able understand the various properties and applications of
numbers.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To explore fundamental properties of numbers, such as commutative, associative,
distributive, identity, and inverse properties.
2. To understand how these properties apply across different operations (addition,
multiplication) and types of numbers.
3. To introduce the concept of sets of numbers and their classifications.
4. To explain identity and inverse elements for various number types, helping students
simplify and solve algebraic expressions.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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1.5.0 PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXPLANATIONS

1.5.1 COMMUTATIVE PROPERTY:

This property states that the order of numbers doesn’t affect the result for addition or
multiplication.

Example 1.5.1:
3 + 5 = 5 + 3 = 8.

Explanation:
In addition, changing the order of terms doesn’t change the sum.

Example 1.5.2:
4 × 7 = 7 × 4 = 28

Explanation:
In multiplication, reordering the numbers gives the same product.

1.5.2 ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY:

Grouping of numbers doesn’t affect the result in addition or multiplication.

Example 1.5.3:
(2 + 3) + 4 = 2 + (3 + 4) = 9.

Explanation:
Rearranging the grouping in addition doesn’t change the result.

Example 1.5.4:
(5 × 6) × 2 = 5 × (6 × 2) =60.

Explanation:
For multiplication, grouping changes don’t alter the product.

1.5.3 DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY:

This property combines addition and multiplication, stating
a (b + c) = ab + ac.

Example 1.5.5:
3(4 + 2) = 3 × 4 + 3 × 2 =12 + 6 = 18.

Explanation:
Multiplying each term separately and then adding gives the same result.

Example 1.5.6:
5(a + b) = 5a + 5b.

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Explanation:
The distributive property applies multiplication to each part of an addition inside parentheses.

1.5.4 IDENTITY PROPERTY

The identity element doesn’t change the original number when combined.

Example 1.5.7:
5 + 0 = 5 (Additive identity).

Explanation:
Adding 0 to a number leaves it unchanged.

Example 1.5.8:
6 × 1 = 6 (Multiplicative identity)

Explanation:
Multiplying a number by 1 does not change its value

1.5.5 INVERSE PROPERTY

Each number has an opposite (additive inverse) or reciprocal (multiplicative inverse) that results
in the identity element.

Example 1.5.9:
5 + (−5) = 0.

Explanation:
Adding a number to its additive inverse (negative) yields zero.

Example 1.5.10:
1
6 × = 1.
6

Explanation:
Multiplying a number by its reciprocal results in one.

1.5.6 SETS OF NUMBERS

Sets of numbers are categories that classify numbers by their characteristics. Some major sets
include:

(a) Natural Numbers

{1, 2, 3, …}: Counting numbers.

(b) Whole Numbers

{0, 1, 2, …}: Natural numbers plus zero.

(c) Integers
{…, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, …}: Whole numbers and their negatives.

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(d) Rational Numbers
𝑎
{ | 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠, 𝑏 ≠ 0}: Numbers that can be written as fractions.
𝑏

(e) IRRATIONAL NUMBERS:

Numbers with non - terminating, non - repeating decimals (𝑒𝑔: 𝜋, √2 ).

(f) REAL NUMBERS:

All rational and irrational numbers combined, representing any point on a number line.

1.5.7 IDENTITY AND INVERSE OF NUMBERS

(a) Identity:
Additive Identity: Zero is the additive identity because any number plus zero equals the number
itself.

Example 1.5.11:
7+0=7

Explanation:
Adding zero doesn’t change the value.

Example 1.5.12:
− 3 + 0 = − 3.

Explanation:
Zero maintains the original number

Multiplicative Identity: One is the multiplicative identity because any number multiplied by
one remains unchanged.

Example 1.5.13:
8×1=8.

Explanation:
Multiplying by one keeps the original number.
Example 1.5.14:
− 5 × 1 = − 5.

Explanation: The value remains the same when multiplied by one.

(b) Inverse:
Additive Inverse: For any number a, −a is its additive inverse, giving a sum of zero.

Example 1.5.15:
9 + (− 9) =0.

Explanation: Adding a number to its opposite cancels it out.

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Example 1.5.16:
− 4 + 4 = 0.

Explanation:
A negative number plus its positive counterpart yields zero

Multiplicative Inverse:
1
For any number 𝑎 ≠ 0, is its multiplicative inverse, resulting in one.
𝑎

Example 1.5.17:
1
3 × = 1.
3

Explanation:
Multiplying by the reciprocal returns the multiplicative identity.

Example 1.5.18:
−1
−2 × = 1.
2

Explanation:
Even for negatives, multiplying by the reciprocal results in one.

1.5.8 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the additive identity for the set of real numbers?
5
2. Find the multiplicative inverse of ?
2
3. Use the distributive property to simplify 3(x + 4).
4. If a = − 7, what is the additive inverse of a?

SESSION 6: APPLICATION OF ALGEBRA

At the end of this session you will be able understand some application of Algebra.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the practical uses of algebra in both mathematical contexts and real-life
situations.
2. To apply algebraic methods to solve equations, model scenarios, and analyze
relationships.
3. To explore how algebra supports problem-solving across various fields, including
science, economics, and engineering.
4. To enhance analytical thinking skills by using algebraic expressions and equations in
real-world contexts.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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1.6.0 APPLICATIONS OF ALGEBRA WITH EXAMPLES AND EXPLANATIONS

1.6.1 SOLVING EQUATIONS:

Algebra is essential for solving equations, which can represent situations ranging from finance to
physics.

Example 1.6.1:
Solving for unknowns – If a person’s monthly salary is S and they save 1,000 each month after
spending 3,000, the equation S − 3,000 = 1,000 helps determine the salary.

Explanation:
By solving S = 4,000, we find the salary that meets the budget.

Example 1.6.2:
Physics formulas – The formula F = ma (Force = mass × acceleration) can help find force if
mass and acceleration are known.

Explanation:
𝐹
Rearranging the equation to solve for any one variable (𝑒𝑔: 𝑚 = )) enables calculation based
𝑎
on given conditions.

1.6.2 MODELING RELATIONSHIPS:

Algebra is used to model relationships, especially in data analysis and scientific research.

Example 1.6.3:
Linear relationships – In a business, revenue R might be modeled by R = 50x, where x
represents units sold.

Explanation:
This equation helps predict revenue for any number of units.

Example 1.6.4:
Quadratic relationships – For projectile motion, the height h of an object over time t might be
represented by ℎ = −16𝑡 2 + 64𝑡 + 5.

Explanation:
Using this model, one can predict the height at any given time during the object’s flight.

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1.6.3 APPLICATIONS OF ALGEBRA IN VARIOUS FIELDS

(a) Mathematical Applications of Algebra:

1. Solving complex equations and systems of equations.
2. Analyzing functions and graphing to understand changes over time.
3. Calculating areas, volumes, and other geometric measurements using formulas.
(b) Real – World Applications
1. Finance: Budgeting, loan interest calculations, and investment growth.
2. Engineering: Designing structures, analyzing forces, and optimizing systems.
3. Science: Calculating chemical concentrations, understanding physics formulas, and data
modeling in biology or environmental science.
4. Computer Science: Algorithm design, coding, and data encryption.
5. Medicine: Modeling disease spread, calculating dosages, and predicting health outcomes.

1.6.4 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. If a person’s total expenses are represented by E = 3,000 + 200x, where x is the number
of items purchased, how much do they spend if x = 5?
2. Solve for y if y = 4x + 7 and x = 3.
3. What real – world situation might be represented by a quadratic equation?
4. How is Algebra used in Finance?

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UNIT 2 – EQUATIONS, INEQUALITIES AND
RATIONAL
FUNCTIONS
OVERVIEW:
This unit explores various mathematical concepts foundational for algebra and calculus,
including equations, inequalities, and rational functions. Key areas covered include:
1. Equations: Techniques for solving polynomial, rational, and other algebraic equations,
focusing on methods like factoring and the quadratic formula.
2. Inequalities: Methods for solving inequalities, such as linear, quadratic, and rational
inequalities, and techniques for representing solutions on a number line.
3. Rational Functions: Analysis of rational functions, including domain restrictions,
asymptotes, graphing techniques, and applications. Understanding the behavior of these
functions is essential for higher-level mathematics.

This unit also introduces polynomial functions and their properties, such as degree, leading
coefficient, and classification. Students learn operations on polynomials, factoring techniques,
and applications in equations and inequalities. By the end, students should be able to solve,
analyze, and graph these functions and understand their relevance in various applications.

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SESSION 1: POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
At the end of this session you will be able to recognize, simplify, and perform operations with
polynomials, understand their properties, and factor polynomials using different techniques.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the definition and structure of polynomial functions.
2. To be able to identify key properties of polynomials, such as degree, leading coefficient,
and term classification.
3. To learn to classify polynomials by their degree and number of terms.
4. To be able to recognize and analyze polynomial functions in equations, inequalities, and
graphing.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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2.1.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

Definition 2.1.1: Polynomial Function

A polynomial function is an expression in the form
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0, where 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎0 are constants and n is a
non – negative integer.

Example 2.1.1
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 2.

Example 2.1.2:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 + 6

Definition 2.1.2: Degree of a Polynomial

The degree of a polynomial is the highest exponent of the variable in the polynomial.

Example 2.1.3:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 2 + 7, the degree is 5.

Example 2.1.4:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 9, the degree is 3.

Definition 2.1.3: Identifying Polynomial Expressions

A polynomial expression contains only terms with non-negative integer exponents and real
coefficients.

Example 2.1.4:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 is a polynomial.

Example 2.1.5:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 is a polynomial.

Definition 2.1.4: Classification of Polynomial by Degree and Number of Terms

By Degree: Constant (0), Linear (1), Quadratic (2), Cubic (3), Quartic (4), Quintic (5)

By Terms: Monomial (1 term), Binomial (2 terms), Trinomial (3 terms)

2.1.1 OPERATIONS ON POLYNOMIALS

(a) ADDITION
Combine like terms in two polynomials.

Example 2.1.6
(2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 ) + (𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1) = 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 1

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Example 2.1.7:
(𝑥 3 − 𝑥 ) + (2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥

(b) SUBTRACTION
Subtract like terms in two polynomials

Example 2.1.8
(3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 ) − (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥

Example 2.1.9:
(𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 ) − (𝑥 3 + 𝑥 ) = − 3𝑥

(c) MULTIPLICATION
Multiply terms in each polynomial using distributive property.

Example 2.1.10
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 6 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6

Example 2.1.11:
(2𝑥 )(3𝑥 + 1) = 6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥

(d) DIVISION
Divide polynomials using long or synthetic division. Multiply terms in each

Example 2.1.12
(2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2) ÷ (𝑥 − 1)

Example 2.1.13:
(𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 ) ÷ (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 4

2.1.2 FACTORING METHODS

(a) GREATEST COMMON FACTOR (GCF)

Factor out the highest common factor.

Example 2.1.14
4𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 = 4𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 2)

Example 2.1.15:
6𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 = 6𝑥(𝑥 − 2)

(b) GROUPING
Group terms to factor more complex expressions..

Example 2.1.16

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𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 12 = 𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 3) + 4(𝑥 + 3) = (𝑥 2 + 4)(𝑥 + 3

Example 2.1.17:
2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 12 = (2𝑥 2 − 4)(𝑥 + 2)

2.1.3 ZEROS AND ROOTS OF POLYNOMIALS

(a) FACTOR THEOREM

If f(a) = 0, then x – a is a factor of f(x).

Example 2.1.18:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 4; 𝑓(2) = 0 => (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)

Example 2.1.19:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥; 𝑓(1) = 0 => (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)

2.1.4 SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATION AND INEQUALITIES

(a) SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS

Find roots by factoring or using formulas.

Example 2.1.19:
𝑥 2 − 4 = 0; (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) => 𝑥 = 2, −2

Example 2.1.20:
𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 = 0; 𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 9) = 0 => 𝑥 = 0, ±3

(b) SOLVING POLYNOMIAL INEQUALITIES

1. Factor the Polynomial
2. Set the factors equal to zero to find the critical points
3. Create intervals based on these points:
4. Test each interval in the inequality
5. Write the solution

Example 2.1.21:
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 > 0

STEP 1: FACTOR THE POLYNOMIAL

𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)

STEP 2: EQUATE TO ZERO TO FIND CRITICAL POINTS

(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0 => 𝑥 = 3; 𝑥 = 3
So the critical points are x = 2 and x = 3

STEP 3: CREATE INTERVALS

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Intervals will be: (− ∞, 2), (2, 3), (3, ∞)

STEP 4: TEST EACH INTERVAL: (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) > 0

1. For 𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑛 (− ∞, 2): (1 − 2)(1 − 3) = (−1)(−2) > 0
2. For 𝑥 = 2.5 𝑖𝑛 (2, 3): (2.5 − 2)(2.5 − 3) = (0.5)(−0.8) = −0.28 < 0
3. For 𝑥 = 4 𝑖𝑛 (3, ∞) : (4 − 2)(4 − 3) = (2)(1) > 0

STEP5: WRITE THE SOLUTION

The intervals that satisfy the inequality 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 > 0 are:

𝑥 ∈ (− ∞, 2) ∪ (3, ∞)

Example 2.1.22:
𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 ≤ 0

STEP 1: FACTOR THE POLYNOMIAL

𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 = 𝑥 ( 𝑥 2 − 4) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)

STEP 2: EQUATE TO ZERO TO FIND CRITICAL POINTS

𝑥 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) = 0 => 𝑥 = 0; 𝑥 = 2; 𝑥 = −2

So the critical points are x = 0, x = 2 and x = - 2

STEP 3: CREATE INTERVALS

Intervals will be: (− ∞, − 2) , (−2, 0), (0, 2), (2, ∞)

STEP 4: TEST EACH INTERVAL: 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 ≤ 0

1. For 𝑥 = −3 𝑖𝑛 (− ∞, − 2): (−3)(−3 − 2)(−3 + 2) = (−3)(−5)(−1) = −15 < 0
2. For 𝑥 = −1 𝑖𝑛 (0, 2) : (−1)(−1 − 2)(−1 + 2) = (−1)(−3)(1) = 3 > 0
3. For 𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑛 (0, 2): (1)(1 − 2)(1 + 2) = (1)(−1)(3) = −3 < 0
4. For 𝑥 = 3 𝑖𝑛 (2, ∞): (3)(3 − 2)(3 + 2) = (3)(1)(5) = 15 > 0

STEP5: WRITE THE SOLUTION

Since the inequality 𝑥 ≤ 0 include only intervals where the product is non-positive, including the
critical points:
𝑥 ∈ [−2, 0] ∪ [2, ∞)

2.1.5 GRAPHING POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

(a) SHAPE BASED ON DEGREE AND LEADING COEFFICIENT

The shape of a polynomial function is influenced by its degree (the highest power of x) and its

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leading coefficient (the coefficient of the term with the highest degree).

Example 2.1.23:
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 (Degree 2, leading coefficient positive)

This is a quadratic function with a "U-shaped" or parabolic graph that opens upward because the
leading coefficient (1) is positive.

Example 2.1.24:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = − 𝑥 3 (Degree 3, leading coefficient negative)

This cubic function has an "S-shape" that moves downward to the right, as the leading
coefficient (-1) is negative.

(b) End Behaviour

The end behaviour of a polynomial function describes the direction of the graph as xxx
approaches infinity (positive or negative).

Example 2.1.25:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 (Degree 4, leading coefficient positive)

As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥 ) → ∞; 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → − ∞, 𝑓(𝑥 ) → ∞ (both sides up because degree is even and

leading coefficient is positive).

Example 2.1.26:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = − 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 (Degree 3, leading coefficient negative)

As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑔(𝑥 ) → − ∞; 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → − ∞, 𝑔(𝑥 ) → ∞ (one side up and one side down due to an

odd degree and a negative leading coefficient).

(c) Identifying Intercepts, Turning Points, and Relative Extrema

Intercepts:
Points where the graph crosses the x-axis (x-intercepts) and y-axis (y-intercept).

Turning Points:
Points where the graph changes direction, depending on the degree (maximum number of turning
points is degree - 1).

Relative Extrema: Local maximums and minimums of the function.

Example 2.1.27:
ℎ(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2

Intercepts: At x = 0, 2, and −1.

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Turning Points:
Around x = 0.5 and x = 1.5, where the graph shifts direction.

Relative Extrema: Local minimum and maximum near the turning points.

Example 2.1.28:
𝑘(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 2

Intercepts: At 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = ±2

Turning Points: Near 𝑥 = ±1.5 marking changes in direction..

Relative Extrema: Local minimum x = 0 and local maxima near 𝑥 = ±2.

2.1.5 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTION

1. What is the end behavior of a polynomial function with an odd degree and a positive
leading coefficient?
2. How many turning points can a polynomial of degree 5 have?
3. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4, what are the x – intercepts of the function?
4. Define the term "leading coefficient" in the context of a polynomial function.
5. What does the Factor Theorem state about a polynomial f(x) if f(a) = 0?
6. How do you determine the degree of a polynomial function?

SESSION 2: LINEAR FUNCTIONS

At the end of this session you will be able to all the various forms of linear functions and how to
solve problems.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the concept of linear functions and their various forms, such as standard
form, slope-intercept form, and point-slope form.
2. To learn to compute the slope of a line given two points and interpret the significance of
slope in linear functions.
3. To use different methods to graph linear functions and analyze characteristics such as
slope, intercepts, and orientation.
4. To be able to identify relationships between linear functions, such as parallelism and
perpendicularity
5. To be able to solve stems of linear equations using methods like graphing, substitution,
and elimination, and interpret different types of solutions.
Now read on …

44 | P a g e
SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

45 | P a g e
2.2.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

(a) Standard Form

Definition 2.2.1: Linear Function

A linear function in the Standard form is written as:
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶
Where A, B, and C are constants, and A, and B are both non – zero.

Example 2.2.1
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 12

This equation represents a line where A = 3, B = 4, and C = 12.

Example 2.2.2:
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 5

This line has A = 2, B = − 1, and C = 5.

(b) Slope Given 2 Points

To find the slope between two points, (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), use the formula:
𝑦 − 𝑦
𝑚 = 2 1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Example 2.2.3:
Points (1, 2) and (3, 6)
6−2 4
𝑚 = = =2
3−1 2

Example 2.2.4:
Points (2, - 1) and (5, 5)
5 −(−1) 6
𝑚 = = =2
5−2 3

(c) Slope – Intercept Form

The slope – intercept form is:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
where m is the slope and b is y intercept.

Example 2.2.5:
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3

This line has a slope of m = 2 and y - intercept of 3.

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Example 2.2.6:
1
𝑦= − 𝑥+4
2
1
This line has a slope of m = − and y - intercept of 4.
2

(d) Point - Slope Form

The slope – point form is:

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
where (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is a point on the line and m is the slope.

Example 2.2.7:
Point (1, 2) and m = 3.

Equation: 𝑦 − 2 = 3(𝑥 − 1) 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 1

Example 2.2.8:
Point (4, - 2) and m = - 1.

Equation: 𝑦 + 2 = −1(𝑥 − 4) 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 2

2.2.1 METHODS FOR PLOTTING LINEAR FUNCTION

(a) Using Slope-Intercept Form

Plot the y-intercept on the y-axis and then use the slope to find another point.

Example 2.2.9:
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1

Start at (0, 1), then move up 2 units and right 1 unit for the next point.

Example 2.2.10:
1
𝑦= − 𝑥+4
3
Start at (0, 4) then move down 1 unit and right 3 units for the next point.

(b) Using x and y Intercepts

Set y = 0 to find the x - intercept and x = 0 to find the y - intercept.

Example 2.2.11:
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 6

x – intercept: (3, 0), y – intercept: (0, 2)

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Example 2.2.12:
𝑥−𝑦 =2

x – intercept: (2, 0), y – intercept: (0, - 2)

(c) Horizontal and Vertical Lines

Horizontal lines have a slope of 0: y = c.

Example 2.2.13:
𝑦 = 3 (A horizontal line at y = 3)

Vertical lines have an undefined slope: x = c

Example 2.2.14:
x = - 2 (A vertical line at x = - 2)

2.2.2 IDENTIFYING PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

(a) Parallel Lines

Parallel lines have the same slope.

Example 2.2.14:
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3 (both have same slope of 2)

Example 2.2.15:
1 1 1
𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = − 𝑥 − 1 (both have slope of − )
2 2 2

(a) Perpendicular Lines

Perpendicular lines have slopes that are negative reciprocals.

Example 2.2.16:
1
𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = − 𝑥+4
3

Example 2.2.17:
1
𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = − 𝑥+3
4

2.2.3 SOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

(a) Graphing Method

Graph both equations on the same axes and identify the intersection.

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(b) Substitution

Solve for one variable and substitute into the other equation.

(c) Elimination

Add or subtract equations to eliminate a variable.

Types of Solutions:
1. One solution: Lines intersect at one point.
2. No solution: Parallel lines that never intersect.
3. Infinite solutions: Coinciding lines with the same equation.

2.2.4 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the slope of a line passing through points (1, 3) and (4, 7)?
2. Write the equation of a line in point-slope form for a line passing through (2, − 1) with a
slope of 5?
1
3. Identify whether the lines 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4 are parallel, perpendicular, or
2
neither.
4. Convert the equation 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12 to slope-intercept form?
5. What is the solution to the system of equations 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 4?
6. If a line has an equation 𝑦 = − 4𝑥 + 2 , what is the slope of a line parallel to it?

SESSION 3: QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

At the end of this session you will be able to all the various forms of Quadratic functions and
how to analyses and evaluate them.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the structure of quadratic functions and their standard form.
2. To identify the components of quadratic functions, such as quadratic, linear, and constant
terms.
3. To explore various methods to find the roots of quadratic functions, including factoring,
graphing, taking square roots, using the quadratic formula, and completing the square.
4. To develop skills in graphing quadratic functions by recognizing the shape, orientation,
and symmetry of parabolas.
5. To learn to to identify the vertex of a parabola and understand how to determine whether
the vertex is a maximum or minimum point.
Now read on …

49 | P a g e
SHORT NOTE
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

50 | P a g e
2.3.0 DEFINING THE STANDARD FORM OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION

The standard form of a quadratic function is:

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

where a, b and c are constants. Here:

1. The quadratic term is 𝑎𝑥 2

2. The linear term is 𝑏𝑥

3. The constant term is c.

Example 2.3.1:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5

1. The quadratic term is 2𝑥 2

2. The linear term is 3𝑥

3. The constant term is - 5.

Example 2.3.2:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 7

1. The quadratic term is − 𝑥 2

2. The linear term is 4𝑥

3. The constant term is 7

2.3.1 METHODS FOR FINDING ROOTS OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION

(a) Factorization Method

Factor the quadratic function into the form (𝑥 − 𝑟1 )(𝑥 − 𝑟2 ) = 0 , where 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are the roots.

