1

Special senses

10 marks
Describe the visual pathway & the effect of lesions at various levels with the suitable
diagram
The visual pathway consists of
1. Retina
2. Optic nerve
3. Optic chiasma
4. Optic tract
5. Lateral geniculate nucleus
6. Optic radiation(geniculo-calcarine tract)
7. Visual cortex
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1. Retina:
- rods & cones in the retina convert light in to electrical impulses.
2. Optic nerve:
- formed by the fibers of ganglion cells.
- the fibers in the lateral (temporal ) half of the nerve carry the impulses from the nasal field of the
same eye.
- the fibers in the medial half of the nerve carry impulses from the temporal field of the same eye.
3. Optic chiasma:
- formed by the crossing of medial fibres of both the optic nerves.
4. Optic tract:
- consists of nasal fibres from the opposite optic nerve and temporal fibers from the optic nerve of the
same side.
- fibres run backwards and relay in lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus.
5. Lateral geniculate nucleus(LGN):
- The LGN is divided into six layers of cells.
- The crossed fibers of the optic tract terminate in layers 1, 4 and 6 while the uncrossed fibers terminate
in layers 2, 3 and 5.
6. Optic radiation:
- arise from the LGN
- is also referred as geniculo-calcarine tract
- the fibers are arranged supero medially & infero laterally
- terminates in primary visual area(17)
- also projected to visual association areas 18 and 19.
7. Visual cortex:
- The primary visual cortex is Brodmann area 17
- also known as V1
- located on the medial surface of the occipital lobe along the walls and lips of calcarine fissure.
Other connections
1. to suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus - concerned with circadian rhythm.
2. to pretectal nucleus which inturn sends fibres to 3rd cranial nerve nucleus = mediates the light
reflex.
3. From the occipital cortex to the frontal eye field (area 8) - concerned with the movement of
eyeball (convergence) & accommodation reflex
4. From occipital cortex to superior colliculi and from there to III, IV, VI cranial nuclei and to the
spinal cord - mediate tone, posture, equilibrium and visuospinal reflexes.

Effect of lesion of visual pathway at different levels

• The loss of vision in one entire visual field is referred as anopia.

• Loss of vision in one half of the visual field is called hemianopia. It is of two types:
– Homonymous hemianopia
– Heteronymous hemianopia
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Site of lesion Condition Diagram

1 Right optic Right eye anopia
nerve
2 Optic Bitemporal
chiasma hemianopia
3 Lateral Binasal
Fibers hemianopia
4 Right optic Left homonymous
Tract Hemianopia

5 Rjght optic Left homonymous

radiation Hemianopia
1 6 Inferolateral Left homonymous
2
3 fibers of Superior
optic Quadranopia
radiation
4
7 Superomedial Left homonymous
Fibers of Inferior
5 Optic Quadranopia
radiation
6
8 Inferolateral Left homonymous
fibers of Superior
7 optic Quadranopia
radiation in With macular
calcarine Sparing
fissure
8 9 Superomedial Left homonymous
9 fibers of Inferior
optic Quadranopia
radiation in With macular
10 calcarine Sparing
fissure
10 Visual cortex Left homonymous
Hemianopia
With macular
Sparing
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5 marks
1. Describe the circulation & functions of aqueous humour.
Aqueous humour
 Homogenous fluid that fills the anterior & Posterior chambers
 pH 7.1-7.3
 Refractive index 1.33
 Composition – Less glucose & more Lactic Acid than plasma with high ascorbic acid
Formation of Aqueous Humour:
 Formed by the ciliary processes-
 Mechanism:
1. Active secretion
2. Ultra-filtration
 Rate of formation: 2-3 [Link] per minute
Circulation of Aqueous Humour:
 Aqueous humor circulates within the eye
 Formed by the ciliary processes
 Secreted into posterior chamber
 Passes between ligaments of lens
 Passes through pupil into Anterior chamber
 Flows into angle between cornea & iris
 Flows through trabeculae
 Flows into canal of Schelmn & extra ocular veins
 Re-enters blood circulation

Functions Of Aqueous humour:

 Provides nutrition to cornea & lens (avascular structures)
 Maintains IOP (Intra ocular pressure)
 Maintains shape of eyeball
 Acts as refractive medium
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2. Describe the mechanism of accommodation for near vision
• It is the ability of the eye to see distant and near objects clearly. This involves the process of
adjusting the shape of the lens so that the external image falls exactly on the retina.
Accommodation of the Lens for near vision
• Ciliary muscles contract
• Ciliary body pulls forward and inward
• Tension on suspensory ligaments of lens is decreased
• Lens becomes thicker (rounder) due to its elasticity
• Pupils constricts
Near point:
• It is the nearest point to the eyes at which an object can be brought into clear focus by
accommodation.
– At age 10: Near point – 9 cm
– At age 60: Near point – 83 cm
• The near point recedes with age.
Near response
1. Convergence of eye ball
2. Constriction of pupil
3. Curvature (anterior) change in lens
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Accommodation of the Lens for far vision