Example 2.3.3:
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0

Factoring gives (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0; roots are x = 2 and x = 3.

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Example 2.3.4:
2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 6 = 0

Factoring gives 2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) = 0; roots are x = 1 and x = 3.

(b) Graphical Method

Graph the quadratic function and identify the x-intercepts (roots).

Example 2.3.5:
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 4

The graph of f(x) intersects the x-axis at x = − 2 and x = 2.

Example 2.3.6:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3

The graph intersects the x - axis at x = − 1 and x = 3.

(c) Taking Square Roots

If the quadratic equation is in the form ax2=kax^2 = kax2=k, isolate x2x^2x2 and take the square
root.

Example 2.3.7:
𝑥 2 = 16
Taking square roots gives 𝑥 = ±4

Example 2.3.8:
3𝑥 2 = 12
Dividing by 3 gives 𝑥 2 = 4; 𝑥 = ±2

(d) Quadratic Formula

Use the quadratic formula:

− 𝑏 ± √𝑏2−4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

Example 2.3.9:
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0

4 ± √16−12 4+2
Using the formula, 𝑥 = = ; roots are x = 3 and x = 1
2 2

Example 2.3.10:
2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 = 0

4 ± √16+48 4+8
Using the formula, 𝑥 = = ; roots are x = 3 and x = - 1
2 4

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(e) Completing the Square
Rewrite the quadratic equation by completing the square.

Example 2.3.11:
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5 = 0

Completing the square: (𝑥 + 3)2 − 4 = 0 roots are x = − 1 and x = − 5.

Example 2.3.12:
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 = 0

Completing the square: (𝑥 − 2)2 = 0 root is x = 2.

2.3.2 GRAPHING QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

(a) Recognizing Shape of Parabola

The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola.

If 𝑎 > 0, the parabola opens upward.

If 𝑎 < 0, the parabola opens downwards

(b) Direction of Parabola

For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2, the parabola opens upwards

For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1, the parabola opens downwards.

2.3.3 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

a) Vertex of a Parabola
The vertex of a parabola is the point where it changes direction. It is either the minimum or
maximum point of the function.

(b) Finding the Vertex Using a Formula

The vertex for a quadratic 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is at:

𝑏
𝑥= −
2𝑎

Example 2.3.13:
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1, the vertex is at x = 1.

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Example 2.3.14:
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = − 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 9, the vertex is at x = 3.

(c) Converting to Vertex Form

Convert 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 into form 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘 where (h, k) is the vertex.

Example 2.3.15:
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5 becomes (𝑥 + 3)2 − 4.

Example 2.3.16:
2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3 becomes 2(𝑥 − 2) − 1.

(d) Interpreting Vertex as Maximum or Minimum Point

If 𝑎 > 0, the vertex represents the minimum point.

If 𝑎 < 0, the vertex represents the maximum point.

2.3.4 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTION

1. What is the standard form of the quadratic function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2?
2. How do you find the vertex of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5?
3. Solve 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 by factoring?
4. What does the graph of 𝑦 = −2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 6 looks like?
5. Find the roots of 𝑥 2 − 4 = 0, using the square root method?
6. What are the maximum and minimum values of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3?

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SESSION 4: CUBIC, QUARTIC AND QUINTIC FUNCTIONS
At the end of this session you will be able to identify Cubic, Quartic and Quintic functions and
how to analyze it.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the structure and standard forms of cubic, quartic, and quintic functions.
2. To identify terms, degrees, and leading coefficients in higher-degree polynomial
functions.
3. To learn techniques for sketching the shapes of cubic, quartic, and quintic functions.
4. To explore methods to find roots and zeros of higher-degree polynomials.
5. To understand and apply polynomial division methods, including long division, synthetic
division, the Rational Root Theorem, and Descartes' Rule of Signs.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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2.4.0 DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

(a) Standard Form of Cubic, Quartic, and Quintic Functions

1. Cubic Function:
A cubic function is a polynomial function of degree 3, generally in the form:

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑

Example 2.4.1:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5

Example 2.4.2:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = − 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 + 1

Explanation:
The highest degree term x3x^3x3 determines that the function is cubic.

2. Quartic Function:
A quartic function is a polynomial function of degree 4, written as:

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 3 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒

Example 2.4.3:
ℎ(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5

Example 2.4.4:
𝑘(𝑥 ) = − 3𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 6

Explanation:
The leading term 𝑥 4 confirms this is a quartic function.

4. Quintic Function
A quintic function is a polynomial function of degree 5, expressed as:

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 5 + 𝑏𝑥 4 + 𝑐𝑥 3 + 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓

Example 2.4.5:
𝑝(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 1

Example 2.4.6:
𝑞 (𝑥 ) = − 𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 2 + 7

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Explanation:
The presence of the 𝑥 5 term makes this a quintic function.

(b) Identifying Terms, Degree, and Leading Coefficient

1. Terms: Each distinct part of the polynomial is separated by addition or subtraction

2. Degree: The highest exponent in the polynomial.

3. Leading Coefficient: The coefficient of the term with the highest degree.

Example 2.4.7:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 7

Terms: 3𝑥 4 ; −2𝑥 3 ; 7
Degree: 4 (from 𝑥 4 )
Leading Coefficient 3

Example 2.4.8:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = − 𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 − 9

Terms: − 𝑥 5 ; 4𝑥; −9
Degree: 4 (from 𝑥 5 )
Leading Coefficient - 1

2.4.1 SKETCHING SHAPES OF CUBIC, QUARTIC AND QUINTIC FUNCTIONS

1. CUBIC FUNCTIONS

Shape: S-shaped with one or two turning points.

Examples 2.4.9:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 has an upward curve and passes through the origin.
𝑔(𝑥 ) = − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 shows an S – shape but flips downward due to the negative leading
coefficient.

2. QUARTIC FUNCTIONS

Shape: W-shaped or M-shaped depending on the leading coefficient and roots.

Examples 2.4.10:
ℎ(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 has a W shape, symmetric around the y - axis.
𝑘(𝑥 ) = − 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 − 2 has an M shape, flipping downward due to the negative coefficient.

3. QUINTIC FUNCTIONS

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Shape: Multiple turning points, complex curves similar to cubic but with additional bends.

Examples 2.4.11:
𝑝(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 resembles an extended S - shape.
𝑞 (𝑥 ) = − 𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 3 also has an S-shape but with an inverted orientation due to the negative
coefficient.

2.4.2 FINDING ROOTS AND ZEROS OF HIGHER POLYNOMIALS

To find roots or zeros of higher-degree polynomials:

1. Factor the polynomial if possible.
2. Use polynomial division to simplify.
3. Apply the Rational Root Theorem to identify possible rational roots.
4. Use synthetic division to test potential roots.

Examples 2.4.12:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3

Factoring gives (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 3) = 0; 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = ±√3

2.4.3 POLYNOMIAL DIVISION METHODS

(a) Long Division for Higher Degree

Long division is used to divide polynomials of any degree by systematically dividing each term.

Examples 2.4.13:
Divide 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3 by x – 1.

Examples 2.4.14:
Divide 2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 by x + 2.

(b) Synthetic Division

A shortcut method for dividing polynomials when the divisor is of the form x − c.

Examples 2.4.15:
Divide 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 6 by x – 2.

Examples 2.4.16:
Divide 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 5 by x + 1.

c) Rational Root Theorem

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This theorem helps to identify possible rational roots by considering factors of the constant term
and the leading coefficient.

Examples 2.4.17:
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6, possible rational roots are:
± 1, ±2, ±3, ±6 divided by 2.

Examples 2.4.18:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 1 test rational roots ± 1 first.

(d) Descartes' Rule of Signs

Descartes' Rule of Signs gives the number of positive and negative real roots by counting sign
changes in the polynomial.

Examples 2.4.19:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 2, positive roots based on 2 sign changes.

Examples 2.4.20:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 5, 1 positive and possibly 3 negative roots.

2.4.4 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the degree and leading coefficient of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 5 − 𝑥 2 + 7?
2. How does a negative leading coefficient affect the shape of a cubic function?
3. Use synthetic division to divide 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2?
4. For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4, list possible rational roots.
5. Apply Descartes’ Rule of Signs to 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4?
6. Factor 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 6. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥

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SESSION 5: INEQUALITIES
At the end of this session you will be able to understand Inequalities, and conditions to find
feasible region and how to analyze it.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the definition and properties of rational functions.
2. To determine the domain of rational functions and identify points of discontinuity.
3. To be able to analyze and interpret vertical, horizontal, and slant asymptotes.
4. To be able to identify and handle “holes” in the graphs of rational functions.
5. To be able to solve rational equations and inequalities.
6. To be able to find inverses of rational functions where applicable.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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2.5.0 DEFINITION AND KEY CONCEPTS

(a) Definition of Inequalities

Inequalities describe relationships where one expression is greater than, less than, greater than or
equal to, or less than or equal to another expression. Symbols include:
 Greater than (>), less than (<)
 Greater than or equal to (≥), less than or equal to (≤)

(b) Types of Inequalities

1. Linear Inequalities: Inequalities in which the variable is raised only to the first power
(𝐸𝑔: 𝑥 + 3 > 2)
2. Quadratic Inequalities: Inequalities with a squared variable term
(𝐸𝑔: 𝑥 2 − 4 < 0).
3. Rational Inequalities: Inequalities with fractions, where variables are in the denominator
1
(𝐸𝑔: > 2).
2
4. Absolute Value Inequalities: Inequalities involving absolute values
(𝐸𝑔: |𝑥 − 5| ≤ 3)

(c) Distinguishing Between Equations and Inequalities

 Equations set two expressions as equal, finding specific solutions
(𝐸𝑔: 𝑥 + 3 = 5) yields (𝑥 = 2).
 Inequalities express a range of solutions (𝐸𝑔: 𝑥 + 3 > 5) implies (𝑥 > 2).

Example 2.5.1:
The equation 𝑥 + 4 = 8 has one solution, x = 4, while the inequality 𝑥 + 4 > 8 gives a range of
values, x > 4.

Example 2.5.2:
𝑥 2 = 9 has solutions 𝑥 = ± 3, while 𝑥 2 > 9 implies 𝑋 > 3 𝑂𝑅 𝑋 < −3.

2.5.1 METHODS TO SOLVE INEQUALITIES

(a) Solving Linear Inequalities

Linear inequalities can be solved similarly to equations, but the inequality sign reverses if we
multiply or divide by a negative number.

Example 2.5.3:

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Solve 2𝑥 − 3 > 5

SOLUTION: 2𝑥 > 8 => 𝑥 > 4

Example 2.5.4:
Solve − 3𝑥 ≤ 6

SOLUTION: − 3𝑥 ≤ 6 => 𝑥 ≥ −2 (Sign reversed because of division by – 3)

(b) Solving Quadratic Inequalities

Quadratic inequalities can be solved by factoring or using a sign chart to identify intervals where
the inequality holds.

Example 2.5.5:
Solve 𝑥 2 − 9 ≥ 0

SOLUTION: Factor to (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) ≥ 0, 𝑥 ≤ −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 3

Example 2.5.6:
Solve 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 < 0

SOLUTION: Factor to (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) < 0, 2 < 𝑥 < 3 .

(c) Solving Rational Inequalities

Rational inequalities involve fractions with variables in the denominator. Solutions involve
setting the numerator and denominator equal to zero and testing intervals.

Example 2.5.7:
𝑥 +1
Solve > 0
𝑥 −3

SOLUTION: Critical points are x = -1 and x = 3; solution is − 1 < 𝑥 < 3.

Example 2.5.8:
𝑥−4
Solve ≤ 0
𝑥+2

SOLUTION: Critical points are x = 4 and x = - 2; solution is − 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 4.

2.5.2 ABSOLUTE VALUE INEQUALITIES

Absolute value inequalities are solved by setting up two cases: one for the positive and one for
the negative scenario.

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Example 2.5.9:
Solve |𝑥 − 2| < 5

SOLUTION: - 5 < 𝑥 − 2 < 5 => −3 < 𝑥 < 7.

Example 2.5.10:
Solve |𝑥 + 3| ≥ 4

SOLUTION: 𝑥 + 3 ≥ 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 3 ≤ − 4 => 𝑥 ≥ 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ −7.

2.5.2 EXAMPLES OF QUADRATIC AND RATIONAL INEQUALITIES

(a) Quadratic Inequalities

Quadratic inequalities can be solved using factorization or sign analysis.

Example 2.5.11:
Solve 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 ≥ 4

SOLUTION: Rewrite as
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 ≥ 0; 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 1) ≥ 0, 𝑠𝑜 𝑥 ≤ −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 4.

Example 2.5.12:
Solve 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 < 34

SOLUTION: Rewrite as
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 ≥ 0; 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) ≥ 0, 𝑠𝑜 − 1 < 𝑥 < 3.

(b) Rational Inequalities

Solving rational inequalities involves finding critical points and testing intervals.

Example 2.5.13:
𝑥−2
Solve ≤ 0
𝑥+3

SOLUTION: Critical points are x = 2 and x = - 3; solution interval − 3 < 𝑥 ≤ 2.

Example 2.5.14:
𝑥 +1
Solve > 0
𝑥−4

SOLUTION: Critical points are x = - 1 and x = 4; solution intervals 𝑥 < −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 4.

2.5.3 SOLVING SYSTEMS OF INEQUALITIES AND LINEAR PROGRAMMING

(a) Systems of Linear Inequalities

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Systems of inequalities are solved by graphing each inequality and finding the overlapping
region.

Example 2.5.15:
Solve 𝑦 > 𝑥 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≤ 2𝑥 − 3

SOLUTION: Graph both inequalities and identify where they overlap.

The inequality: 𝑦 > 𝑥 + 1 is represented by the dash line:

Feasible region: (0, 0): 0 > 0 + 1 => 0 > 1 is false so region is above the dash line:

The inequality: 𝑦 ≤ 2𝑥 − 3 is represented by the solid line:

Feasible region: (0, 0): 0 ≤ 0 − 3 => 0 ≤ −3 is false so region is below solid line:
From the above plot they will not have common feasible region

Example 2.5.16:
Solve 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≤ 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 − 𝑦 ≥ 1

SOLUTION: Graph both inequalities and identify where they overlap.

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The inequality: 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≤ 5 is represented by the dash line:
Feasible region: (0, 0): 0 + 0 ≤ 5 => 0 ≤ 5 is True so region is below the dash line:

The inequality: 𝑥 − 𝑦 ≥ 1 is represented by the solid line:

Feasible region: (0, 0): 0 − 0 ≥ 1 => 0 ≥ 1 is False so region is below solid line:
From the above plot their common feasible region will below the dash and solid line.

(b) Quadratic and Nonlinear Inequalities in Two Variables

Nonlinear inequalities with two variables are graphed, with solutions represented by regions on
the graph.

Example 2.5.17:
Solve 𝑦 > 𝑥 2 − 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 < 𝑥 + 2.

SOLUTION: Graph both and identify the overlap.

Example 2.5.18:
Solve 𝑦 ≥ − 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 + 1.

SOLUTION: Graph both and identify the overlap.

(c) Linear Programming

Linear programming maximizes or minimizes a function subject to inequality constraints.

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Example 2.5.19:
Maximize 𝑃 = 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≤ 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0.

SOLUTION: Graph constraints and evaluate P at corner points.

Example 2.5.20:
Maximize 𝐶 = 5𝑥 + 6𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 + 2𝑦 ≥ 8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0.

SOLUTION: Graph feasible region and evaluate C at vertices.

2.5.4 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Solve |𝑥 − 4| > 3?
2. Determine the solution to 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 ≤ 0?
3. Solve the inequality 4 − 2𝑥 > 6?
𝑥+3
4. What is the solution to ≤0
𝑥−2
5. Solve the inequality 3𝑥 − 5 > 7.
6. Solve the inequality 𝑥 2 − 9 ≤ 0?
7. Solve the absolute value inequality ∣ |2𝑥 − 4| ≤ 6?
𝑥+2
8. Solve the rational inequality 3 < 0?
𝑥−2
9. Solve the inequality 4𝑥 − 7 ≤ 2𝑥 − 3.
10. Solve the quadratic inequality 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 > 0?

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SESSION 6: RATONAL FUNCTIONS
At the end of this session you will be able to know what Rational Functions are their properties
and how to plot and analyze them.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the concept of inequalities and the different types.
2. To distinguish between equations and inequalities.
3. To learn and apply methods for solving various types of inequalities, including linear,
quadratic, and rational inequalities.
4. To solve absolute value inequalities and represent solutions graphically.
5. To be able to analyze and solve systems of inequalities, as well as apply linear
programming for optimization.
Now read on …

69 | P a g e
SHORT NOTES:
3. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
4. Difficult topics if any

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2.6.0 DEFINITION WITH EXAMPLES AND EXPLANATIONS

(a) Rational Function

A rational function is any function that can be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials:

𝑝(𝑥)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = , where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials, and q(x) = 0.
𝑞(𝑥)

Examples 2.6.1:
𝑥2 + 3
𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥− 1

Explanation:
This function is rational because it is a ratio of the polynomial 𝑥 2 + 3 to 𝑥 − 1

2𝑥 + 5
𝑔 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥2 − 4

Explanation:
This is also a rational function, where the polynomial 2𝑥 + 5 is divided by 𝑥 2 − 4

(b) Domain of Rational Function

The domain of a rational function includes all real numbers except those that make the
denominator zero.

Examples 2.6.2:
𝑥 2+ 3
𝑓(𝑥) = , the domain is all real numbers except x = 1 because it makes the denominator
𝑥− 1
zero.

2𝑥+ 5
𝑔 (𝑥 ) = , the domain excludes x = 2 and x = - 2 because they make 𝑥 2 − 4 = 0.
𝑥2 − 4

(c) Vertical Asymptote

A vertical asymptote is a vertical line x = a where the function grows unbounded as x approaches
a from either side.

Examples 2.6.3:
1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = has a vertical asymptote ate x = 2.
𝑥− 2

Explanation: As x  2, f (x) grows towards infinity.

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 3𝑥+1
𝑔 (𝑥 ) = has a vertical asymptote ate x = - 3.
𝑥+ 3

Explanation: The function value becomes unbounded as x  - 3.

(d) Horizontal Asymptote

A rational function R(x) = P(x)/Q(x) has a horizontal asymptote y = a if, as | x | increases without
limit, R(x) approaches a. R(x) has at most one horizontal asymptote. The horizontal asymptote of
R(x) may be found from a comparison of the degree of P(x) and the degree of Q(x).
(1) If the degree of P(x) is less than the degree of Q(x), then R(x) has a horizontal
asymptote of y = 0.
(2) If the degree of P(x) is equal to the degree of Q(x), then R(x) has a horizontal
asymptote of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛 /𝑏𝑛 where 𝑎𝑛 is the lead coefficient (coefficient of the
highest degree term) of P(x) and 𝑏𝑛 is the lead coefficient of Q(x).
(3) If the degree of P(x) is greater than the degree of Q(x), then R(x) does not have a
horizontal asymptote.

A horizontal asymptote is a horizontal line y = b that the function approaches as x → ± ∞.

Examples 2.6.4:
What are the horizontal asymptotes of each rational function R(x)?

3𝑥 3
(a) 𝑅 (𝑥 ) = h
𝑥2 − 1

Explanation:
the degree of the numerator 3𝑥 3 is 3 and the degree of the denominator is 2. Since the numerator
exceeds the degree of the denominator, R(x) does not have a horizontal asymptote.

𝑥
(b) 𝑅 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥2 − 4

Explanation:
𝑥
The degree of the numerator of 𝑅(𝑥 ) = is 1 and the degree of the denominator is 2, so R(x)
𝑥2 − 4
has a horizontal asymptote of y = 0.

2𝑥+1
(c) 𝑅 (𝑥 ) =
3+5𝑥

Explanation:
2𝑥+1
The numerator and denominator of 𝑅(𝑥 ) = each have degree 1. Since the lead coefficient
3+5𝑥
of the numerator is 2 and the lead coefficient of the denominator is 5, R(x) has a horizontal
2
asymptote of 𝑦 = .
3

(e) Slant Asymptotes

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A slant asymptote (or oblique asymptote) occurs when the degree of the numerator is one higher
than that of the denominator, leading to a non-horizontal asymptote. You divide the numerator by
the denominator, the whole part of the division becomes the slant asymptote.

Examples 2.6.5:
𝑥 2 +1 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = =𝑥+ has a slant asymptote at y = x.
𝑥 𝑥

Explanation:
Dividing the numerator by the denominator gives a linear asymptote.

Examples 2.6.6:
2𝑥 2+3𝑥 𝑥
𝑔 (𝑥 ) = = 2𝑥 + has a slant asymptote at y = 2x.
𝑥+ 1 𝑥+1

Explanation: Performing polynomial division yields this asymptote.

(f) Holes
A hole in the graph of a rational function occurs at values that cancel out in both the numerator
and denominator.
To graph a rational function R(x) = P(x)/Q(x), we first determine the holes: values of x for which
both P(x) and Q(x) are zero.

Examples 2.6.7:
(𝑥−2)(𝑥 +3)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = has a hole at x = 2.
(𝑥−2)(𝑥+1)

Explanation:
The factor (x − 2) cancels, creating a hole at x = 2.

Examples 2.6.8:
𝑥 2 −9
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = has a hole at x = 3.
𝑥−3

Explanation:
The function simplifies to x + 3 with a hole at x = 3.

2.6.1 SOME EXMPLES AND EXPLANATIONS

(a) Solving Rational Equations

2 3
1. Solve = ?
𝑥+1 𝑥−1

Solution: Cross – Multiply to get 2(x – 1) = 3(x + 1), leading to x = - 5.

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 𝑥+2 3𝑥+1
2. Solve =
𝑥 𝑥+1

Solution: Cross – multiply and solve the resulting polynomial

(b) Rational Inequalities
𝑥+3
1. Solve > 0?
𝑥−2

Solution: Find critical points and text intervals to determine where the function is
positive.

2𝑥−5
2. Solve ≤0
𝑥+3

Solution: Solve the inequality by identifying the intervals where the function is non-
positive.

(c) Finding Inverse of Rational Function

2𝑥+3
1. Find the inverse of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ?
𝑥−4

4𝑥+3
Solution: Swap x and y, solve for y to get 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥−2

𝑥+1
2. Find the inverse of 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ?
2𝑥−3

3𝑥+1
Solution: Swap x and y, solve for y to get 𝑔−1 (𝑥 ) =
2𝑥−1

2.6.2 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define a rational function and give an example?
𝑥 2+1
2. Identify he domain of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ?
𝑥−3
2𝑥
3. What is the vertical asymptote for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ?
𝑥+4
𝑥 2 −4
4. Does 𝑔(𝑥 ) = have a hole, and where?
𝑥−2
𝑥+1
5. Solve the rational equation =1?
𝑥−2
𝑥+2
6. Determine if > 0 when x = 3
𝑥−1

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UNIT 3 – EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC
FUNCTIONS
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions are foundational mathematical tools used to describe
growth, decay, and scaling in various fields like biology, finance, physics, and engineering.

HISTORY:

 Exponential Functions: These functions date back to early arithmetic studies on growth
rates and population modelling, developed during the Renaissance period. They describe
rapid growth or decay processes, defined as functions with a constant base raised to a
variable exponent. This concept has evolved to form the basis of modern-day calculations
of interest rates and population growth.
 Logarithmic Functions: Introduced by John Napier in the early 17th century, logarithms
were originally a tool to simplify complex multiplications and divisions. Napier's tables
of logarithms transformed navigation, astronomy, and early scientific computations by
providing an easier way to handle large numbers. The concept was later expanded and
formalized by mathematicians like Henry Briggs, who introduced the common logarithm.

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SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION TO EXPONENTS AND
LOGARITHMS
At the end of this session you will be able to recognize, simplify, and perform operations in using
different techniques in exponents and logarithm functions.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the basic concepts of exponent and logarithm functions and their
mathematical notations.
2. To be able to explore the relationship between exponential and logarithmic forms,
highlighting how they serve as inverse functions.
3. To recognize the significance of exponential and logarithmic.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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3.1.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

(a) Exponent Function

An Exponent Function expresses repeated multiplication of a base. It’s written in the form
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 , where a is the base and x is the exponent.

Example 3.1.1:
23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8 (2 multiplied by itself three times)

Example 3.1.2:
50 = 1 (any non-zero number raised to zero equals 1).

(b) Rules of Exponents

The main rules for working with exponents simplify computations and include the product,
quotient, and power rules.

Example 3.1.3: PRODUCT RULE

𝑎𝑚 ∙ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 . For instance, 32 ∙ 33 = 32+3 = 35 = 243

Example 3.1.4: POWER RULE

(𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚.𝑛 . For instance, (23 )2 = 23.2 = 26 = 64

(c) Types of Exponents

Exponents can be positive, negative, or zero, each altering the result based on the exponent’s
sign.

Example 3.1.4:
Positive Exponent: 54 = 625 (Normal Multiplication)

Example 3.1.5:
1 1
Negative Exponent: 2− 3 = = (Negative Exponent result in finding the Reciprocal)
23 8

3.1.1 DEFINITIONS OF LOGARITHMIC CONCEPTS

A Logarithm Function is the inverse of an exponent function, written as

𝑦 = log𝑎 (𝑥), meaning 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Example 3.1.6:
log2 (8) = 3 because 23 = 8

Example 3.1.7:

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log10 (100) = 2 because 102 = 100

(b) Rules of Logarithms

Logarithmic rules include the product, quotient, and power rules, which help simplify
logarithmic expressions.

Example 3.1.8: (PRODUCT RULE)

log𝑏 (𝑥 ∙ 𝑦) = log𝑏 (𝑥) + log𝑏 (𝑦) . For instance,
log2 (8 ∙ 4) = log2 (8) + log2 (4) = 3 + 2 = 5

Example 3.1.9: (QUOTIENT RULE)

𝑥
log𝑏 ( ) = log𝑏 (𝑥) − log𝑏 (𝑦) . For example,
𝑦
27
log3 ( ) = log3 (27) + log3 (3) = 3 − 1 = 2
3

(c) Types of Logarithms

There are primarily two types:

1. Common Logarithm (Base 10): Used frequently in scientific applications (written as
log(𝑥)).

2. Natural Logarithm (Base e): Used in natural growth contexts, denoted as ln (𝑥).

(d) Converting between Exponential and Logarithmic Forms

This involves changing an equation from one form to another:

Example 3.1.10:
Convert 82 = 64 to logarithmic form: log8 (64) = 2

Example 3.1.11:
Convert log5 (25) = 2 to logarithmic form: 52 = 25

3.1.2 RELATIONASHIP BETWEEN EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS

Exponents and logarithms are inverse operations. For a base a, the following is true:
 If 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥 , then 𝑦 = log𝑎 (𝑥)

 This inverse relationship allows solving exponential equations by taking logs and solving
logarithmic equations by exponentiating.

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Example 3.1.12:
23 = 8 is equivalent to log2 (8) = 3

Example 3.1.13:
104 = 10,000 is equivalent to log10 (10,000) = 4

3.1.3 SELF - ASSESSMNT QUESTIONS

1. What is 34 in simplified form?
2. Convert 25 = 32 to logarithmic form?
3. Simplify log5 (25) + log5 (4) ?
4. What is log10 (10,000)?
1
5. If 𝑎− 2 = , what is a?
25
−1
6. Simplify 5 × 53 ?

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SESSION 2: PROPERTIES AND LAWS OF EXPONENTS
At the end of this session you will be able to understand the properties and laws and operations
in exponent functions.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the core rules of exponents and how they simplify calculations involving
powers.
2. To be able to apply the properties of exponents to solve problems efficiently, including
simplifying expressions and performing operations.
3. To develop familiarity with combining multiple exponent rules in complex expressions,
which is crucial for higher-level algebra and calculus.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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3.2.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES OF EXPONENT LAWS

(a) Product Rule

The Product Rule for exponents states that when multiplying two powers with the same base,
you add the exponents: 𝑎𝑚 ∙ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 .

Example 3.2.1:
32 ∙ 33 = 32+3 = 35 = 243

Example 3.2.2:
𝑥 4 ∙ 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 4+2 = 𝑥 6 .

(b) Quotient Rule

The Quotient Rule for exponents states that when dividing two powers with the same base, you
𝑎𝑚
subtract the exponents: = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛
𝑎𝑛

Example 3.2.3:
54
= 54−2 = 52 = 25
52

Example 3.2.4:
𝑥7
= 𝑥 7−5 = 𝑥 2
𝑥5

(c) Power of a Power Rule

The Power of a Power Rule states that when raising a power to another power, you multiply the
exponents: (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚.𝑛 .

Example 3.2.5:
(23 )2 = 23 .2 = 26 = 64

Example 3.2.6:
(𝑥 5 )3 = 𝑥 5 .3 = 𝑥 15

(d) Quotient of a Power Rule

The Quotient of a Power Rule applies when a fraction is raised to an exponent. Each part of the
𝑎 𝑚 𝑎𝑚
fraction is raised to the power separately: ( ) =
𝑏 𝑏𝑚

Example 3.2.:7

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 𝟑 𝟐 32 9
( ) = 2=
𝟒 4 19

Example 3.2.8:
𝒙 𝟑 𝑥3
( ) =
𝒚 𝑦3

(e) Product of a Power Rule

The Product of a Power Rule applies when two different bases are raised to the same exponent.
This rule allows each base to be raised to the power individually: (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏)𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 ∙ 𝑏 𝑚 .

Example 3.2.9:
(2 ∙ 3)2 = 22 ∙ 32 = 4 ∙ 9 = 36.

Example 3.2.9:
(2 ∙ 3)2 = 22 ∙ 32 = 4 ∙ 9 = 36.

3.2.1 EXAMPLES OF COMBINING EXPONENT RULES

When expressions involve multiple exponent rules, they can often be simplified by applying
more than one rule at a time.

Example 3.2.10:
(23 ∙ 24 )2

Solution: First, apply the Product Rule inside the parentheses: (23+4 )2 = (27 )2 .
Then, apply the Power of a Power Rule: 27∙2 = 214 .

Example 3.2.11:
(𝑥 4 ∙ 𝑦 2 )3
𝑥5

𝑥 4 ∙3 ∙𝑦 2 ∙3 𝑥 12 ∙𝑦 6
Solution: Start by applying the Power of a Power Rule in the numerator: =
𝑥5 𝑥5
12−5 6 7 6
Then apply the Quotient Rule for x: 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 = 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 .

3.2.2 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Simplify (32 ∙ 35 )?
78
2. Simplify ?
73
3. What is (43 )2 ?
4. Simplify (2 ∙ 5)4 ?
2 3
5. Simplify ( ) ?
3
6. Simplify (𝑥 2 ∙ 𝑦 3 )4 ?

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SESSION 3: PROPERTIES AND LAWS OF LOGARITHMS
At the end of this session you will be able to understand the properties and laws and operations
in logarithm functions.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the fundamental properties and laws of logarithms.
2. To be able to apply these properties to simplify and manipulate logarithmic expressions.
3. To gain confidence in converting between logarithmic and exponential forms, as well as
combining and expanding logarithmic expressions to solve various mathematical
problems.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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3.3.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES OF LOGARITHMIC PROPERTIES

(a) Product Rule

The Product Rule states that the logarithm of a product is equal to the sum of the logarithms:
log𝑏 (𝑥 ∙ 𝑦) = log𝑏 (𝑥 ) + log𝑏 (𝑦).

Example 3.3.1:
log2 (8 ∙ 4) = log2 (8) + log2 (4) = 3 + 2 = 5

Example 3.3.2:
log10 (100 ∙ 10) = log10 (100) + log10 (10) = 2 + 1 = 3

(b) Quotient Rule

The Quotient Rule states that the logarithm of a quotient is equal to the difference of the
logarithms:
𝑥
log𝑏 ( ) = log𝑏 (𝑥 ) − log𝑏 (𝑦)
𝑦

Example 3.3.3:
27
log3 ( ) = log𝑏 (27) − log𝑏 (3) = 3 − 1 = 2
3

Example 3.3.4:
1000
log10 ( ) = log10 (1000) − log10 (100) = 3 − 2 = 1
100

(c) Power Rule

The Power Rule states that the logarithm of a power is equal to the exponent times the logarithm
of the base:
log𝑏 (𝑥 𝑛) = 𝑛 ∙ log𝑏 (𝑥 )

Example 3.3.5:
log2 (82 ) = 2 ∙ log2 (8) = 2 ∙ 3 = 6

Example 3.3.6:
log10 (104 ) = 4 ∙ log10 (10) = 4 ∙ 1 = 4

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(d) Change of Base Rule
The Change of Base Rule allows you to rewrite a logarithm in terms of logarithms with a
different base:
log𝑘 (𝑥 )
log𝑏 (𝑥 ) =
log𝑘 (𝑥 )

Example 3.3.7:
log10 (8) 0.903
log2 (8) = ≈ =1
log10 (2) 0.301

Example 3.3.8:
log10 (25) 1.398
log5 (25) = ≈ =2
log10 (5) 0.699

(e) Equality Rule

The Equality Rule for logarithms states that if log𝑏 (𝑥 ) = log𝑏 (𝑦), then x = y.

Example 3.3.9:
log3 (𝑥 ) = log3 (9), then x = 9

Example 3.3.10:
log2 (𝑥 ) = log2 (16), then x = 16

(f) Log of 1
The log of 1 property states that the logarithm of 1 to any base is 0:
log𝑏 (1) = 0

Example 3.3.11:
log10 (1) = 0

Example 3.3.12:
log7 (1) = 0

(g) Log to the Same Base

The Log to the Same Base property states that the logarithm of a base to itself is 1:
log𝑏 (𝑏 ) = 1

Example 3.3.13:
log10 (10) = 1

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Example 3.3.14:
log3 (3) = 1

(h) Log to Base 10

Common Logarithm or Log to base 10 is often written as log 𝑥 and assumes a base of 10.

Example 3.3.15:
log(100) = 2 because 102 = 100

Example 3.3.16:
log(1000) = 3 because 103 = 1000

(i) Log to Base e

Natural Logarithm or Log to base e is denoted as ln(𝑥)

Example 3.3.15:
ln (𝑒 2 ) because 𝑒 2 = 𝑒 2

Example 3.3.16:
ln (𝑒 3 ) because 𝑒 3 = 𝑒 3

(j) CHANGE FROM LOG TO EXPONENT FORM

This rule allows you to convert between logarithmic and exponential forms:
log𝑏 (𝑥 ) = 𝑦 => 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑥

Example 3.3.17:
log2 (16) = 4 means 24 = 16

Example 3.3.18:
log5 (625) = 4 means 54 = 625

3.3.1 METHODS FOR WORKING WITH LOGARITHMIC EXPRESSIONS

(a) Combining and Expanding Logarithmic Expressions

Examples 3.3.19:
Combine: log(2) + log(5) = log(2 ∙ 5) = log(10)

Examples 3.3.20:
Expand: log(50) = log(5 ∙ 10) = log(5) + log(10) = 1 + log(5)

(b) Techniques for Rewriting Logarithmic Expressions

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Examples 3.3.21:
log(9)
Rewrite: log3 (9) using the base rule as =2
log(3)

Examples 3.3.22:
Rewrite: ln(1⁄𝑒 ) as - 1 because ln(𝑒 − 1 ) = −1

(c) Techniques for Simplifying Logarithmic Expressions|

Example 3.3.24::
Simplify log5 (125) by rewriting 125 = 53 ; log5 (125) = 3

Example 3.3.25:
Simplify ln(𝑒 4 ) = 4 using the Power rule.

3.3.2 SELF -ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is log3 (25)?
2. Simplify log3 (9) + log3 (3)?
3. Rewrite log10 (1000) in exponential form?
4. If log2 (𝑥 ) = 4, what is x?
5. Expand log(3𝑥)?
6. Simplify ln(𝑒 5 )?

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SESSION 4: SOLVING EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC
EQUATIONS
At the end of this session you will be able to understand and correctly solve equations in both
exponential and logarithm functions.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand how to identify and solve both exponential and logarithmic equations.
2. To be able develop techniques to apply logarithmic functions to simplify and solve
equations.
3. To learn about real-world applications involving exponential growth and decay, and
logarithmic scales, and apply these concepts to solve related problems.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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3.4.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

(a) Definition and Form of Exponential Equations

SHORT NOTES:
1. Three kinds of functions that are often useful in mathematical models are linear
functions, exponential functions, and logarithmic functions.
2. If the data lies on a straight line, or seems to lie approximately along a straight line, a
linear model may be best.
3. If the data is non-linear, we often consider an exponential or logarithmic model, though
other models, such as quadratic models, may also be considered.
4. In choosing between an exponential model and a logarithmic model, we look at the way
the data curves. This is called the concavity.
5. If we draw a line between two data points, and all (or most) of the data between those
two points lies above that line, we say the curve is concave down.
6. We can think of it as a bowl that bends downward and therefore cannot hold water.
7. If all (or most) of the data between those two points lies below the line, we say the curve
is concave up.
8. In this case, we can think of a bowl that bends upward and can therefore hold water.
9. An exponential curve, whether rising or falling, whether representing growth or decay, is
always concave up away from its horizontal asymptote.
10. A logarithmic curve is always concave away from its vertical asymptote.
11. In the case of positive data, which is the most common case, an exponential curve is
always concave up, and a logarithmic curve always concave down.
12. A logistic curve changes concavity. It starts out concave up and then changes to concave
down beyond a certain point called a point of inflection.
13. After using the graph to help us choose a type of function to use as a model, we substitute
points and solve to find the parameters. We reduce round-off errors by choosing points as
far apart as possible

3.4.1 BUILDING AN EXPONENTIAL MODEL FROM DATA

1. As we’ve learned, there are a multitude of situations that can be modeled by exponential
functions, such as
(a) investment growth,
(b) radioactive decay,
(c) atmospheric pressure changes, and
(d) temperatures of a cooling object.
2. What do these phenomena have in common?
3. For one thing, all the models either increase or decrease as time moves forward. But
that’s not the whole story.
4. It’s the way data increase or decrease that helps us determine whether it is best modeled
by an exponential equation.

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 5. Knowing the behavior of exponential functions in general allows us to recognize when to
use exponential regression, so let’s review exponential growth and decay.

Recall that exponential functions have the form

𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 or

𝑦 = 𝐴0 𝑒 𝑘𝑥
When performing regression analysis, we use the form most commonly used on graphing
utilities, 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 (assume a > 0):

- b must be greater than zero and not equal to one

- The initial value of the model is y = a.

If b > 1, the function models exponential growth. As x increases, the outputs of the model
increase slowly at first, but then increase more and more rapidly, without bound.

If 0 < b < 1, the function models exponential decay. As x increases, the outputs for the
model decrease rapidly at first and then level off to become asymptotic to the x-axis. In
other words, the outputs never become equal to or less than zero.

An exponential equation is one in which the variable is in the exponent. The general form is:
𝑎 ∙ 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑐

Example 3.4.1:
48
3 ∙ 2𝑥 = 48 => 2𝑥 = = 16 => 2𝑥 = 24 => 𝑥 = 4
3

Example 3.4.2:
125
5𝑥+1 = 125 => 5 ∙ 5𝑥 = 125 => 5𝑥 = = 25 => 5𝑥 = 52 => 𝑥 = 2
5

(b) Growth Equation

A growth equation models exponential growth and takes the form:
𝑦 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑒 𝑘𝑡

where a is the initial value, e is the base of the natural logarithm, k is the growth rate, and t is
time.

Example 3.4.3:
𝑦 = 200 ∙ 𝑒 0.05𝑡 , modeling an increase in value at a 5% growth rate.

Example 3.4.4:
𝑦 = 100 ∙ 𝑒 0.1𝑡 , showing a population doubling with a 10% rate.

(c) Decay Equation

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A decay equation models exponential decay and typically has the form:
𝑦 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑡

Example 3.4.5:
𝑦 = 150 ∙ 𝑒 − 0.2𝑡 , showing a 20% decay.

Example 3.4.6:
𝑦 = 80 ∙ 𝑒 − 0.05𝑡 , modeling radioactive decay over time.

(d) Initial Value

The initial value is the starting amount or value at t=0t = 0t=0 in exponential functions.

Example 3.4.7:
𝑦 = 200 ∙ 𝑒 0.05𝑡 , the initial value is 200.

Example 3.4.8:
𝑦 = 50 ∙ 𝑒 − 0.03𝑡 , the initial value is 50.

3.4.2 DEFINITION OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

A logarithmic function is the inverse of an exponential function. Its general form is:

𝑦 = log𝑏 (𝑥)

Example 3.4.9:
𝑦 = log10 (100) = 2 because 102 = 100.

Example 3.4.10:
𝑦 = log2 (8) = 3 because 23 = 8.

3.4.2 SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

a) Matching Bases
When bases can be made the same, you can set the exponents equal to each other.

Example 3.4.11:
𝑦 = log10 (100) = 2 because 102 = 100.

Example 3.4.12:
𝑦 = log2 (8) = 3 because 23 = 8.

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(b) Isolating Terms
Rewrite the equation to isolate the exponential term before solving.

Example 3.4.13:
𝑦 = log10 (100) = 2 because 102 = 100.

Example 3.4.14:
𝑦 = log2 (8) = 3 because 23 = 8.

(c) Applying Logarithms

Taking the log of both sides helps solve equations when bases don’t match.

Example 3.4.15:
𝑦 = log10 (100) = 2 because 102 = 100.

Example 3.4.16:
𝑦 = log2 (8) = 3 because 23 = 8.

3.4.3 SOLVING LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

(a) Isolate the Log Terms

Move all log terms to one side of the equation.

Example 3.4.17:
𝑦 = log10 (100) = 2 because 102 = 100.

Example 3.4.18:
𝑦 = log2 (8) = 3 because 23 = 8.

(b) Converting to Exponential Form

Convert the log equation to its exponential form to solve for x.

Example 3.4.19:
𝑦 = log10 (100) = 2 because 102 = 100.

Example 3.4.20:
𝑦 = log2 (8) = 3 because 23 = 8.

3.4.4 REAL – WORLD APPLICATIONS

(a) Exponential Growth Example

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A city’s population grows at 3% per year, with an initial population of 50,000.

Solution: Use 𝑃 = 50000 ∙ 𝑒 0.03𝑡

Interpretation: After 10 years, 𝑃 ≈ 50000 ∙ 𝑒 0.03 ≈ 51,523.

(b) Exponential Decay Example

A radioactive substance decays at 5% per year with an initial amount of 100 grams.

Solution: Use 𝐴 = 100 ∙ 𝑒 − 0.05𝑡.

Interpretation: After 10 years, 𝐴 ≈ 100 ∙ 𝑒 − 0.05𝑡 ≈ 95.12 grams.

3.4.5 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Solve 2𝑥+1 = 16?
2. Rewrite log5 (25) in exponential form and solve it?
3. If 3𝑥 = 81, what is x?
4. Convert ln(𝑥) = 1 to exponential form ad solve?
5. Solve log2 (𝑥 ) + log2 (8) = 5
6. If a population grows at a rate of 5% annually with an initial population of 200, what will
it be after 10 years?

SESSION 5: GRAPHING EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS WITH

APPLICATIONS
At the end of this session you will be able to correctly graph exponential equations and functions
and interpret its applications.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to recognize and interpret the graph of an exponential function.
2. To be able to identify key features such as the base, growth or decay behavior, and
asymptotes of exponential functions.
3. To be able to analyze transformations of exponential graphs, including vertical and
horizontal shifts, reflections, and their effect on the function’s shape.
4. To be able to apply exponential functions in real-world contexts, specifically in situations
involving exponential growth and decay, like population models and radioactive decay.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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3.5.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

SHORT NOTES
Exponential functions are used for many real-world applications such as finance, forensics,
computer science, and most of the life sciences. Working with an equation that describes a real-
world situation gives us a method for making predictions. Seeing their graphs gives us another
layer of insight for predicting future events.

Exponential growth is modelled by functions of the form 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑏 𝑥 where the base is greater
than one. Exponential decay occurs when the base is between zero and one. We’ll use the
1 𝑥
functions 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ( ) to get some insight into the behaviour of graphs that
2
model exponential growth and decay.

Example 3.5.1:

Table: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥

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3.5.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GRAPH OF THE PARENT FUNCTION

An exponential function with the form 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑏 𝑥 , 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1, has these characteristics:

 One – to – one function

 Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
 x – intercept: none
 y – intercept (0, 1) and key point (1, b)
 domain: (− ∞, ∞)
 range: (0, ∞)
 increasing if b > 1 – “Exponential growth”
 decreasing if 0 < b < 1 – “exponential decay”

a) Identifying the Base

Definition 3.5.1:
The base of an exponential function is the constant factor in the form 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 𝑥 , where b is
the base.

Example 3.5.2:
In 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2 ∙ 3𝑥 , the base is 3. This indicates exponential growth.

Example 3.5.3:
1
In 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 5 ∙ (0.5) 𝑥, the base is 0.5, i.e. meaning the function models exponential decay.
2

(b) Identifying Growth or Decay

Definition 3.5.2:
If the base b > 1, the function shows exponential growth, if 0 < b < 1, it shows decay.

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Example 3.5.4:
ℎ(𝑥 ) = 4 ∙ 1.2𝑥 grows because 1.2 > 1

Example 3.5.5:
𝑘 (𝑥 ) = 7 ∙ (0.8) 𝑥 decays because 0.8 < 1.

(c) Identifying Asymptotes

Definition 3.5.3:
The horizontal asymptote of an exponential function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐 is the line y = c.

Example 3.5.6:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3 ∙ 2𝑥 + 1, the asymptote is y = 1.

Example 3.5.7:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2 ∙ 5𝑥 + 3, the asymptote is y = 3.

3.5.1 TRANSFORMATIONS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS WITH EXAMPLES

AND EXPLANATIONS

(a) Vertical Shifts

Explanation:
Adding or subtracting a constant ccc from 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 𝑥 shifts the graph up or down.

Example 3.5.8:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 3 shifts the graph of 2𝑥 up by 3 units.

Example 3.5.9:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 4 ∙ 3𝑥 − 2 shifts 4 ∙ 3𝑥 down by 2 units.

(b) Horizontal Shifts

Explanation:
Adding or subtracting a constant h inside the exponent shifts the graph left or right.

Example 3.5.10:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥+2 shifts 2𝑥 left by 2 units.

Example 3.5.11:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥−1 shifts 3𝑥 right by 1 unit.

(c) Reflections
Explanation: Multiplying the function by -1 reflects it across the x – axis.

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Example 3.5.12:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = − 2𝑥 reflects 2𝑥 across the x – axis.

Example 3.5.13:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = − 3𝑥−1 reflects 3𝑥−1 across the x – axis

3.5.2 APPLICATIONS OF EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY WITH

EXAMPLES

(a) Exponential Growth

Example 3.5.14:
Population Growth: If a population grows by 5% annually, the model is 𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑃0 ∙ 1.05𝑡 .

Explanation: This formula shows how populations grow faster over time.

Example 3.5.15:
Investment Growth: An investment growing at a rate of 8% annually can be modeled as
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝐴0 ∙ 1.08𝑡

Explanation: This shows how the investment compounds and increases in value exponentially.

(b) Exponential Decay

Example 3.5.16:
Radioactive Decay: If a substance decays by 10% per year, its amount after t years is
𝑀(𝑡) = 𝑀0 ∙ 0.9𝑡

Explanation: This model shows how the material quantity reduces over time.

Example 3.5.17:
Depreciation: An item losing 20% of its value yearly can be modeled as
𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝑉0 ∙ 0.8𝑡

Explanation: This exponential decay model shows how the item's value decreases over time.
3.5.3 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
1. Identify the base in the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 ∙ 3𝑥 ?
2. Determine whether 𝑔(𝑥) = 7 ∙ (0.4) 𝑥 represents growth or decay?
3. For ℎ(𝑥 ) = 2 ∙ 5𝑥 + 1, what is the asymptote?
4. How does 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥+3 relate to the function 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 ?
5. What is the reflection of 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 across the x – axis?
6. A substance decays by 15% yearly. Write an exponential decay model?

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SESSION 6: GRAPHING LOGARITHM FUNCTIONS WITH
APPLICATIONS
At the end of this session you will be able to correctly graph logarithmic equations and functions
and interpret its applications.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to understand the graph of a logarithmic function and identify its key features,
including domain, range, asymptotes, and transformations.
2. To be able to recognize the relationship between logarithmic and exponential functions as
inverses.
3. To be able to explore transformations of logarithmic functions and understand how shifts,
reflections, and stretches affect their graphs.
4. To be able to apply logarithmic functions to real-world scenarios.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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3.6.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

SHORT NOTES
A graphical representation of an exponential model provides some insight in predicting future
events. Logarithmic graphs provide similar insight but in reverse because every logarithmic
function is the inverse of an exponential function. This section illustrates how logarithm
functions can be graphed, and for what values a logarithmic function is defined.

To graph a logarithmic function 𝑦 = log𝑏 (𝑥), it is easiest to convert the equation to its
exponential form, 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦. Generally, when graphing a function, various x - values are
chosen and each is used to calculate the corresponding y - value. In contrast, for this method, it is
the y - values that are chosen and the corresponding xx-values that are then calculated.

Example 3.6.1:
Graph 𝑦 = log2 (𝑥)

Table: 𝑦 = log2 (𝑥)

The graphs of 𝑦 = log2 (𝑥), 𝑦 = log3 (𝑥), and 𝑦 = log5 (𝑥) (all log functions with b > 1), are
similar in shape and also:

 All the graphs contains the key point (1, 0) because 0 = log𝑏 (1) means 𝑏 0 = (1) which
is true for any b.
 All graphs contains the key point (b, 1) because 1 = log𝑏 (𝑏 ) means 𝑏1 = (𝑏) which is
true for any b.
1 1 1
 All graphs contain the key point ( , −1) because −1 = log𝑏 ( ) means 𝑏 −1 = ( )
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
which is true for any b.
 All graphs approach the y – axis very closely but never touch it. This line x = 0, the y –
axis, is a vertical asymptote.
 The graphs never touch the y – axis so the domain all positive numbers, written (0, ∞) in
the interval notation.

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  All the graphs have the same range – the set of all real numbers, written in interval
notation as (− ∞, ∞)

Example 3.6.2:
1 𝑦
Graph 𝑦 = log 1 (𝑥) in exponential form: (3) = 𝑥
3

Table: 𝑦 = log 1 (𝑥)

3

The graphs of 𝑦 = log1 (𝑥), 𝑦 = log 1 (𝑥), and 𝑦 = log 1 (𝑥) are similar:
2 3 4

 The graphs of all have the same basic shape. This is because all the long functions have a
fractional base 0 < b < 1.
 All graphs contain the vertical asymptote x = 0 and key points (1, 0), (b, 1), (1/b, - 1) just
like when b > 1.
 The domain and range are also the same as when b > 1. The domain is (0, ∞), the range
is (− ∞, ∞) and the y – axis is the vertical asymptote.
3.6.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GRAPH F THE FUNCTION 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 (𝒙)

For any real number x and constant b > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1, we can see the following characteristics in the
graph 𝑓(𝑥) = log𝑏 (𝑥):

 One – to – one function

 Vertical asymptote: x = 0
 Key points: x – intercept (1, 0), (b, 1), (1/b, - 1)
 y – intercept: none
 domain: (0, ∞)
 range: (− ∞, ∞)
 increasing if b > 1
 decreasing if 0 < b < 1

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 The diagram on the right illustrates the
graphs of three logarithmic functions
with different bases, all greater than 1.
It shows how changing the base b in
𝑓(𝑥) = log𝑏 (𝑥) can affect the graphs.
Observe that the graphs compress
vertically as the value of the base
increases. (Note: recall that the function
ln(𝑥) has base 𝑒 ≈ 2.718.

(a) Domain and Range of Logarithmic Functions

Definition 3.6.1:
For a logarithmic function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = log𝑏 (𝑥), the domain is x > 0, and the range is all real
numbers.

Example 3.6.3:
For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = log2 (𝑥), the domain is x > 0 and the range is (− ∞, ∞).

Example 3.6.4:
For 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ln(𝑥), the domain is x > 0 and the range is (− ∞, ∞).

(b) Inverse of Exponential Functions

Definition 3.6.2:
The inverse of an exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 is a logarithmic function 𝑥 = log𝑏 (𝑦).

Example 3.6.5:
The inverse of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 is 𝑓 − 1 (𝑥 ) = log2 (𝑥)

Example 3.6.6:

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For 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 the inverse is 𝑔− 1 (𝑥 ) = ln(𝑥)

(c) Logarithm to Base 10 and e

Definition 3.6.3:
The logarithm base 10, denoted log10 (𝑥) or simply log(𝑥), is common in scientific calculations.
The logarithm base e, denoted ln(𝑥), is the natural logarithm.

Example 3.6.7:
log10 (100) = 2 because 102 = 100

Example 3.6.8:
ln(𝑒 𝑥 ) = 3 since 𝑒 3 is the exponential form of 3 in base e.

3.6.2 GRAPHING LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS WITH EXAMPLES

(a) Identifying the Base

The base of a logarithmic function determines the rate of increase of the graph. Larger bases
grow slower as x increases.

Example 3.6.9:
For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = log2 (𝑥), the base is 2, and the graph is a relatively fast-growing curve.

Example 3.6.10:
For 𝑔(𝑥 ) = log10 (𝑥), the base is 10, and the curve grows more slowly than log2 (𝑥).

(b) Logarithmic Curve

Explanation: Logarithmic functions have a characteristic curve that approaches the y-axis but
never touches it.

Example 3.6.11:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = ln(𝑥) starts near the y - axis, increases slowly as x grows.

Example 3.6.12:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = log3 (𝑥) also approaches the y - axis but grows at a different rate based on the base.

(c) Asymptotes

Explanation:
Logarithmic functions have a vertical asymptote at x = 0 because they are undefined for x ≤ 0.

Example 3.6.13:
For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = log2 (𝑥) the asymptote is at x = 0.

Example 3.6.14:

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For 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ln(𝑥 − 3), the asymptote shifts to x = 3.

3.6.3 TRANSFORMATION OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS WITH EXAMPLES

AND EXPLANATIONS

(a) Vertical Shifts

Explanation: Adding or subtracting a constant, shifts the graph up or down.

Example 3.6.15:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = log2 (𝑥 ) + 2 shifts log2 (𝑥 ) up by 2 units.

Example 3.6.16:
For 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ln(𝑥 ) − 1 shifts the ln(𝑥 ) graph down by 1 unit.

(b) Horizontal shifts

Explanation: Adding or subtracting a value from x shifts the graph left or right.

Example 3.6.17:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = log2 (𝑥 − 1) shifts the log2 (𝑥 ) graph to the right by 1 unit.

Example 3.6.18:
For 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ln(𝑥 + 3) shifts ln(𝑥 ) left by 3 units.

(c) Reflections

Explanation: Multiplying by -1 reflects the graph across the x - axis.

Example 3.6.19:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = − log2 (𝑥 ) reflects log2 (𝑥 ) across the x – axis.

Example 3.6.20:
𝑔(𝑥 ) = − ln(𝑥 ) reflects ln(𝑥 ) across the x – axis.

(d) Logarithmic Inequalities

Explanation: Solving inequalities like log𝑏 (𝑥 ) > 𝑐 requires converting back to exponential
form.

Example 3.6.21:
Solve 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = log3 (𝑥 ) > 2 by converting to 𝑥 > 32 = 9.

Example 3.6.22:
For ln(𝑥 ) < 1 convert to 𝑥 < 𝑒1 = 𝑒.

3.3.4 REAL – WORLD APPLICATIONS OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

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(a) Earthquake Magnitude

Example 3.6.23:
The Richter scale uses log functions to measure earthquake intensity. If an earthquake has a
magnitude of 5, it is 10 times more intense than one of magnitude 4.

The Richter scale uses log \loglog functions to measure earthquake intensity. If an earthquake has
a magnitude of 5, it is 10 times more intense than one of magnitude 4.

(b) Sound Intensity

Example 3.6.24:
The decibel scale for sound intensity is also logarithmic. A sound at 60 dB is 10 times as intense
as a sound at 50 dB.

Explanation: The logarithmic nature allows us to express the vast range of sound intensities
human ears can detect.

3.6.5 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the domain of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = log5 (𝑥 )?
2. Convert log4 (64) = 3 to exponential form?
3. Identify the asymptote of 𝑔(𝑥) = ln(𝑥 − 2)?
4. Solve log2 (𝑥 ) > 4

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UNIT 4 – MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
Matrices and Determinants form a crucial part of linear algebra, used extensively across
mathematics, physics, engineering, computer science, economics, and more. Matrices were
initially developed to organize and solve linear equations systematically, while determinants
provided a way to identify whether these systems had unique solutions.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:
1. Origins of Matrices: The concept of matrices emerged in the late 17th century but was
formally developed in the 19th century by mathematicians such as Arthur Cayley and
James Sylvester, who pioneered much of modern matrix theory.
2. Development of Determinants: Determinants date back to the work of Japanese
mathematician Seki Kōwa and Gottfried Leibniz in the late 1600s. Determinants were
used to systematically solve linear systems, with Leibniz and Cramer expanding their
applications.
3. Applications: Over time, matrices and determinants were applied to fields beyond
mathematics, particularly in quantum mechanics, computer graphics, cryptography, and
economics.

SESSION 1: MATRICES AND TYPES

At the end of this session you will be able to matrices and its various representations.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To introduce the definition of a matrix and its fundamental structure.
2. To be able to explore the different types of matrices, with examples to differentiate each
type.
3. To describe the characteristics of each matrix type and where it can be applied.
4. To introduce the concept of matrix equality and comparable matrices.
5. To develop an understanding of the order of a matrix and related matrix operations.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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4.1.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

(a) Matrix
A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or symbols arranged in rows and columns.
Matrices are used to represent linear transformations and solve systems of equations.
A set of mn numbers (real or complex) arranged in the form of a rectangular array having m rows
and n columns is called an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix. We read as m by n matrix.

An 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix is usually written as:

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛
[ … … … … ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛

also denoted as [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]

𝑚 ×𝑛

Example 4.1.1:

2 3 1 2 3
𝐴= [ ] is a 2 × 2 matrix; 𝐵= [ ] is a 2 × 3 matrix
4 5 4 5 6

(b) Order of a Matrix:

The order of a matrix refers to its dimensions in terms of rows (m) and columns (n), represented
as 𝑚 × 𝑛.

Example 4.1.2:
𝐴 = [1 2 3] the order of matrix A is 1 × 3;

1 2 3
𝐵 = [4 3 2] the order of matrix A is 3 × 3;
5 6 4

1 4 8
𝐶= [ ] the order of matrix A is 2 × 3
2 3 5

(c) Row Matrix:

A row matrix has only one row.

Example 4.1.3:
𝐴 = [3 5 7] , matrix A is a row matrix.
𝐵 = [7 0] , matrix B is another row matrix

(d) Column Matrix:

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A column matrix has only one column.

Example 4.1.4
1
2
𝐶 = [ ], matrix C is a column matrix
5
9

(e) Rectangular Matrix:

A matrix with the number of rows not equal to the number columns is referred to as a rectangular
matrix.

Example 4.1.5
1 4 8
𝐶= [ ] an example of a rectangular matrix.
2 3 5

(f) Square Matrix:

A matrix with the same number of rows and columns is known as Square Matrix.

Example 4.1.6
1 5
𝐴= [ ] is an example of a 2 × 2 square matrix
6 8

1 2 3
𝐵 = [4 3 2] matrix B is a 3 × 3 square matrix
5 6 4

(g) Diagonal Matrix:

In a square matrix, if all the diagonal elements are non-zero and the rest are zero is called a
diagonal matrix.

Example 4.1.7
1 0
𝐴= [ ] is an example of a 2 × 2 diagonal matrix.
0 8

1 0 0
𝐵 = [0 3 0] matrix B is a 3 × 3 diagonal matrix.
0 0 4

(h) Scalar Matrix:

A diagonal matrix where all diagonal elements are the same.

Example 4.1.8

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 8 0
𝐴= [ ] is an example of a 2 × 2 Scalar matrix.
0 8

3 0 0
[
𝐵= 0 3 0] matrix B is a 3 × 3 Scalar matrix.
0 0 3

(i) Identity Matrix:

A square matrix with ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere, denoted by I.

Example 4.1.9
1 0
𝐴= [ ] is an example of a 2 × 2 Identity matrix.
0 1

1 0 0
𝐵 = [0 1 0] matrix B is a 3 × 3 Identity matrix.
0 0 1

(j) Non-Zero Matrix:

A matrix containing at least one non-zero element.

Example 4.1.10
1 2
𝐴= [ ] is an example of a 2 × 2 non – zero matrix.
3 4

0 0
𝐵= [ ] matrix B is a 3 × 3 non - zero matrix.
0 4

(k) Zero Matrix:

A matrix in which all elements are zero.

Example 4.1.11
0 0
𝐴= [ ] is an example of a 2 × 2 Zero matrix.
0 0

0 0 0
[
𝐵= 0 0 0] matrix B is a 3 × 3 Zero matrix.
0 0 0

(l) Upper Triangular Matrix:

A square matrix with all entries below the main diagonal equal to zero.

Example 4.1.12
1 2
𝐴= [ ] is an example of a 2 × 2 Upper Triangular matrix.
0 4

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 1 2 3
[
𝐵= 0 4 5] matrix B is a 3 × 3 Upper Triangular matrix.
0 0 7

(m) Lower Triangular Matrix:

A square matrix with all entries above the main diagonal equal to zero.

Example 4.1.13
1 0
𝐴= [ ] is an example of a 2 × 2 Lower Triangular matrix.
2 4

1 0 0
𝐵 = [2 4 0] matrix B is a 3 × 3 Lower Triangular matrix.
5 6 7

(n) Comparable Matrices:

Matrices of the same order that can be added or subtracted. Two matrices are said to be
comparable matrices, if their orders are the same.

Example 4.1.14
1 3 𝑎 𝑏
𝐴= [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ] are two comparable matrices.
2 5 𝑐 𝑑

(o) Trace of a Matrix:

The sum of the elements on the main diagonal of a square matrix.

Example 4.1.15
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
If 𝐴 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] , then 𝑇𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑎11 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎33
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

1 3
For 𝐴 = [ ] , then Tr(A) = 1 + 5 = 6
2 5
(p) Equality of Two Matrices:

Two matrices are equal if they have the same dimensions and each corresponding element is
equal. Two comparable matrices are said to be equal if their corresponding elements are the
same.

Example 4.1.16

1 3 𝑎 𝑏
If 𝐴 = [ ]= [ ], then a = 1, b = 3, c = 2 and d = 5.
2 5 𝑐 𝑑

(q) Sub-Matrix:

A matrix formed by deleting one or more rows or columns from a larger matrix. Any matrix is

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obtained by eliminating some rows and some columns from a given matrix A, it is called a sub –
matrix of A.

Example 4.1.17
1 3 4 6
1 3 4
If 𝐴 = [7 0 5 2] and 𝐵 = [ ] B is a sub – matrix of A.
7 0 5
2 5 9 0

4.1.1 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define a diagonal matrix and give an example?
1 3 4
2. What is the trace of the matrix [7 9 5]?
2 6 8
3. Define a zero matrix and a sub matrix and provide an example?
4. What conditions must be met for two matrices to be equal?
5. Explain the difference between a square matrix and a rectangular matrix.
𝑥 𝑦 1 −2 3 5
6. Find x, y, z and t satisfying the equations: 2 (𝑧 𝑡
)+ 3( ) = 4( )?
0 4 4 6

SESSION 2: OPERATIONS ON MATRICES AND

PROPERTIES
At the end of this session you will be able to identify all the operations on matrices and their
properties.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication of matrices.
2. To be able to the properties of these operations, including commutativity, associativity,
and distributive properties.
3. To be able to learn about scalar multiplication and the identity properties in matrix
operations.
4. To be able to define and understand the transpose of a matrix, along with properties
associated with symmetric and transpose matrices.
5. To develop skills for performing operations with examples that apply the properties of
matrices in practical situations.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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4.2.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

(a) Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

DEFINITION 4.2.1:
Matrices of the same dimensions can be added or subtracted by adding or subtracting
corresponding elements. We can find the addition of two or more matrices if they are comparable
matrices otherwise addition is not defined.

Example 4.2.1
1 2 5 6
Addition: 𝐴= [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ] then
3 4 7 8
1+5 2+6 6 8
𝐴+𝐵 = [ ]= [ ]
3+7 4+8 10 12

1 2 5 6
Subtraction: 𝐴= [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ] then
3 4 7 8
1−5 2−6 −4 −4
𝐴−𝐵 = [ ]= [ ]
3−7 4−8 −4 −4

(b) Commutative Property

DEFINITION 4.2.2:
For addition, matrices are commutative, meaning 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴. However, matrix
multiplication is generally not commutative: 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴.

Example 4.2.2
1 2 5 6 1+5 2+6 6 8
𝐴+𝐵 =[ ]+ [ ]= [ ]= [ ] =𝐵+𝐴
3 4 7 8 3+7 4+8 10 12

1 2 5 6 (1 × 5) + (2 × 7) (1 × 6) + (2 × 8) 19 22
𝐴×𝐵 = [ ]×[ ][ ]= [ ] ≠𝐵×𝐴
3 4 7 8 (3 × 5) + (4 × 7) (3 × 6) + (4 × 8) 43 50

(c) Associative Property

DEFINITION 4.2.3:
Matrix addition and multiplication are associative. For matrices A, B, and C,
(𝐴 + 𝐵 ) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) and (𝐴 × 𝐵 ) × 𝐶 = 𝐴 × (𝐵 × 𝐶).

Example 4.2.3
Addition:
1 2 5 6 2 2
If 𝐴 = [ ], 𝐵 = [ ] and 𝐶 = [ ]
3 4 7 8 3 3

(𝐴 + 𝐵 ) + 𝐶 = [ 1 + 5 2+6
]+ [
2 2
]= [
6 8
]+ [
2 2
]= [
8 10
]
3+7 4+8 3 3 10 12 3 3 13 15

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 1 2 5+2 6+2 1 2 7 8 8 10
𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = [ ]+[ ]= [ ]+ [ ]= [ ]
3 4 7+3 8+3 3 4 10 11 13 15

(d) Additive Identity

DEFINITION 4.2.4:
The additive identity for matrices is the zero matrix, where 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴 .

Example 4.2.4
Addition:
2 −3 0 0 2 −3
If 𝐴 = [ ] and 0 = [ ], 𝐴 + 0 = [ ]
4 1 0 0 4 1

(e) Matrix Multiplication

DEFINITION 4.2.5:
The product of two matrices A and B is calculated by taking the dot product of rows of A with
columns of B. If the number of columns of a first matrix is equal to the number of rows of the
second matrix, we can compute the product, otherwise product is not defined.

If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] and 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑗𝑖 ]

𝑚×𝑛 𝑛×𝑝

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑏11 𝑏12

Thus 𝐴 = [𝑎 𝑎22 ] and 𝐵 = [𝑏21 ]
21 𝑏22

𝑎11 𝑏11 + 𝑎12 𝑏21 𝑎11 𝑏12 + 𝑎12 𝑏22

Then 𝐴𝐵 = [ ]
𝑎21 𝑏11 + 𝑎22 𝑏21 𝑎21 𝑏12 + 𝑎22 𝑏22

Example 4.2.5
1 2 5 6
If 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ] then
3 4 7 8

(1 ∙ 5 + 2 ∙ 7) (1 ∙ 6 + 2 ∙ 8) 19 22
𝐴×𝐵 =[ ]=[ ]
(3 ∙ 5 + 4 ∙ 7) (3 ∙ 6 + 4 ∙ 8) 43 50

(f) Scalar Multiplication

DEFINITION 4.2.6:
Each element of a matrix is multiplied by a scalar (constant).
Example 4.2.6
2 4 −4 −8
If 𝐴 = [ ] then − 2𝐴 = [ ]
6 7 − 12 − 14

(g) Properties of Matrix Multiplication

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 (i) In general, matrix multiplication is not commutative
(ii) Matrix multiplication is associative
(iii) Matrix multiplication is distributive over addition.
(iv) Multiplicative Identity of a matrix exists.

(h) Transpose of a Matrix

DEFINITION 4.2.7:
The transpose of a matrix A, denoted by 𝐴𝑇 , is obtained by switching its rows with columns.
Transpose matrix is obtained by interchanging rows into columns and vice versa.

Example 4.2.7
1 2 3 1 4 7
1
If 𝐴 = [4 5 6] then 𝐴𝑇 = [2 5 8]; If 𝐵 = [1 3] then 𝐵 𝑇 = [ ]
3
7 8 9 3 6 9

(i) Properties of Transpose Matrix

(i) (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵 𝑇
(ii) (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴
(iii) (𝑘𝐴)𝑇 = 𝑘(𝐴)𝑇
(iv) (𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵 𝑇 𝐴𝑇

(j) Symmetric Matrix and Properties

DEFINITION 4.2.8:
A Square matrix is said to be symmetric if 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 .

Example 4.2.8
The following matrices are all symmetric since each matrix is the same as it’s transpose:
1 2 3 𝑎 ℎ 𝑔
1 2 2 5
𝐴= [ ], 𝐵 = [ ], 𝐶 = 2 4 5 and 𝐷 = [ ℎ 𝑏 𝑓 ]
[ ]
2 6 5 7
3 5 7 𝑔 𝑓 𝑐

4.2.1 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define Scalar multiplication and provide an example?
1 4
2. What is the result of the transpose of a matrix [ ]?
2 5
3 5 1 2
3. If 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ], calculate A + B?
2 6 4 5
4. What does it mean for a matrix to be symmetric? Provide an example?
3 5 2 1
5. Verify the commutative property for addition using 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ]?
2 6 3 4
1
6. If 𝐴 = [2] and 𝐵 = [2 3 4]. Find AB and BA?
3

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SESSION 3: DETERMINANTS
At the end of this session you will be able to understand matrix determinants and the various
techniques to compute them and their applications and properties.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the concept of determinants and their importance in linear algebra,
particularly in solving systems of equations, transformations, and matrix properties.
2. To learn how to calculate determinants for 2×2 and 3×3 matrices.
3. To explore the concepts of minors, cofactors, and their applications in expanding
determinants.
4. To become familiar with the properties of determinants, including how they are affected
by matrix operations like row and column exchanges.
5. To be able to apply determinant properties to solve problems related to matrix theory and
practical applications in linear transformations.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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4.3.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

DEFINTION 4.3.1: DETERMINANT

For every square matrix of order n, there is an associated number (real or complex) is called a
determinant of the same order.

A determinant is a polynomial of the elements of a square matrix. It is scalar.

It has some finite values. Determinants are defined only for square matrices. Determinants of a
non – square matrix is not defined.

Determinant of a square matrix A is denoted by det A or |A|.

𝑎 𝑏
For a 2 × 2 matrix 𝐴 = [ ] , the determinant denoted as:
𝑐 𝑑

det(𝐴) = |𝐴| = 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
For a 3 × 3 matrix 𝐵 = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓] , the determinant denoted as:
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖

det(𝐴𝐵 ) = |𝐵 | = 𝑎(𝑒𝑖 − 𝑓ℎ) − 𝑏)𝑑𝑖 − 𝑓𝑔) + 𝑐(𝑑ℎ − 𝑒𝑔)

Example 4.3.1:

3 4
For 𝐴 = [ ], det (𝐴) = (3 × 5) − (4 × 2) = 15 − 8 = 7.
2 5

1 2 3
For 𝐵 = [4 5 6],
7 8 9

det (𝐴) = 1 (5 × 9 − 6 × 8) − 2(4 × 9 − 6 × 7) + 3(4 × 8 − 5 × 7) = 0

(b) Minor of an Element of a Matrix

DEFINITION 4.3.2:
The minor of an element in a matrix is the determinant of the submatrix formed by removing the
row and column of that element.

Example 4.3.2:

2 3
For matrix 𝐴 = [ ], the minor element of the number 2 is simply the determinant of the
5 6

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1 × 1 matrix left, i.e. 6.

1 2 3
In matrix 𝐵 = [4 5 6],
7 8 9
4 5
the minor of the element 3 is the determinant of [ ] => det = (32 – 35) = - 3
7 8
1 3
the minor of the element 5 is the determinant of [ ] => det = (9 – 21) = - 12
7 9

(c) Co-factor of an Element of a Matrix

DEFINITION 4.3.3:
The cofactor of an element is calculated by applying a sign based on its position to the element’s
minor: (−1)𝑖+𝑗 × 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥. The co-factor of an element of a matrix is obtained after
deleting the corresponding rows and corresponding columns with a proper sign. The sign scheme
can be used for 2 nd and 3rd order matrices shown below:

+ − +
+ −
2nd Order: ( ) 3rd Order: (− + −)
− +
+ − +

Example 4.3.3:

1 2
In matrix 𝐴 = [ ], the cofactor of 1: (−1)1+1 × 4 = 4
3 4

1 3
In matrix 𝐵 = [ ], the cofactor of 5: (−1)2+1 × 3 = −3
5 7

(d) Expansion of a Determinant

Expansion of a determinant is the sum of the product of the elements of any row or column with
their corresponding co-factors.

(i) Expansion of a 𝟐 × 𝟐 Determinant Matrix

DEFINITION 4.3.4:
The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix can be expanded directly as det (𝐴) = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐.

Example 4.3.4:
2 4
For matrix 𝐴 = [ ], det (𝐴) = (2 ∙ 3 − 4 ∙ 1) = 2
1 3

(ii) Expansion of a 𝟑 × 𝟑 Determinant Matrix

DEFINITION 4.3.5:
Expand along any row or column using minors and cofactors.

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Example 4.3.5:
1 2 3
For matrix 𝐵 = [0 4 5], expanding along the first row:
1 0 6
det (𝐵 ) = 1 ∙ (4 ∙ 6 − 5 ∙ 0) − 2 ∙ (0 ∙ 6 − 5 ∙ 1) + 3 ∙ (0 ∙ 0 − 4 ∙ 1)

Simplifying, we find:

det (𝐵 ) = 1 ∙ 24 + 2 ∙ 5 − 3 ∙ 4 = 24 + 10 − 12 = 22

(e) Properties of a Determinant

1. Interchanging: The value of a determinant remains unchanged, if the rows and columns
are interchanged.
If A is any square matrix, then |𝐴| = |𝐴𝑇 |.
Swapping Rows or Columns: Swapping any two rows or columns changes the sign of
the determinant.
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
Let 𝐷1 = |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | and 𝐷2 = |𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 |
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
Then 𝐷1 = − 𝐷2
2. Row or Column of Zeros: If any row or column is all zeros, the determinant is zero.
0 0
𝐷1 = | |=0
2 3
3. Two Rows or Columns identical: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are
identical, the value of determinant is zero.
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
Let 𝐷1 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 |, then 𝐷1 = 0.
|
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
4. Two Rows or Columns Proportional: If any two rows or columns of a determinant are
proportional, the value of a determinant is 0.
1 2 3
Let 𝐷1 = |2 4 6|, then 𝐷1 = 0.
4 5 7
5. Scalar Multiplication: Multiplying a row by a scalar k multiplies the determinant by k.
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑘𝑎1 𝑘𝑏1 𝑘𝑐1
Let 𝐷1 = |𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 | and Let 𝐷2 = | 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 |, then 𝐷1 = 𝑘𝐷2
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
6. Addition of Rows: Adding a multiple of one row to another does not change the
determinant.
7. Transpose Property: The determinant of a matrix is the same as the determinant of its
transpose.

Example 4.3.6:
3 0
For 𝐴 = [ ], if we swap row: det(𝐴) = − (3 ∙ 4) = −12
0 4

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4.3.1 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
2 3
1. Calculate the determinant of the matrix [ ]?
1 4
1 2
2. What is the cofactor of element 5 in the matrix [ ]?
3 5
1 2 0
3. For matrix [4 5 6], find the minor of element 5?
7 8 9
4. State whether swapping rows changes the determinant sign?
5. Does adding a multiple of one row to another change the determinant?
3 1 2
6. Compute |A| for 𝐴 = [0 5 6] by expanding along the first row?
7 8 9

SESSION 4: CRAMMER’S METHOD

At the end of this session you will be able to understand how use the Crammer’s Method to solve
systems of equation.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the principles behind Cramer’s Method for solving linear systems.
2. To recognize the conditions necessary for applying Cramer’s Rule to a system of
equations.
3. To Set up systems of linear equations in matrix form to apply Cramer’s Rule effectively.
4. To Solve systems of linear equations with 2 or 3 variables using determinants.
5. To understand the practical applications and limitations of Cramer’s Rule.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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4.4.0 NOTES AND HISTORY OF CRAMMER’S METHOD

BACKGROUND:
Cramer’s Rule, named after Gabriel Cramer, a Swiss mathematician, was introduced in 1750. It
provides a straightforward way to solve linear systems of equations by using determinants. This
method is particularly useful for small systems (typically 2×2 or 3×3 matrices) due to the
computational complexity of finding determinants for larger matrices.

4.4.1. CONDITIONS FOR USING CRAMER'S RULE

1. The system must be a square system, meaning the number of equations equals the
number of variables.
2. The determinant of the coefficient matrix must be non-zero (det(𝐴) ≠ 0). If (det(𝐴) =
0), the system is either inconsistent or has infinitely many solutions, and Cramer’s Rule
does not apply.

4.4.2. Systems of Equations in Matrix Form

For a system of linear equations:

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝑑1
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝑑3

We can represent this in matrix form as:

𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏
Where
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥 𝑑1
𝐴 = [𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ], 𝑋 = [𝑦] 𝑏 = [𝑑2 ]
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑑3

4.4.3. Steps Involved in Cramer's Rule

1. Compute the Determinant of the Coefficient Matrix A, denoted as det(𝐴).
2. Form New Matrices by replacing each column of A with the constant matrix b (right -
hand side values).
3. Calculate Determinants for Each New Matrix
𝐷𝑥 : Replace the first column with b.
𝐷𝑦 : Replace the second column with b.
𝐷𝑧 : Replace the third column with b.
𝐷𝑥 𝐷𝑦 𝐷𝑧
4. Solve for Each Variable: 𝑥 = , 𝑦= ,𝑧=
det(𝐴) det(𝐴) det(𝐴)

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4.4.4. Examples of Solving Systems with Crammer’s Rule

Example 4.4.1: System With 2 Variables

Solve:
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 13
3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1

2 3
1. Coefficient Matrix: 𝐴 = [ ]
3 −1
2. Calculate det (𝐴) :
det(𝐴) = (2)(−1) − (3)(3) = −2 − 9 = −11
3. Find 𝐷𝑥 and 𝐷𝑦 :
13 3
𝐷𝑥 : Replace the first column of A with the constants [13, 1]: [ ]
1 −1
det(𝐷𝑥 ) = (13)(−1) − (3)(1) = −13 − 3 = −16
2 13
𝐷𝑦 : Replace the second column of A with the constants [13, 1]: [ ]
3 1
det(𝐷𝑦 ) = (2)(1) − (13)(3) = 2 − 39 = −37
4. Solve for x and y:
𝐷𝑥 −16 16 𝐷𝑦 −37 37
𝑥= = = ; 𝑦= = =
det(𝐴) −11 11 det(𝐴) −11 11

Example 4.4.2: System With 3 Variables

Solve:
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 = 6
2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 14
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 20

1 1 1
1. Coefficient Matrix: 𝐴 = [2 −1 3]
3 4 2
2. Calculate det (𝐴) :
det(𝐴) = 1 ∙ (−1 ∙ 2 − 3 ∙ 4) − 1 ∙ (2 ∙ 2 − 3 ∙ 3) + 1(2 ∙ 4 − 3 ∙ −1) = −26
3. Find 𝐷𝑥 , 𝐷𝑦 and 𝐷𝑧 :
6 1 1
𝐷𝑥 : Replace the first column of A with the constants [6, 14, 20]: [14 −1 3]
20 4 2
det(𝐷𝑥 ) = 6 ∙ (−1 ∙ 2 − 3 ∙ 4) − 1 ∙ (14 ∙ 2 − 20 ∙ 3) + 1(14 ∙ 4 − 20 ∙ −1) = 24
1 6 1
𝐷𝑦 : Replace the second column of A with the constants [6, 14, 20]: [2 14 3]
3 20 2
det(𝐷𝑦 ) = 1 ∙ (14 ∙ 2 − 20 ∙ 3) − 6 ∙ (2 ∙ 2 − 3 ∙ 3) + 1(2 ∙ 20 − 3 ∙ 14) = −4
1 1 6
𝐷𝑧 : Replace the third column of A with the constants [6, 14, 20]: [2 −1 14]
3 4 20
det 𝐷𝑧 = 1 ∙ −1 ∙ 20 − 14 ∙ 4 − 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 20 − 3 ∙ 14 + 6 2 ∙ 4 − 3 ∙ −1) = −8
( ) ( ) ( ) (
4. Solve for x and y:
𝐷𝑥 24 12 𝐷𝑦 −4 2 𝐷𝑧 −8 4
𝑥= = = ; 𝑦= = = ; 𝑧= = =
det(𝐴) −26 −13 det(𝐴) −26 − 13 det(𝐴) −26 13

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4.4.5 APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF CRAMER’S RULE

APPLICATIONS:
1. Useful in small systems of linear equations, especially in engineering and physics.
2. Practical in problems where matrix inversion is too complex or infeasible.
3. Cramer’s Rule provides exact values if determinants can be easily computed.
LIMITATIONS:
1. Not efficient for large systems due to determinant calculations, which become
computationally expensive.
2. Only applies to square matrices where det(𝐴) ≠ 0.
3. Inefficient for matrices with floating-point numbers due to potential inaccuracies in
determinants.

4.4.6 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the conditions for using Cramer’s Rule in a system of equations?
4 −2
2. Compute the determinant of the matrix [ ]?
3 1
3. Apply Cramer’s Rule to solve:
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 8
3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1
4. Explain why Cramer’s Rule may not be suitable for a 5×5 matrix?
5. Find 𝐷𝑥 for the system:
𝑥+𝑦 =4
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
6. Find the determinant of the matrix: [𝑏 𝑐 𝑎]?
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏

SESSION 5: INVERSE METHOD

At the end of this session you will be able to understand how use the Inverse Method to solve
systems of equations and its limitations and advantages.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the use of the matrix inverse method for solving systems of linear
equations.
2. To identify when a system can be solved using the inverse method.
3. To set up a system of linear equations in matrix form and solve it using the inverse
matrix.

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 4. To recognize the applications of the inverse method and its limitations.
5. To solve systems of equations with both 2 and 3 variables using matrix inverses.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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4.5.0 NOTES AND HISTORY OF CRAMMER’S METHOD

BACKGROUND:
The inverse method is based on the concept of the inverse of a matrix, similar to how we solve
simple equations by finding inverses (e.g., division by a non-zero number). The matrix inverse
method was developed from linear algebra principles, which have been refined since the 17th
century by mathematicians such as Gauss and Cramer. It is widely used for solving systems of
equations in various fields, including engineering, computer science, and economics.

4.5.1. CONDITIONS FOR USING THE INVERSE METHOD

1. Square System:
The system must have the same number of equations as variables, forming a square
matrix.
2. Non-Singular Matrix:
The coefficient matrix A must have an inverse, meaning det(𝐴) ≠ 0. If the determinant
is zero, the matrix is singular, and the system cannot be solved using the inverse method.
3. For every non – singular square matrix of order n there exists another square matrix of
the same order such that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼𝑁. Then B is call ed the inverse of A.
NB: 𝐴 ∙ [𝑎𝑑𝑗 (𝐴)] = |𝐴| ∙ 𝐼𝑛
[𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴)]
=> 𝐴( ) = 𝐼𝑛
|𝐴|
[𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴)]
=> 𝐴−1 = ( )
|𝐴|

4.5.2 SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS IN MATRIX FORM

A system of linear equations can be expressed in matrix form as:

𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏
A is the coefficient matrix
x is the column matrix of variables, and
b is the column matrix of constants

For example:

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑥 = 𝑐1
{
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 = 𝑐2

can be written as:

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑐1
[ ] [𝑦] = [𝑐 ]
𝑎2 𝑏2 2

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4.5.3 STEPS INVOLVED IN THE INVERSE METHOD
1. Express the System in Matrix Form:
Write the system of equations as 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏
2. Calculate the Inverse of A: Find 𝐴−1 if det(𝐴) ≠ 0.
3. Multiply by the Inverse: Use 𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝑏 to find the solution, as
𝐴−1 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝑏 => 𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝑏.
4.5.4 EXAMPLES OF SOLVING SYSTEMS USING THE INVERSE METHOD

Example 4.5.1: SOLVING A SYSTEM WITH 3 VARIABLES

Solve:
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 13
3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1
1. Coefficient Matrix:
2 3 𝑥 13
𝐴= [ ], 𝑥 = [𝑦] 𝑏=[ ]
3 −1 1
2. Find 𝐴−1 :
Determinant: det (A) = (2)(-1) – (3)(3) = - 11
1 −1 −3 1 −1 −3 1/11 3/11
Inverse: 𝐴−1 = [ ]= [ ]= [ ]
det(𝐴) −3 2 −11 −3 2 3/11 −2/11
1/11 3/11 13 16 37
3. Solve for x: 𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝑏 = [ ] [ ]. 𝑥 = ,𝑦 = ,
3/11 −2/11 1 11 11

Example 4.5.2: SOLVING A SYSTEM WITH 2 VARIABLES

Solve:
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6; 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 14; 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 20
1. Coefficient Matrix:
1 1 1 𝑥 6
𝐴 = [2 −1 3], 𝑥 = [𝑦 ] 𝑏 = [14]
3 4 2 𝑧 20
2. Find 𝐴−1 :
Determinant: det (A) = (1)(-1.2 – 4.3) – (1)(2.2 – 3.3) + (1)(2.4-3.-1) = 2
1
Inverse: 𝐴−1 = [𝑎𝑑𝑗 (𝐴)]
det(𝐴)

3. Solve for x: 𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝑏 => 𝑥 = 12, 𝑦 = −2, 𝑧 = −4

4.5.5 PROPERTIES OF INVERSE OF A MATRIX OR MATRICES
1. (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝐴
1
2. |𝐴−1 | =
|𝐴|

3. (𝐴𝑇 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )𝑇

1
4. If k is non – zero and A is non – singular, then (𝑘𝐴)−1 = (𝐴−1 )
𝑘

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 5. (𝐼 −1 ) = 𝐼
𝐴
6. (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴−1 ) = (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)−1 =
|𝐴|

7. If A and B be two non – singular matrices, then (𝐴𝐵)−1 = (𝐵 −1 𝐴−1 ).

8. Inverse of a non – singular diagonal matrix is again a diagonal matrix, i.e
If 𝐴 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔(𝑎11 , 𝑎22 , … , 𝑎𝑛𝑛 ) where 𝑎𝑖𝑖 ≠ 0
1 1 1
then 𝐴−1 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔 ( , ,… , )
𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎𝑛𝑛

4.56 APLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE INVERSE METHOD

APPLICATIONS:
1. Widely used in fields like physics, economics, and computer science for modelling
systems of equations.
2. Applicable in linear transformations and solving simultaneous equations in engineering.
LIMITATIONS:
1. Computational Complexity: Finding the inverse becomes inefficient for large matrices.
2. Dependence on Non-Singular Matrix: If A is singular, the method cannot be applied.
3. Floating-Point Precision: Errors may arise when using floating-point arithmetic for large
or complex matrices.

4.5.7 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the requirement for using the inverse method in solving systems of equations?
2. Write the system 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5 and 4𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3 in matrix form?
3. Solve 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4 and 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2 using the inverse method?
1 2
4. Find 𝐴−1 for 𝐴 = [ ] if possible?
3 4
5. Why might the inverse method not be efficient for large systems?
6. Solve the following system using the inverse method:
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 10; 3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5; 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 6

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SESSION 6: GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION METHOD
At the end of this session you will be able to understand how use the Gaussian Elimination
Method to solve systems of equations and its limitations and advantages.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the fundamental principles of the Gaussian Elimination Method and its
significance in solving linear equations.
2. To develop the ability to transform a system of linear equations into an augmented matrix
and manipulate it to achieve row-echelon form.
3. To gain proficiency in performing row operations to solve systems of equations with two
or more variables.
4. To apply the Gaussian Elimination Method to find unique solutions, check for dependent
solutions, or identify inconsistent systems.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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4.6.0 NOTES AND HISTORY OF GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION METHOD

4.6.1 BRIEF HISTORY:

The Gaussian Elimination Method is a systematic approach for solving linear systems of
equations. It was named after Carl Friedrich Gauss, though the method was used in Chinese
mathematics as early as 179 AD. Gauss's contributions refined and formalized the method,
making it a standard procedure in linear algebra.

4.6.2 CONDITIONS FOR USING THE GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION METHOD

1. The system must have linear equations.
2. The matrix of the system should be non-singular (i.e., it should have a non-zero
determinant for a unique solution).
3. The method is particularly efficient for small to medium-sized systems but can be
computationally intensive for very large systems.
4.6.3 SYSTEM OF EQUATION IN MATRIX FORM
1. Any system of linear equations can be represented as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵, where A is the matrix of
coefficients; X is the column vector of variables, and B is the constants' column vector.
4.6.4 STEPS INVOLVED INVERSE METHOD
1. Formulate the augmented matrix by combining A and B.
2. Apply row operations to convert the augmented matrix into reduced row-echelon form.
3. If possible, back-substitute to solve for each variable.
4.6.5 OPERATIONS THAT CAN BE PERFORMED
1. Can interchange any two rows
2. Can multiply every element in a row by a non – zero constant
3. Add elements of one roe to corresponding elements of another row
4.6.5 EXAMPLES AND EXPLANTION

Example 4.6.1: EQUATIONS INVOLVING 2 VARIABLES

Solve the system of equations:
𝑥+𝑦 =5 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 8
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 𝑥 − 4𝑦 = −2

STEP 1:
1 1 5 1 ##
Augmented matrix. 𝐴= ( | ) Intends to achieve. 𝐴 = ( | )
2 −1 1 0 1#

STEP 2:
𝑎11 : 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 1 Row 1 Colum 1 is already 1:

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𝑎21 : 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 0 Take Row 1, multiply by -2 and add to row 2 to get a zero (0)

𝑅1 = 𝑅1 1 1 5
:( | )
𝑅2 = −2𝑅1 + 𝑅2 0 −3 −9

𝑎22 : 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 1 Take Row 2, divide through by 3:

𝑅1 = 𝑅1 1 1 5
:( | )
𝑅2 = −1/3𝑅2 0 1 3

STEP 3:
Rewrite the equations and do Back Substitution:
𝑥+𝑦 =5
𝑦 = 3 Substitute y into the 1st equation
𝑥 + 3 = 5; 𝑥 = 5 − 3 = 2
Solution: 𝑥 = 2; 𝑦 = 3

Example 4.6.2: EQUATIONS INVOLVING 3 VARIABLES

Solve the system of equations:
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1
3𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3
2𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 1

STEP 1:
1 2 1 1 1 # # #
Augmented matrix. 𝐴 = (3 5 1| 3) Intends to achieve. 𝐴 = (0 1 # | #)
2 6 7 1 0 0 1 #

STEP 2:
𝑎11 : 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 1 Row 1 Colum 1 is already 1:
𝑎21 : 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 0 Take Row 1, multiply by -3 and add to row 2 to get a zero (0)
𝑎31 : 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 0 Take Row 1, multiply by -2 and add to row 3 to get a zero (0)

𝑅1 = 𝑅1 1 2 1 1
𝑅2 = −2𝑅1 + 𝑅2 : (0 −1 −2| 0 )
𝑅3 = −𝑅1 + 𝑅3 0 2 5 −1
Now our first column is like our goal:

𝑎22 : 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 1 Take Row 2, multiply by – 1

𝑎32 : 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 0 Take Row 2, multiply by – 2 and add to row 3 to get a zero (0)2
𝑅1 = 𝑅1 1 2 1 1
𝑅2 = −1𝑅2 : (0 1 2| 0 )
𝑅3 = −2𝑅2 + 𝑅3 0 0 1 −1

STEP 3:
Rewrite the equations and do Back Substitution:

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From 1st Row:
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1
𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
𝑧 = −1
𝑦 + 2(−1) = 0 => 𝑦 = 2
Substitute x, y into the 1st equation
𝑥 + 2(2) + (−1) = 1 => 5; 𝑥 = −2
Solution: 𝑥 = −2; 𝑦 = 2; 𝑧 = −1

4.6.6 APPLICATION AND LIMITATIONS OF GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION METHOD

APPLICATIONS:
1. Solving systems of linear equations in engineering, physics, and computer graphics.
2. Used in numerical methods and data science for large-scale computations.
LIMITATIONS
1. For large systems, Gaussian Elimination can be computationally involving.
2. If a matrix is nearly singular (determinant close to zero), the method may lead to
inaccurate results due to numerical instability
4.6.7 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of transforming a system of equations into an augmented matrix?
2. How does Gaussian Elimination differ from Gauss-Jordan Elimination?
ANS: Gaussian Elimination reduces the matrix to row-echelon form, while Gauss-Jordan
Elimination reduces it further to reduced row-echelon form.
3. Why is a non-zero determinant important for the Gaussian Elimination Method?
4. In what form must the matrix be for back substitution to be applied?
5. Explain why the Gaussian Elimination Method is preferred for small systems.
6. What is one real-world application of Gaussian Elimination?

UNIT 5 – SEQUENCES AND SERIES

SHORT NOTES:
Sequences and Series are fundamental concepts in mathematics that deal with ordered sets of
numbers and their sums. A sequence is an arrangement of numbers in a specific order, while a
series is the summation of terms in a sequence. These concepts are pivotal in various fields such
as physics, finance, and computer science, where they model patterns, growth, and decay.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:
The study of sequences and series dates back to ancient Greece, with mathematicians like
Pythagoras and Archimedes exploring arithmetic and geometric progressions. In the 17th

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century, Isaac Newton and James Gregory developed methods involving infinite series for
approximating functions, laying the groundwork for calculus. The Fibonacci sequence,
introduced by Leonardo of Pisa in 1202, remains one of the most famous examples in this area.

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SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES AND SERIES
At the end of this session you will be able to identify sequences and series and their various
representations and applications.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to understand the definitions of sequences and series and their mathematical
significance.
2. To be able to differentiate between finite and infinite sequences and series.
3. To be able to learn how sequences and series can be represented using explicit and
recursive formulas as well as sigma notation.
4. To be able to explore the applications of sequences and series in solving real-world
problems.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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5.1.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

(a) Finite Sequence

Definition 5.1.1:
A finite sequence is a sequence that has a finite number of terms and ends. The terms in a finite
sequence follow a mathematical pattern or logical arrangement.

Examples 5.1.1:
0 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 [6 terms];
1, 3, 5, 7, 9 [5 terms]
Explanation: In the first and second sequences, it stops after the 6 th and 5th terms consecutively.

(b) Infinite Sequence

Definition 5.1.2:
An infinite sequence refers to a sequence that continues indefinitely, without a final term or limit.

Examples 5.1.2:
1, 2, 3, 4, …

Explanation: This sequence of natural numbers does not terminate.

1 1 1
1, , , , …
2 3 4

Explanation: This harmonic sequence has an infinite number of terms.

(c) Arithmetic and Geometric Sequence

Definition 5.1.3: Arithmetic Sequence

An arithmetic sequence is an ordered set of numbers that have a common difference between
each consecutive term.

Examples 5.1.3:
10, 12, 14, 16, … [common difference: 2]

Explanation: Each term is obtained by adding 2 to the previous term.

10, 7, 4, 1, … [common difference: - 3]

Explanation: Subtract 3 from each term to get the next.

Definition 5.1.4: Geometric Sequence

A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers in which the ratio of every two successive terms

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is the constant. A sequence where the ratio between consecutive terms is constant.

Examples 5.1.4:
2, 4, 8, 16, … [common ration: 2]

Explanation: Multiply each term by 2 to get the next term.

1
81, 27, 9, 3, … [common difference: ]
3

Explanation: Divide each term by 3 to get the next term.

(d) Partial Sums

Definition 5.1.5: Partial Sums

The sum of a finite number of consecutive terms beginning with the first term, i.e.: The sum of
the first n terms of a sequence.

Examples 5.1.5:
For 2, 4, 6, 8, the partial sum of the first three terms is:
2 + 4 + 6 = 12

Explanation: Only the first three terms are summed.

For 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, the partial sums of the first four terms is:

1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16

Explanation: The addition of first four terms.

(e) Finite Series

Definition 5.1.6: Finite Series:

A finite series is the sum of a finite number of terms in a sequence.

Examples 5.1.6:
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10

Explanation: The sum of this finite sequence yields a single value.

5 + 10 + 15 = 30

Explanation: The addition of all terms in the given sequence.

(f) Infinite Series:

Definition 5.1.7: Infinite Series:

Adding infinitely many numbers or quantities to a given starting number or amount, i.e.: The
sum of all terms in an infinite sequence.

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Examples 5.1.7:
1 1 1
1+ + + +⋯
2 4 8

Explanation: This geometric series converges to 2.

1+2+3+⋯

Explanation: his divergent series grows without bounds..

5.1.1 REPRESENTATION OF SEQUENCES AND SERIES

(a) Using Explicit Formulas:

Definition 5.1.8:
A formula that defines the 𝑛 − 𝑡ℎ term directly.

Examples 5.1.7:
𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 for 2, 4, 6, 8, …

Explanation: Plug n = 1, 2, 3, … into the formula to get terms.

𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 − 1 for 2, 5, 8, 11,

Explanation: This formula generates each term directly.

(b) Using Recursive Formulas:

Definition 5.1.8:
A formula that defines each term based on previous terms.

Examples 5.1.7:
𝑎1 = 2, 𝑎𝑛+1 = 𝑎𝑛 + 2 for 2, 4, 6, 8, …

Explanation: Each term is 2 more than the preceding term.

𝑎1 = 1, 𝑎𝑛+1 = 3𝑎𝑛 + 2 for 1, 3, 9, 27,

Explanation: Each term is three times the previous term.

(c) Using Sigma Notation:

Definition 5.1.9:
A compact way to write the sum of a sequence.

Examples 5.1.8:
∑4𝑛=1 𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10

Explanation: This sums all integers from 1 to 4.

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𝑎1 = 1, 𝑎𝑛+1 = 3𝑎𝑛 + 2 for 1, 3, 9, 27,

Explanation: Each term is three times the previous term.

∑3𝑛=1(2𝑛) = 2 + 4 + 6 = 12

Explanation: The formula 2n generates the terms which are summed.

5.1.2 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define a finite sequence?
2. Give an example of an infinite series?
3. What is the common difference in the sequence 5, 8, 11, 14?
4. Write the explicit formula for the sequence 3, 6, 9, 12?
5. Represent the sum 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 using sigma notation?
6. What is the partial sum of the first three terms of 1, 2, 3, …?

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SESSION 2: ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE AND SERIES
At the end of this session you will be able to identify arithmetic sequences and series and
develop skills to determine them.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to understand the concept of arithmetic sequences and series, including their
definitions and properties.
2. To be able to learn how to derive and apply the general term formula of an arithmetic
sequence.
3. To be able to explore the formula for the sum of an arithmetic series and understand its
derivation.
4. To be able to develop skills to find missing terms in an arithmetic sequence and insert
arithmetic means between given numbers.
5. To be able to apply these concepts to solve practical problems involving arithmetic
progressions in real-life contexts.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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5.2.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

(a) General Term Formula

Definition 5.2.1:
The general term of an arithmetic sequence, denoted by 𝑎𝑛 , is given by:

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1) 𝑑
where 𝑎1 is the first term, n is the term number, and d is the common difference.

Examples 5.2.1:
Find the 10th term of the sequence 3, 7, 11, …

Solution:
𝑎1 = 3, and d = 7 – 3 = 4
Using the formula:
𝑎10 = 3 + (10 − 1)(4) = 3 + 36 = 39

Explanation: The 10th term is calculated by adding 9×49 to the first term.

Examples 5.2.2:
Find the 5th term of the sequence -2, 0, 2, …

Solution:
𝑎1 = −2, and d = 0 – (- 2) = 2
Using the formula:
𝑎5 = −2 + (5 − 1)(2) = −2 + 8 = 6

Explanation: The 5th term is obtained by adding 4×24 to −2.

(b) Common Difference

Definition 5.2.2:
The difference between any two consecutive terms in an arithmetic sequence, denoted by d, is
constant.
𝑑 = 𝑎𝑛+1 − 𝑎𝑛

Examples 5.2.3:
In the sequence 5, 10, 15, 20, … the common difference is:
d = 10 – 5 = 5

Explanation: The difference between consecutive terms is constant, making it an arithmetic

sequence.
Examples 5.2.4:
In the sequence 12, 9, 6, 3, … the common difference is:

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 d = 9 – 12 = - 3

Explanation: Here, d is negative, indicating a decreasing arithmetic sequence.

5.2.1 SUM OF ARITHMETIC SERIES

(a) Deriving the formula for the Sum

Formula: The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic series, 𝑆𝑛 , is:

𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 )
2
Alternatively, using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1) 𝑑:
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2

Examples 5.2.5:
Find the sum of the first 5 terms of 3, 7, 11, 15, 19:

Solution:
𝑛 = 5, 𝑎1 = 3, 𝑎5 = 19
5 5
𝑆5 = (3 + 19) = (22) = 55
2 2

Explanation: The formula is used to sum the first 5 terms efficiently.

Examples 5.2.6:
Find the sum of the first 6 terms of 2, 5, 8, 11, …:

Solution:
𝑛 = 6, 𝑎1 = 2, 𝑑 = 5 − 2 = 3 𝑎6 = 2 + (6 − 1)(3) = 17

6
𝑆6 = (2 + 17) = 3(19) = 57
2

Explanation: The sum of the first 6 terms is calculated using the sum formula.

5.2.2 PROPERTIES OF ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE

(a) Finding Missing Terms

Definition 5.2.3:
If terms are missing in a sequence, they can be found using the general term formula or by
recognizing the pattern.

Examples 5.2.7:
Find the mission term in 2, __, 10, 14.

Solution: d = 10 – 2 = 4. The mission term is: 2 + 4 = 6.

Explanation: Add the common difference to find the missing value.

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Examples 5.2.8:
Fill the missing terms in 5, __, __, 20.

20−5
Solution: 𝑑 = = 5. The terms are: 5, 10, 15, 20.
3
Explanation: Divide the difference between the first and last terms by the number of gaps.

(b) Inserting Arithmetic Means

Definition 5.2.4:
Arithmetic means are terms inserted between two numbers such that all terms form an arithmetic
sequence.

Examples 5.2.9:
Insert 3 arithmetic means between 2 and 14?

14−2
Solution: There are 5 terms : 𝑑 = = 3. The sequence is: 2, 5, 8, 11, 14
4

Explanation: Divide the interval into equal parts to insert the means.

Examples 5.2.10:
Insert 2 arithmetic means between 4 and 10.

10−4
Solution: 𝑑 = = 2. The sequence is: 4, 6, 8, 10
3

Explanation: Add the common difference iteratively to insert the means.

5.2.3 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the general term formula of an arithmetic sequence?
2. Find the 7th term of the sequence 3, 8, 13, … ?
3. What is the common difference of 10, 7, 4, 1?
4. Find the sum of the first 4 terms of 1, 3, 5, 7?
5. Insert 2 arithmetic means between 6 and 12?
6. What is the sum of the sequence 4, 7, 10, 13 using the sum formula?

SESSION 3: GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE AND SERIES

At the end of this session you will be able to identify Geometric sequences and series and
develop skills to determine them.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to understand the concept of geometric sequences and series, including their
definitions and characteristics.
2. To be able to learn how to use the general term formula and calculate the common ratio in
a geometric sequence.

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 3. To be able to explore the formulas for the sum of finite and infinite geometric series and
their derivation.
4. To be able to analyze the conditions for convergence in an infinite geometric series.
5. To be able to apply geometric sequences and series to solve real-world problems, such as
compound interest and growth models.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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5.3.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

(a) General Term Formula

Definition 5.3.1:
The general term of a geometric sequence, denoted by 𝑎𝑛 , is given by:

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 ∙ 𝑟 𝑛−1
where 𝑎1 is the first term, r is the common ratio, and n is the term number.

Examples 5.3.1:
Find the 5th term of the sequence 3, 6, 12, …?

Solution:
6
𝑎1 = 3, 𝑟 = = 2. Using the formula:
3
𝑎5 = 3 ∙ 25−1 = 3 ∙ 16 = 48

Explanation: Multiply the first term by 𝑟 4 to find the 5th term.

Examples 5.3.2:
Find the 4th term of the sequence 5, 15, 45, …?

Solution:
15
𝑎1 = 5, 𝑟 = = 3. Using the formula:
5
𝑎4 = 5 ∙ 34−1 = 5 ∙ 27 = 135

Explanation: The term is calculated by multiplying the first term by 𝑟 3 .

(b) Common Ration

Definition 5.3.2:
The common ratio, r, in a geometric sequence is the constant factor between consecutive terms,
calculated as:
𝑎
𝑟 = 𝑛+1
𝑎𝑛

Examples 5.3.3:
For the sequence 2, 6, 18, 54,… the common ratio is:
6
𝑟= =3
2

Explanation: Divide any term by the previous term to find r.

Examples 5.3.4:

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For the sequence 16, 8, 4, 2,… the common ratio is:
8 1
𝑟= =
16 2

Explanation: r can be a fraction, indicating a decreasing sequence.

5.3.1 SUM OF GEOMETRIC SERIES

(a) Sum of Finite Series

Formula: The sum of the first n terms of a geometric series is:

1−𝑟 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 ,𝑟 ≠ 1
1−𝑟

Examples 5.3.5:
Find the sum of the first 4 terms of 2, 6, 18, 54.

Solution:
1−34 1−81
𝑎1 = 2, 𝑟 = 3, 𝑛 = 4; 𝑆4 = 2 ∙ =2∙ = 2 ∙ 40 = 80
1−3 −2

Explanation: The sum is calculated using the finite sum formula.

Examples 5.3.6:
Find the sum of the first 5 terms 1, -2, 4, -8, 16.

Solution:
1−(−2)5 1−(−32) 33
𝑎1 = 1, 𝑟 = −2, 𝑛 = 5; 𝑆5 = 1 ∙ = = = 11
1−(−2) 3 3

Explanation: Incorporating a negative r alternates the terms' signs.

(b) Sum of Infinite Series

Formula: For |𝑟 | < 1, the sum of an infinite geometric series is:

𝑎
𝑆∞ = 1
1−𝑟

Examples 5.3.7:
1
Find the sum of 4, 2, 1, , ...
2

Solution:
2 1 4 4
𝑎1 = 4, 𝑟 = = . 𝑆∞ = = =8
4 2 1−1/2 1/2
Explanation: Since |𝑟 | < 1, the series converges.

Examples 5.3.8:
Find the sum of 3, −1.5, 0.75, −0.375, ...

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Solution:
4 4
𝑎1 = 3, 𝑟 = 0.. 𝑆∞ = = =8
1−1/2 1/2
Explanation
3 3
𝑎1 = 3, 𝑟 = −0.5; 𝑆∞ = = =2
1−(−0.5) 1.5
Explanation: The infinite series converges to a finite value.

(c) Derivation of Formulas

Finite Series: Multiply 𝑆𝑛 by r, subtract the equations, and solve for 𝑆𝑛 .

Infinite Series: Let 𝑛 → ∞ in the finite sum formula.

(d) Conditions for Convergence in Infinite Series

The series converges only if |𝑟 | < 1.

For |𝑟 | ≥ 1, the series diverges.

5.3.2 PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE AND APPLICATIONS

(a) Identifying Terms

Use 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 ∙ 𝑟 𝑛−1 to find terms.

(b) Inserting Geometric Means

𝑘 𝑏
Find 𝑟 using 𝑟 = √ , where k is the number of means.
𝑎

Example 5.3.9:
Insert 2 means between 3 and 24?

3 24
Solution: 𝑟 = √ = 2. Sequence: 3, 6, 12, 24.
3

(c) Application of GP in Compound Interest

Formula: 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟)𝑛 , where P is the principal, r is the interest rate, n is the number of
periods.

(d) Application of GP in Growth model.

Formula: 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃0 ∙ 𝑟 𝑛 , where 𝑃𝑛 is the population after n.

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Example 5.3.10
Population of 1,000 grows by 10% yearly. After 5 years:
𝑃5 = 1000(1.1)5 = 1

5.3.3 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the general term formula for a geometric sequence?
2. Find the 6th term of 1, 2, 4, 8, …?
3. What is the common ration of 5, 10, 20, 40?
4. Find the sum of the first 4 terms of 2, 4, 8, 16?
1 1 1
5. Find the sum of the infinite series 1, , , , … ?
2 4 8
6. What is the sum of 3, -1.5, 0.75, -0.375?

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SESSION 4: SPECIAL TYPES OF SEQUENCES
At the end of this session you will be able to identify the other types of sequences, their
properties and applications.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to understand he characteristics and definitions of special types of sequences
such as harmonic sequences, Fibonacci sequences, and recurrence relations.
2. To be able to analyze the relationship between harmonic sequences and arithmetic
sequences.
3. To be able to explore the Fibonacci sequence's connection to the Golden Ratio and its
significance in mathematics and nature.
4. To be able to identify and work with other special sequences, such as factorial, triangular,
and square number sequences.
5. To be able to develop problem-solving skills by applying these sequences to
mathematical and real-world problems.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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5.4.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

(a) Harmonic Sequences

Definition 5.4.1:
A HARMONIC SEQUENCE is a sequence of numbers whose reciprocals form an arithmetic
sequence.
1 1 1
If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 is a harmonic sequence, then , ,…, is an arithmetic sequence.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑛

Examples 5.4.1:
1 1 1
Sequence: 1, , , .
2 3 4

Explanation: The reciprocals 1, 2, 3, 4 form an arithmetic sequence with a common difference of

1.

Examples 5.4.2:
1 1 1 1
Sequence: , , , .
3 6 9 12

Explanation: The reciprocals 3, 6, 9, 12 form an arithmetic sequence with a common difference

of 3.

(b) Relationship with Arithmetic Sequence

The n-th term of a harmonic sequence is the reciprocal of the n-th term of an arithmetic
sequence.

Examples 5.4.3:
1 1 1 1
For an arithmetic sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, … , the harmonic is , , , .
2 4 6 8

Examples 5.4.4:
1 1 1 1
For an arithmetic sequence 5, 10, 15, 20, … , the harmonic is , , , .
5 10 15 20

(c) Fibonacci Sequence

Definition 5.4.2:
A Fibonacci sequence is defined recursively as 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 with initial terms 𝐹0 = 0 and
𝐹1 = 1.

Example 5.4.5
The sequence is 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,…

Explanation: Each term is the sum of the two preceding terms.

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Example 5.4.6
For 𝐹0 = 2 and 𝐹1 = 3, the sequence is 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …

(d) Connection with the Golden Ratio

Definition 5.4.3:
The ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers approaches the Golden Ratio 𝜙 ≈ 1.618 as 𝑛 → ∞.

Example 5.4.7
𝐹7 13
For 𝐹6 = 8 and 𝐹7 = 13, = = 1.625.
𝐹6 8

Example 5.4.8
𝐹10 55
For 𝐹9 = 34 and 𝐹10 = 55, = ≈ 1.618.
𝐹9 34

(e) Recurrence Relations

Definition 5.4.4:
A recurrence relation expresses each term of a sequence as a function of its preceding terms.

Example 5.4.9
Arithmetic sequence recurrence: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑑, where d is the common difference.
For 𝑎1 = 2, 𝑑 = 3: 2, 5, 8, 11, …

Example 5.4.10
Fibonacci sequence recurrence: 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 .

5.4.1 SPECIAL SEQUENCES DEFINITIONS

(a) Factorial Sequence

Definition 5.4.5:
The factorial sequence is defined as 𝑛! = 𝑛 ∙ (𝑛 − 1) ∙ (𝑛 − 2) ∙∙∙ 1, where n is a positive integer.

Example 5.4.11
5! = 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 120
4! = 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 24

(b) Triangular Sequence

Definition 5.4.6:
A triangular sequence represents the number of dots that form an equilateral triangle, given by
𝑛(𝑛+1)
𝑇𝑛 = .
2

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Example 5.4.12
3(3+1)
For 𝑛 = 3, 𝑇3 = = 6.
2
5(5+1)
For 𝑛 = 5, 𝑇5 = = 15.
2

(c) Square Numbers

Definition 5.4.6:
A square number sequence is formed by squaring integers, 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛 2 .

Example 5.4.12
For 𝑛 = 4, 𝑆4 = 42 = 16.
For 𝑛 = 6, 𝑆6 = 62 = 36.

5.4.2 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the general formula for the Fibonacci sequence?
1 1
2. Find the 6th term of the harmonic 1, , , . ..
2 3
3. What is the formula for the triangular sequence?
4. Find the 4th term of the factorial sequence?
5. Calculate the 5th square number?
6. What is the Golden Ratio ϕ approximately equal to?

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SESSION 5: CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE
At the end of this session you will be able to know and identify convergence and divergence of
series, their properties and applications.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to understand the concepts of convergence and divergence of a series.
2. To be able to learn the criteria for determining whether a series converges or diverges.
3. To be able to explore key methods and tests for convergence, including the ratio test, root
test, and alternating series test.
4. To be able to differentiate between absolute and conditional convergence.
5. To be able to apply these concepts to solve problems involving infinite series and analyze
their behavior.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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5.5.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

(a) Criteria for Convergence

Definition 5.5.1:
A series converges if the sequence of its partial sums approaches a finite limit as 𝑛 → ∞.
Mathematically, a series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 converges if lim 𝑆𝑛 exists and its finite, where ∑𝑘=1 𝑎𝑘 .
𝑛=1

Examples 5.5.1:
∞ 1
∑ 2
𝑛=1 𝑛

1 1 𝜋2
Explanation: The partial sums 𝑆𝑛 = 1 + + + ⋯ approach a finite limit ( ). Thus, the series
4 9 6
converges.

Example 5.5.2
∞ 1
∑ 𝑛
𝑛=1 2

1 1 1
Explanation: If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 is a harmonic sequence, then , ,…, is an arithmetic sequence.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑛

1 1 1
Sequence: 1, , , .
2 3 4

1 1
Explanation: The series is geometric with 𝑟 = . The sum converges to = 2.
2 1−𝑟

(b) Criteria for Divergence

Definition 5.5.2:
A series diverges if its partial sums do not approach a finite limit as 𝑛 → ∞

Example 5.5.3:
1
∑∞
𝑛=1 (The Harmonic Series).
𝑛

1 1
Explanation: The partial sums sums 𝑆𝑛 = 1 + + + ⋯ grow without bound. Thus, the series
2 3
diverges.

Example 5.5.4:
∞
∑ 𝑛
𝑛=1

Explanation: The terms grow without bound, causing the partial sums to also grow without

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bound.

5.5.1 CONVERGENCE TESTS

(a) Ratio Test

Definition 5.5.3:
For
𝑎𝑛+1
∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 , if lim | |=𝐿
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛

1. If 𝐿 < 1, the series converges absolutely.

2. If 𝐿 > 1, the series diverges.
3. If 𝐿 = 1, the test is inconclusive

Example 5.5.5:
∞ 1
∑
𝑛=1 𝑛!

𝑎𝑛+1 1/(𝑛+1)! 1
Explanation: | |= = → 0. Thus, the series converges.
𝑎𝑛 1/𝑛! 𝑛+1

Example 5.5.6:
𝑛
∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 2

𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑛+1)/2𝑛+1 𝑛+1 1

Explanation: | |= = → . The series converges.
𝑎𝑛 𝑛/2𝑛 2𝑛 2

(b) Root Test

Definition 5.5.4
For
∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 , if lim √|𝑎𝑛 | = 𝐿.
𝑛→∞

1. If 𝐿 < 1, the series converges absolutely.

2. If 𝐿 > 1, the series diverges.
3. If 𝐿 = 1, the test is inconclusive
Example 5.5.7:
1
∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛. 2

𝑛 1 1 1
Explanation: 𝑛√ |𝑎𝑛 | = √ = → . Thus, the series converges.
2𝑛 2 2

Example 5.5.8:
𝑛
∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 𝑛

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 𝑛 1 1
Explanation: 𝑛√|𝑎𝑛 | = √ 𝑛 = → 0. The series converges.
𝑛 𝑛

5.5.2 ALTERNATING SERIES AND CONVERGENCE TYPES

(a) Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence

Definition 5.5.5
An alternating series alternates in sign, such as ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛−1 𝑎 . Absolute converges occurs
𝑛
when ∑∞ |𝑎
𝑛=1 𝑛 | converges.

Example 5.5.9:
∑∞ 𝑛−1 1
𝑛=1(−1) 𝑛

1
Explanation: The series converges conditionally but not absolutely because ∑∞
𝑛=1 diverges.
𝑛

Example 5.5.10:
∑∞ 𝑛−1 1
𝑛=1(−1) 2 𝑛

1
Explanation: The series converges absolutely because ∑∞
𝑛=1 converges.
𝑛2

(b) Conditional Vs. Absolute Convergence

Definition 5.5.6:
Conditional Convergence: A series converges, but its absolute series diverges.

Absolute Convergence: Both the series and its absolute series converge.

Example 5.5.11:
∑∞ 𝑛−1 1 is conditionally convergent.
𝑛=1(−1) 𝑛

1
∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛−1 is absolutely convergent.
𝑛2

(c) Alternating Series Test

Definition 5.5.6:
An alternating series ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛−1 𝑎 converges if:
𝑛

1. If 𝑎𝑛 > 0, for all n.

2. If 𝑎𝑛+1 ≤ 𝑎𝑛 for all n.
3. If lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝑛→∞

Example 5.5.12:

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 1
∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛−1
satisfies the conditions and converges.
𝑛

𝑛
∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛 diverges because lim 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑛+1 𝑛→∞

5.5.3 SELF – ASSESSMEN TQUESTION

1. Define convergence and divergence of a series?
1
2. Does the series ∑∞
𝑛=1 2 converges?
𝑛
1
3. Use the ratio test to determine if ∑∞
𝑛=1 Converge?
𝑛!
1
4. Does ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛−1 converge absolutely or conditionally?
𝑛
5. State one condition for the alternating series test?
1
6. Does ∑∞ 𝑛=1 𝑛 converge?
2

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SESSION 6: APPLICATIONS AND ADVANCED TOPICS
At the end of this session you will introduce some applications and other topics in sequences and
series and some applications.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to understand the practical applications of sequences and series in various
disciplines, including science, engineering, and economics.
2. To be able to learn how to derive terms and represent functions using advanced series
techniques.
3. To be able to explore advanced topics such as power series, Taylor and Maclaurin series,
and binomial series.
4. To be able to develop a deeper insight into the role of infinite series in calculus and
mathematical analysis.
ADVANCED TOPICS

Advanced series concepts, such as power series, Taylor series, and binomial series, are crucial
for:
1. Function Approximation: Taylor and Maclaurin series expand functions into polynomial
approximations.
2. Solving Differential Equations: Power series solutions are common in engineering and
physics.
3. Special Functions: Binomial series generalizes powers to non-integer exponents.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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5.6.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

(a) POWER SERIES

Definition 5.6.1:
A power series is an infinite series of the form:

∑∞
𝑛=0 𝐶𝑛 ( 𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑛

Where 𝐶𝑛 are coefficients, a is the center, and x is a variable.

Representation: Power series represents functions within their radius of convergence.

Examples 5.6.1:
1
∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑥 = for |𝑥 | < 1
1−𝑥

Explanation: This series represents a geometric series with a common ratio x.

Example 5.6.2
𝑥𝑛
∑∞
𝑛=0 = 𝑒 𝑥.
𝑛!

Explanation: This series expands the exponential function.

(b) TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN SERIES

Definition 5.6.2:
A Taylor series for a function 𝑓(𝑥 ) at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is:

𝑓(𝑛) (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥 ) = ∑∞
𝑛=0 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛
𝑛!

A Maclaurin series is a Taylor series centered at a = 0.

Derivation of Terms:
The terms of the series are derived using the function's derivatives. For 𝑓(𝑥 ):

𝑓11 (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓1 (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + ⋯
2!

Example 5.6.2
Approximate 𝑒 𝑥 using Maclaurin series:

𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!
Explanation: The terms are derived from 𝑒 𝑥 , where all derivatives equal 𝑒 𝑥 .

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Example 5.6.3
Approximate sin(𝑥) using Maclaurin series:

𝑥3 𝑥5
sin(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − + −⋯
3! 5!
Explanation: This series is derived from the alternating derivatives of sin (𝑥 ).

(c) BINOMIAL SERIES

Definition 5.6.3
The binomial series generalizes the expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 for any real n:

𝑛 𝑘 𝑛(𝑛−1) 2
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = ∑∞
𝑘=0 ( 𝑘 ) 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
2!

𝑛 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)…(𝑛−𝑘+1)
Where ( ) =
𝑘 ,!

Example 5.6.4
Expand (1 + 𝑥)1/2using the binomial series?

Explanation: Substitute n = ½:

1 1 1
1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 − ⋯
2 8 16

Example 5.6.5
Approximate (1 − 𝑥)3 .

Explanation: Substitute n = - 3:
1 + 3𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 3 + ⋯

5.6.1 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTION

1. What is a power series, and how is it represented?
2. Write the first four terms of the Maclaurin series for 𝑒 𝑥 .
3. Derive the first three terms of the Taylor series for ln(1 + 𝑥) at a = 0.
4. Expand (1 + 𝑥)2 using the binomial theorem?
5. What is the formula for the general term in the binomial series?
6. Use the binomial series to approximate (1 + 𝑥)−1 for small x?

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UNIT 6 – INDUCTION
SHORT NOTES:
Mathematical Induction is a fundamental proof technique used to establish the truth of an infinite
sequence of mathematical statements. It is particularly powerful for proving properties of
integers, sequences, and recursive structures. The method involves two key steps: verifying the
base case and proving the inductive step. Once both steps are successfully executed, the
statement is considered true for all natural numbers.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:
The origins of mathematical induction trace back to the ancient Greeks, particularly in the work
of Euclid, who used early forms of reasoning resembling induction in geometry. The
formalization of induction as a method for proof is credited to Francesco Maurolico in the 16th
century. The modern formulation was further refined in the 19th century by mathematicians like
Augustus De Morgan and Giuseppe Peano.

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INDUCTION
At the end of this session you will be able to know mathematical inductions and their proofs and
some applications.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to define mathematical induction and explain its purpose in mathematical
proofs.
2. To be able to identify and describe the two essential components: the basis step and the
inductive step.
3. To be able to understand the importance of induction in solving real-world and theoretical
problems.
4. To be able to apply the concept to simple examples to build foundational skills in proof
writing.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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6.1.0 DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

Definition 6.1.1:
Mathematical Induction is a proof technique used to show that a statement 𝑃(𝑛) is true for all
natural numbers 𝑛, typically involving two steps:
1. Prove 𝑃(1) or [𝑜𝑟 𝑃(𝑛0 ) for the starting point].
2. Show that 𝑃(𝑘) => 𝑃(𝑘 + 1)

Example 6.1.1: Sum of Natural Number

1
Prove that: 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1).
2
Base Case:
1 1
𝑛 = 1, LHS: 1 RHS: (1)(1 + 1) = (1)(2) = 1. 𝑃(1) is true.
2 2
Inductive Step:
1
𝑃(𝑘) : 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑘 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1). Prove for 𝑃(𝑘 + 1).
2
1 1
𝑃(𝑘 + 1) : [1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑘](𝑘 + 1) = 𝑘 (𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1) = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1). 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) true.
2 2

Example 6.1.2: Divisibility Proof:

Prove 5𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 4 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1.
Base Case:
𝑛 = 1, 𝑃(1) : 51 − 1 = 4 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 4. 𝑃(1) is true.
Inductive Step:
𝑃(𝑘) : 5𝑘 − 1. Assume is divisible by 4: Prove for 𝑃(𝑘 + 1).
𝑃(𝑘 + 1) : 5𝑘+1 − 1 = 5[(5𝑘 ) − 1] + 4 divisible by 4 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) true..

6.1.1 PRINCIPLES OF INDUCTION

(a) Basis Step

Definition 6.1.2:
Verify the statement is true for the first case (n = 1 or other initial value).

Examples 6.1.3:
1
1. 𝑃 (𝑛 ): 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1). Prove true for n = 1
6
2. 𝑃 (𝑛 ): 2𝑛 > 𝑛 2 For 𝑛 ≥ 5: Verify 25 = 32 > 25 = 52

(b) Inductive Step

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Definition 6.1.3:
Assume 𝑃(𝑘) is true, then prove 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is true based on the assumption.

Examples 6.1.4:
1. Sum of Natural number: Add (𝑘 + 1) to 𝑃(𝑘) .
2. Inequality Proof: Add 1 to 𝑘 + 1 and verify the inequality holds.

6.1.2 KEY TERMINOLOGY AND NOTATIONS

(a) Base Case

Definition: Initial case verified to begin the induction process.

Examples:
1. n = 1 in summation proofs.
2. n = 5 for inequalities like 2𝑛 > 𝑛 2 .
(b) Inductive Hypothesis

Definition: Assume 𝑃(𝑘) is true for some arbitrary k.

Examples:
1
1. Assume 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑘 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1).
2
2. Assume 5𝑘 − 1 is divisible by 4.
(c) Conclusion

Definition: Final statement derived showing 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) holds true.

Examples:
1 1
1. 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1) = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2).
2 2
2. 5𝑘+1 − 1 = 4𝑚 is divisible by 4.
(d) Common Symbols Used in Proofs

Definition: Standard Symbols like 𝑃(𝑛 ), ∀, ∃.

Examples:
1. ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑃(𝑛).
2. 𝑃 (𝑘) => 𝑃(𝑘 + 1).

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6.1.3 IMPORTANCE OF INDUCTION IN MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER
SCIENCE

1. Proving Mathematical Properties

- Example: Summation and Inequalities
- Explanation: Induction guarantees results for infinite cases

2. Algorithm Correctness
- Example: Sorting Algorithm
- Explanation: Prove Correctness Recursively using induction

6.1.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the purpose of mathematical induction?
2. What are the two main steps in induction?
3. How do you verify the base case?
4. What is the inductive hypothesis?
5. Provide an example of a summation formula proven by induction.
6. Why is induction important in computer science?

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SESSION 2: BASIC TYPES OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
At the end of this session you will be able to identify the different types of mathematical
induction and their applications.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to identify and explain the different types of mathematical induction, simple,
strong and complete.
2. To be able to understand the distinctions between these types and when to use each.
3. To be able to solve problems using each type of induction with appropriate examples.
4. To be able to develop a deeper appreciation for the flexibility and power of induction in
mathematical proofs.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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6.2.0 SIMPLE INDUCTION

Definition 6.2.1:
Simple induction is the most basic form of induction. It is a type of mathematical induction that
is used to prove that a statement holds for all natural numbers: It involves two steps:
1. Base Case: You start by proving that the statement is true for the first natural number
(usually n = 1).
2. Inductive Step: You assume the statement is true for some arbitrary natural number
n = k (this is called the inductive hypothesis) and then prove that the statement is also true
for n = k + 1.
3. Conclusion: By the principle of induction, if both the base case and the inductive step are
proven, the statement is true for all natural numbers n.

Examples 6.2.1:
1
Prove 𝑃 (𝑛 ): 1 ∙ 2 + 2 ∙ 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 (𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) For all 𝑛 ≥ 1
3
Basis Step:
1 1
For 𝑛 = 1, LHS: 1 ∙ 2 = 2 RHS: (1)(1 + 1)(1 + 2) = (1)(2)(3) = 2, True
3 3
Inductive Step:
1
Assume: 𝑃(𝑘) : 1 ∙ 2 + 2 ∙ 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
3
1 1
Add: (𝑘 + 1): 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) + (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3). True
3 3

Examples 6.2.2:
Prove 𝑃 (𝑛 ): 2𝑛 > 𝑛 2 for 𝑛 ≥ 5:
Basis Step:
25 = 32 > 25 = 52 , True.
Inductive Step
Assume: 2𝑘 > 𝑘 2 . Prove 2𝑘+1 > (𝑘 + 1)2
2𝑘+1 = 2 ∙ 2𝑘 > 2 ∙ 𝑘 2 . For 𝑘 ≥ 5, 2𝑘 2 > (𝑘 + 1)2 .

6.2.1 STRONG INDUCTION

Definition 6.2.2
Proof by strong induction is a mathematical technique for proving universal generalizations. It
differs from ordinary mathematical induction (also known as weak mathematical induction) with
respect to the inductive step.
In a weak mathematical induction, the inductive step involves showing that if some
element k has a property, then the successor element k + 1 must also have that property.

In a strong mathematical induction, the inductive step involves showing that if all elements up
to and including k have some property, then k + 1 has that property as well.

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That is in summary:
Strong induction is a generalized form of induction where the inductive step assumes the
statement is true for all values up to n = k (not just n = k) to prove it is true for n = k + 1.
Also
Let P be a predicate on non-negative integers. If
- P(0) is true, and
- for all 𝑘 ∈ ℕ, 𝑃(0), 𝑃(1) , … , 𝑃(𝑘) together imply 𝑃(𝑘 + 1),
Then 𝑃(ℎ) is true for all ℎ ∈ ℕ.

Examples 6.2.3:
Prove every integer 𝑛 ≥ 2 can be expressed as a product of primes:

Basis Step: n =2 is a prime, so it can be expressed as a product of primes.

Inductive Step: Assume all integers 2, 3, …, k are products of primes.
For n = k + 1 is prime or it can be factored into smaller integers, which are products of primes by
assumption.

Examples 6.2.4:
For Fibonacci numbers 𝐹𝑛 :

Basis Step: 𝐹0 = 0 ≤ 1, 𝐹1 = 1 ≤ 2, True.

Inductive Step: Assume 𝐹𝑖 ≤ 2𝑖 for 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘
Prove 𝐹𝑘+1 = 𝐹𝑘 + 𝐹𝑘−1 :
𝐹𝑘+1 ≤ 2𝑘 + 2𝑘−1 = 2𝑘+1 , True

6.2.2 COMPLETE INDUCTION

Definition 6.2.3
Complete induction is similar to strong induction but emphasizes proving a statement for all
preceding values ≤ 𝑘 + 1. It is often used for recursively defined sequences or structures.

Examples 6.2.5:
Prove the Tower of Hanoi formula 𝑇(𝑛 ) = 2𝑛 − 1:

Basis Step: For 𝑛 = 1, 𝑇 (1) = 1 = 21 − 1, True.

Inductive Step: Assume 𝑇 (𝑘) = 2𝑘 − 1. For 𝑇(𝑘 + 1):
Move k disks to auxiliary peg (𝑇(𝑘)), move the largest disk, and move k disks again.
𝑇 (𝑘 + 1) = 2𝑇 (𝑘) + 1 = 2(2𝑘 − 1) + 1 = 2𝑘+1 − 1.

Examples 6.2.6:
Prove the number of edges in a complete graph 𝐾𝑛 :

1(1−1)
Basis Step: For 𝑛 = 1, 𝐸 (1) = 0 = , True.
2

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 𝑘(𝑘−1)
Inductive Step: Assume 𝐸 (𝑘) = :
2
𝑘(𝑘 − 1) (𝑘 + 1)𝑘
𝐸 (𝑘 + 1) = +𝑘 =
2 2

6.2.3 COMPARING TYPES OF INDUCTION

TYPES KEY USE CASES EXAMPLE

DIFFERENCE
Simple Induction Use P(k) => P(k+1) Direct proof of 1 +2 +⋯+ 𝑛
sequence or 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
properties =
2
Strong Induction Assumes Recursive Proving every 𝑛 ≥ 2
P(1), P(2), …, P(k) properties, is a product of
divisibility. primes.
Complete Induction Extends strong Tower of Hanoi, Prove
induction for recursively defined 𝑇 (𝑛 ) = 2𝑛 − 1 for
cumulative proofs sequences the Tower of Hanoi
problem.

6.2.4 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between simple and strong induction?
2. What is the basis step in induction?
3. How does strong induction extend simple induction?
4. What type of induction is used to prove properties of Fibonacci numbers?
5. Give an example of a proof that requires complete induction.
6. Why is induction important in proving recursive algorithms?

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SESSION 3: APPLYING INDUCTION TO ALGEBRAIC
PROBLEMS
At the end of this session you will be able to understand the various application of mathematical
induction to algebraic problems.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to understand how mathematical induction is applied to various algebraic
problems.
2. To be able to use induction to prove summation formulas for arithmetic and geometric
series.
3. To be able to solve inequalities and divisibility problems using induction.
4. To be able to develop problem-solving skills through hands-on practice with algebraic
proofs.
5. To be able to gain confidence in applying induction techniques to complex algebraic
scenarios.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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6.3.0 APPLICATION OF INDUCTION

(a) Proving Summation Formulas

Mathematical induction is often used to verify summation formulas for sequences.

Examples 6.3.1: Sum of Squares:

1
Prove 𝑆 = 12 + 22 + ⋯ + 𝑛 2 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1). For all 𝑛 ≥ 1
6
1
Base Case: LHS: 𝑛 = 1, 𝑆 = 12 = 1 RHS: (1)(2)(3) = 1. True
6
Inductive Step:
1
Assume: 𝑆𝑘 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1)
6
Prove: 𝑆𝑘+1 by adding (𝑘 + 1)2

Example 6.3.2: Sum of Cubes:

1 2
Prove 𝑆 = 13 + 23 + ⋯ + 𝑛 3 = [ 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)] . For all 𝑛 ≥ 1
2
1 2
Base Case: LHS: 𝑛 = 1, 𝑆 = 13 = 1 RHS: [ (1)(2)] = 1. True
2
Inductive Step:
1 2
Assume: 𝑆𝑘 = [ 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)]
2
Prove: 𝑆𝑘+1 by adding (𝑘 + 1)3

(b) Arithmetic Series

Induction proves general formulas for arithmetic series.

Examples 6.3.4:
1. Arithmetic Series Formula:
𝑎+𝑙
Prove 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛 ∙ , where a is the first term, and l is the last term.
2

2. Special Case:
Prove 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛 [𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]/2, where d is the common difference.

(c) Geometric Series

Induction is used for verifying formulas for geometric series.

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Examples 6.3.5:
1. Sum of a Finite Geometric Series:
𝑎(1−𝑟)
Prove 𝑆𝑛 = , where 𝑟 ≠ 1.
(1−𝑟)

2. Special Case:
Prove 𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 1 for 𝑟 = 2.

(d) Proving Inequalities

Induction proves the validity of inequalities for sequences.

Examples 6.3.6:
1. Prove 2𝑛 > 𝑛 2 for 𝑛 ≥ 5:

Base Case: 𝑛 = 5, 25 = 32 > 25 = 52 , true.

Inductive Step: Assume 2𝑘 > 𝑘 2 . Prove 2𝑘+1 > (𝑘 + 1)2 :

2𝑘+1 = 2 ∙ 2𝑘 > 2𝑘 2 .
For 𝑘 ≥ 5, 2𝑘 2 > (𝑘 + 1)2 .

2. Prove 𝑛! > 2𝑛 for 𝑛 ≥ 4:

Base Case: 𝑛 = 4, 4! = 24 > 16, true.

Inductive Step: Assume 𝑘! > 2𝑘 . Prove (𝑘 + 1)! > 2𝑘+1

(𝑘 + 1)! = (𝑘 + 1) ∙ 𝑘! > (𝑘 + 1) ∙ 2𝑘 .

(e) Induction by Divisibility

Proving divisibility properties with induction.
Examples 6.3.7:
1. Prove 5𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 4 for 𝑛 ≥ 1:

Base Case: 𝑛 = 1, 51 − 1 = 4, divisible by 4.

Inductive Step: Assume 5𝑘 − 1is divisible by 4. Prove 5𝑘+1 − 1:

5𝑘+1 − 1 = 5 ∙ 5𝑘 − 1 = 4𝑚 + (5𝑘 − 1, divisible by 4.

2. Prove 𝑛 3 − 𝑛 is divisible by 6 for 𝑛 ≥ 1:

Base Case: 𝑛 = 1, 13 − 1 = 0 , divisible by 6.

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 Inductive Step: Assume 𝑘 3 − 𝑘 is divisible by 6.
Prove (𝑘 + 1)3 − (𝑘 + 1).

6.3.1 PROBLEM – SOLVING WORKSHOP

Examples 6.3.8: Sum of product of 3 Consecutive positive integers:

1
Prove 𝑆 = 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 + 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 + ⋯ + 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) = 𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) (𝑛 + 3)
4

1
Base Case: 𝑛 = 1, 𝑆 = 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 = 6, (1)(2)(3)(4) = 6. True
4
Inductive Step:
1
Assume: 𝑆𝑘 = 𝑘 (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
4
Prove: 𝑆𝑘+1 by adding (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3).

Examples 6.3.9: Proving Divisibility:

Prove 𝑛 5 − 𝑛 is divisible by 5 for 𝑛 ≥ 1

Base Case: 𝑛 = 1, 15 − 1 = 0, divisible by 5. True

Inductive Step:
Assume: 𝑘 5 − 𝑘 is divisible by 5.
Prove: (𝑘 + 1)5 − (𝑘 + 1).

6.3.2 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the formula for the sum of the first n natural numbers?
2. What is the formula for the sum of a finite geometric series?
3. Prove 2𝑛 > 𝑛 2 for n = 5?
4. What is the inductive step in proving inequalities?
5. Why is induction useful for proving divisibility?
6. How do you prove 𝑛 3 − 𝑛 is divisible by 6?

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SESSION 4: INDUCTION IN COMBINATORICS AND NUMBER
THEORY
At the end of this session you will be able solve mathematical induction problems in
combinatoric and number theory and some applications.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to apply mathematical induction to solve problems in combinatorics and
number theory.
2. To be able to use induction to prove counting formulas, properties of Pascal's Triangle,
and the Binomial Theorem.
3. To be able to explore geometric proofs and advanced counting techniques using
induction.
4. To be able to strengthen understanding of induction's applications in theoretical and
practical problems.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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6.4.0 USE OF INDUCTION

(a) Counting Problems

Induction helps prove general formulas for counting scenarios in combinatorics.

Examples 6.4.1:
𝑛
Sum of n – Choose – k: ∑𝑛𝑘=0 ( ) = 2𝑛 .
𝑘

Base Case: 𝑛 = 0, ∑𝑛𝑘=0 (0) = (0) = 20 , True.

𝑘 0
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
Inductive Step: 𝑛 = 𝑘, ∑𝑖=0 ( ) = 2 . Prove 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
𝑖
𝑛 = 𝑘+1 ∑𝑖=0 (𝑘 + 1). Using Pascal’s rule
𝑘+1
𝑖
𝑘+1 𝑘 𝑘
( )= ( )+( )
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖−1

Example 6.4.2:
Prove 𝑛! = ∏𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖 .

Base Case: 𝑛 = 0, 1! = 1. True

Inductive Step:
Assume: 𝑘! = ∏𝑘𝑖=1 𝑖. Prove for 𝑘+1
(k + 1)! = (k + 1) ∙ k! = (k + 1) ∙ ∏𝑘𝑖=1 𝑖

(b) Pascal's Triangle and Binomial Theorem

Induction proves relationships in Pascal's Triangle and generalizations of the Binomial Theorem.

Examples 6.4.3:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
1. Prove Binomial Coefficient Property: ( ) + ( )=( )
𝑟 𝑟−1 𝑟
1 1 2
Base Case: 𝑛 = 1, 𝑟 = 1, ( )+( )=( ) True.
1 0 1
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘+1
Inductive Step: Assume 𝑛 = 𝑘 ( )+( )=( ) Prove for k + 1
𝑟 𝑟−1 𝑟
𝑘+1 (𝑘+1)!
Expand ( )= And use the property recursively.
𝑟 𝑟!(𝑘+1−𝑟)!

𝑛
2. Binomial Theorem: Prove (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑘=0 ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 𝑦 𝑘
𝑘
1 1
Base Case: 𝑛=1 (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑦 = ( ) 𝑥 1 𝑦 0 + ( ) 𝑥 0 𝑦1 . True
1
0 1
Inductive Step: Assume true for 𝑛 = 𝑘. Prove for k + 1:
Expand (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑘+1 = (𝑥 + 𝑦) ∙ (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑘

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(c) Geometric Proofs

Induction can establish geometric relationships or properties in figures.

Examples 6.4.4:

1. Sum of Interior Angles in a Polygon: Prove 𝑆 = (𝑛 − 2) ∙ 180° .

Base Case: 𝑛 = 3, 𝑆 = 180° , True

Inductive Step: Assume: 𝑆𝑘 = (𝑘 − 2) ∙ 180° . Prove for k + 1:

Adding one vertex forms another triangle, contributing 180° .

2. Geometric Progression of Triangles:

Prove the area of a subdivided triangle halves at each step.

Statement to Prove
A triangle is subdivided recursively such that in each step, a new triangle is formed by
connecting the midpoints of the current triangle. The area of the new triangle at the n-th
step is exactly half the area of the triangle at the (n − 1)-th step.

Let the area of the original triangle (𝑛 = 0) be 𝐴0 . The area of the triangle at step n is
𝐴0
𝐴𝑛 = . We will prove this statement using mathematical induction.
2𝑛

Base Case: 𝑛 = 0
At step 0, the original has an area 𝐴0 .
𝐴0
𝐴0 = .
2𝑛
This holds true for 0
2 = 1. Thus the base case is verified.

Inductive Hypothesis:
Assume that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘:
𝐴𝑘
The area of the triangle at step k is: 𝐴𝑘 =
2𝑘

Inductive Step:
𝐴0
We need to prove that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1: 𝐴𝑘+1 =
2𝑘+1
At step 𝑘 + 1, each triangle is subdivided into 4 smaller triangles by connecting the
midpoints of the sides of the triangle at step k.

Key Observations:
(a) The 4 smaller triangles formed at step 𝑘 + 1 are congruent because the midpoints divide
each side equally, forming a triangle similar to the original.
(b) The area of the new triangle (central triangle) at 𝑘 + 1is half the area of the triangle at k
due to the geometric property of midpoint subdivisions.
Thus:
𝐴𝑘
𝐴𝑘+1 =
2

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 𝐴0
Substitute 𝐴𝑘 = (from the inductive hypothesis):
2𝑘
𝐴0/2𝑘 𝐴0
𝐴𝑘+1 = =
2 2𝑘+1
Conclusion
By the principle of mathematical induction, the area of the subdivided triangle at step n is
𝐴0
𝐴𝑛 = .
2𝑛

(d) Advanced Counting Techniques

Advanced techniques such as inclusion-exclusion and combinatorial identities benefit from

induction.
Examples 6.4.5:
1. Derive Stirling Numbers of the Second Kind:
Prove 𝑆(𝑛 + 1, 𝑘) = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑆(𝑛, 𝑘) + 𝑆(𝑛, 𝑘 − 1), Where 𝑆 (𝑛, 𝑘) counts ways to partition n
elements into k non-empty subsets.

2. Catalan Numbers:
1 2𝑛
Prove 𝐶𝑛 = ( ).
𝑛+1 𝑛

6.4.1 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

𝑛
1. Prove ∑𝑛𝑘=0 ( ) = 2𝑛 using induction?
𝑘
2. How does Pascal's Triangle relate to the Binomial Theorem?
3. Prove (𝑛 − 2) ∙ 180° for the sum of a polygon's interior angles?
4. Use induction to prove 𝑛! = ∏𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
5. Prove ( ) + ( )=( )?
𝑟 𝑟−1 𝑟
6. What is the significance of Catalan numbers in counting problems?

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SESSION 5: ADVANCED APPLICATION OF INDUCTION
At the end of this session you will be able to know and identify some advanced applications of
induction and how they are applied.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to apply mathematical induction to solve complex problems in recurrence
relations, graph theory, functional equations, and puzzles.
2. To be able to explore and understand the versatility of induction in solving abstract and
practical problems.
3. To be able to develop advanced problem-solving skills through diverse applications of
induction.
4. To be able to learn to formulate proofs for challenging scenarios using induction in
innovative ways.
5. To be able to appreciate the role of induction in bridging different areas of mathematics
and logic.
Now read on …

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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6.5.0 USE OF INDUCTION TO SOLVE PROBLEMS IN RECURRENCE RELATIONS

Mathematical induction is a key technique for verifying solutions to recurrence relations.

Examples 6.5.1:
1. Fibonacci Sequence:
Prove 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 where 𝐹1 = 1, 𝐹2 = 1

Base Case: For 𝑛 = 3, 𝐹3 = 𝐹2 + 𝐹1 = 1 + 1 = 2, True

Inductive Step: Assume: 𝐹𝑘 = 𝐹𝑘−1 + 𝐹𝑘−2 . Prove for k + 1:

𝐹𝑘+1 = 𝐹𝑘 + 𝐹𝑘−1 , matches the definition.

2. Summation Relation:
Solve 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−1 + 2𝑛 − 1 with 𝑎1 = 1.

Solution: Prove 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 2

Base Case: 𝑛 = 1, 𝑎1 = 12 , True

Inductive Step: Assume 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑘 2 . Prove 𝑎𝑘+1 = (𝑘 + 1)2.

𝑎𝑘+1 = 𝑎𝑘 + 2(𝑘 + 1) − 1 = 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 = (𝑘 + 1)2 .

6.5.1 USE OF INDUCTION IN GRAPH THEORY AND PROOFS

Induction is used to establish properties of graphs and algorithms in graph theory.

Examples 6.5.2:
1. Tree Property:
Prove that any tree with n vertices has n – 1 edges.

Base Case: 𝑛 = 1, a single vertex has 0 edges, true.

Inductive Step: Assume a tree with k vertices has k −1 edges. Add a vertex and connect it
with an edge, increasing both vertices and edges by 1.

2. Euler’s Formula for Planar Graphs:

Prove 𝑉 − 𝐸 + 𝐹 = 2 for planar graphs.

Base Case: A single vertex (V = 1, E = 0, F = 1) satisfies 1 – 0 + 1 = 2.

Inductive Step: Assume true for k edges. Adding an edge or a vertex preserves the
formula.

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6.5.2 USE OF INDUCTION IN FUNCTONAL EQUATIONS

Functional equations often use induction to verify solutions or establish properties.

Examples 6.5.3:
1. Recursive Function:
Prove 𝑓(𝑛 ) = 2𝑛 for 𝑓 (𝑛 ) = 2𝑓(𝑛 − 1) with 𝑓(0) = 1.

Base Case: 𝑛 = 0, 𝑓(0) = 20 = 1, True

Inductive Step: Assume 𝑓(𝑘) = 2𝑘 . Prove 𝑓 (𝑘 + 1) = 2𝑓 (𝑘) = 2 ∙ 2𝑘 = 2𝑘+1 .

2. Summation Function:
1
Prove 𝑆(𝑛 ) = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) for 𝑆(𝑛 ) = 𝑆(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑛.
2

1
Base Case: 𝑛 = 1: 𝑆(1) = 1, (1)(2) = 1. True
2

1
Inductive Step: Assume: 𝑆 (𝑘) = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1).
2
1
Prove: 𝑆 (𝑘 + 1) = 𝑆 (𝑘) + (𝑘 + 1) = 𝑘 (𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)
2

6.5.3 USE OF INDUCTION IN PUZZLES AND GAMES

Induction provides logical frameworks to solve strategy games and puzzles.

Examples 6.5.4:
1. Tower of Hanoi:
Prove 𝑇 (𝑛 ) = 2𝑛 − 1, 𝑇(𝑛 ) is the minimum number of moves.

Base Case: : 𝑛 = 1: 𝑇 (1) = 1, 21 − 1 = 1, True

Inductive Step: Assume 𝑇 (𝑘) = 2𝑘 − 1. Prove for k + 1:

𝑇 (𝑘 + 1) = 2𝑇 (𝑘) + 1 = 2(2𝑘 − 1) + 1 = 2𝑘+1 − 1.

2. Domino Tiling:
Prove that a 2𝑛 × 2𝑛 chessboard with one square mission can always be tiled with L –
shaped trominoes.
Base Case: 𝑛 = 1, 2 × 2 board, True

Inductive Step: Assume true for k.

Divide a 2𝑘+1 × 2𝑘+1 board into four 2𝑘 × 2𝑘 boards, tile recursively.

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6.5.4 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Prove the recurrence relation 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 using induction?
2. Prove Euler’s formula V – E + F = 2 planar graphs?
3. Solve 𝑓 (𝑛 ) = 2𝑛 for 𝑓 (𝑛 ) = 2𝑓(𝑛 − 1) with 𝑓(0) = 1?
4. Prove 𝑇 (𝑛 ) = 2𝑛 − 1, for the Tower of Hanoi puzzle.
5. Verify that a tree with n vertices has n- 1 edges?
1
6. Prove the sum of the first n natural numbers is 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)?
2

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SESSION 6: COMMON PITFALLS AND STRATEGIES IN
INDUCTION
At the end of this session you will identify common errors made in mathematical inductions
proofs and gain skill for proofs.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to identify common mistakes made in mathematical induction proofs and
understand how to avoid them.
2. To be able to recognize scenarios where induction fails and analyze why it happens.
3. To be able to learn alternative approaches to proving statements when standard induction
does not apply.
4. To be able to apply critical thinking to debug and revise induction proofs effectively.
5. To be able to practice and refine skills in crafting robust and correct proofs using
induction.

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SHORT NOTES:
1. Write down issues that are not clear here; and
2. Difficult topics if any

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6.6.0 AVOIDING COMMON MISTAKES IN INDUCTION PROOFS

Notes on Avoiding Mistakes:

1. Incorrect or Missing Base Case: Ensure the proof starts with a valid and verified base
case.
2. Faulty Inductive Step: Clearly state the inductive hypothesis and use it correctly.
3. Overgeneralization: Only prove statements for valid domains (e.g., integers, not
fractions).
4. Improper Assumptions: Avoid assuming the statement is true for all cases instead of
proving it step by step.

Examples 6.6.1:
1. Mistake in Base Case:
Prove 𝑛 2 ≥ 𝑛 for 𝑛 ≥ 1 .

Error: Starting with 𝑛 = 0, 02 ≥ 0 is not valid for 𝑛 ≥ 1.

Correction: Use the correct base case 𝑛 = 1.

2. Mistake in Inductive Step:

Prove 2𝑛 > 𝑛 for 𝑛 ≥ 1

Error: Assuming 2𝑘+1 > 𝑘 + 1 without demonstrating 2𝑘+1 = 2 ∙ 2𝑘

Correction: Show 2𝑘+1 = 2 ∙ 2𝑘 > 2 ∙ 𝑘 > 𝑘 + 1.

6.6.1 CASES WHEN INDUCTION FAILS

Induction may fail due to incomplete conditions or invalid assumptions.

1. Incomplete Domain:
Prove 𝑛 2 − 𝑛 + 41 is prime for all 𝑛 ≥ 1.

Failure:
At 𝑛 = 41, 412 − 41 + 41 = 412 , not prime. Induction fails because the statement
isn't true for all n.

2. Non-Inductive Progression:
Prove 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 1 is divisible by 3 for all 𝑛 ≥ 0.

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 Failure:
For 𝑛 = 2, 𝑎2 = 5, not divisible by 3. Induction cannot proceed as the base case fails.

6.6.2 ALTERNATIVE APPROACHED INDUCTION PROOFS

When induction fails, consider these techniques:

(a) Strengthened Induction Hypothesis

Sometimes, proving a stronger statement helps overcome limitations.

Example 6.6.1:
Prove 𝑛 3 + 2𝑛 is divisible by 3 for 𝑛 ≥ 1.

Instead of Proving:
𝑃(𝑛 ): 𝑛 3 + 2𝑛 ≡ 0 𝑚𝑜𝑑 3, Prove 𝑃 (𝑛 ): 𝑛 3 ≡ −2𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑 3.

(b) Structural Induction

Used for proving properties of recursively defined structures.

Example 6.6.2:
Prove every binary tree with n nodes has n – 1 edges.

Base Case: Single node (𝑛 − 1), no edges.

Inductive Step: Add one node and analyze the structural change in the tree.

6.6.3 PRACTICE AND APPLICATIONS OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Example 6.6.3: Arithmetic Progression Formula

1
Prove ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
2

1
Base Case: 𝑛 = 1, ∑1𝑖=1 = 1, matches (1)(1 + 1) = 1
2

Inductive Step:
Assume true for n = k, prove for k + 1:
𝑘+1 1 1
∑ 𝑖 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1) = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑖=1 2 2

Example 6.6.4: Geometric Series Formula

1−𝑟 𝑛+1
Prove ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑟 𝑖 = for 𝑟 ≠ 1.
1−𝑟

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 1−𝑟
Base Case: 𝑛 = 0, ∑0𝑖=0 𝑟 𝑖 = 1, matches = 1.
1−𝑟

Inductive Step: Assume true for 𝑛 = 𝑘, prove for 𝑘 + 1:

1−𝑟 𝑘+1 1−𝑟 𝑘+2
∑𝑘+1 𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑟 = + 𝑟 𝑘+1 = .
1−𝑟 1−𝑟

6.6.3 SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is a common mistake in the base case of induction proofs?
2. Why might induction fail for a non-inductive progression?
3. Prove ∑𝑛𝑖=1(2𝑖 − 1) = 𝑛 2 ?
4. How does structural induction differ from standard induction?
5. What is a strengthened induction hypothesis?
6. Prove the divisibility of 32𝑛 − 1 by 8 for 𝑛 ≥ 1

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