• Ciliary muscle is relaxed
• Ciliary body is pulled backward and outward
• Tension on suspensory ligaments of lens is increased
• Lens becomes thinner (flatter) due to its elasticity
• Pupils dilate
Accommodation Reflex
Changes in the eye in response to changing the gaze from long distant to short distant
Responses:
Constriction of pupil
Convergence of eyes (medial )
Curvature of lens (increase in anterior)
Pathway of the Accommodation reflex

Near vision
.
Retina

Optic nerve

LGN

Visual cortex

Frontal eye field

Superior colliculus

III cranial nerve nucleus

Ciliary ganglion

Short ciliary nerve

Sphincter papillae Ciliary muscle Medial rectus

Constriction of pupil Curvature of lens Convergence of eye balls

(increase in anterior)
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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Briefly describe the mechanism of dark adaptation
Adaptation to dark (Scotopic vision)
On entering dark room from bright area, initially the vision is poor, later it [Link] decline
in visual threshold is called dark adaptation.
Time duration for dark adaptation depends
1. Intensity of light
2. Duration of exposure
3. Vit A Content
Two phases
1. Adaptation of the cones (5min)
2. Adaptation of rods (20min)

Changes in the eye during dark adaptation

1. Pupils dilate
2. Sensitivity of the photoreceptors to light increases
3. Resynthesis of photo pigments
4. Decrease in visual acuity
5. Vision changes from cone to rods (photopic to scotopic). This is called PURKINJE SHIFT.
Visual Purple//Rhodopsin Cycle

Rhodopsin (11 cis retinal+ opsin ) Pre-lumi rhodopsin

Light
Dark Lumi rhodopsin

Meta rhodopsin I
Opsin
Meta rhodopsin II
+
Retinal isomerase
11 cis retinal All transretinal
Isomerase
11 cis retinol All transretinol (Vitamin A)
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Write short notes on colour vision
• A sensation evoked by different wavelengths of light.
• Function of cones.
Physiological Basis of colour vision
• Three different types of cones
• Three types of pigments (the opsin protein part differs from rhodopsin),
• Each pigment has maximum absorption at different wavelengths
• blue-absorbing cones – cyanopsin pigment (max absorption at 445nm)
• green-absorbing cones – Iodopsin pigment (max absorption at 535 nm)
• red-absorbing cones – porphyropsin pigment (max absorption at 570 nm)
Primary colours
• Red
• Green
• Blue
Theories of colour vision
• Young – Helmholtz theory
• Granit modulator & dominator theory
• Hering opponent colour theory
• Land’s retinex theory
Young – Helmholtz theory
• Trichromatic theory
• Red , green , blue – 3 primary colours
• The 3 types of cones have 3 different pigments
• Each pigment is maximally sensitive to one primary colour
- But also responds to other 2 primary colours
• Sensations of various colours are due to stimulation of different receptors at
different intensities.
Processing of colour perception
• Analysis of colour occurs in the retina
• Information is then passed on to the brain for interpretation.
• Centre of fovea is blue blind.
• Blue cones are absent here.
• Retina , lateral geniculate nucleus , visual cortex all have a combined role in
perception of colour.
Colored light strikes the retina
↓
Depending on the color mixture cone will respond
↓
Response is in the form of local potentials
↓
LP transmitted in bipolar cells
↓
Ganglion cells activated
↓
Signals from the 3 cones are processed in the ganglion cell
↓
Reach the layers of LGN
↓
Processed in LGN
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↓
Transmitted to cortex V1
↓
Impulses reach V4

COLOUR BLOBS

• Primary visual area 17 contains color blobs – clusters of colour sensitive peg shaped neurons.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. What are the errors of refraction? How will you correct it?
• In a normal human eye light rays are focused on retina.
• If not focused on retina-called Refractive errors.
• Due to abnormality in cornea or lens.
• Normal eye is called Emmetropic Eye
• Abnormal focus is called Ametropic Eye
Refractive Errors
1. Myopia (short sight)
2. Hypermetropia (Long sight)
3. Presbyopia
4. Astigmatism
5. Anisometropia
6. Aphakia
7. Cataract
Error Defect Cause Feature Correction

Myopia Long distant objects Longer eye ball / high Light rays are Biconcave
not clear refractive power of lens focused in front of lens
retina

Hypermetropia Short distant objects Shorter eye ball / Low Light rays are Biconvex
not clear refractive power of lens focused behind the lens
retina

Presbyopia Short distant objects Loss of elasticity & Decrease in the Biconvex
not clear plasticity of lens and power of lens
also decrease in power accommodation of
of ciliary muscle due to eye
aging

Astigmatism Blurring of vision Ununiform curvature of Light is focussed Cylindrical

the cornea at multiple points lens
on retina

Aniso Difference in the Congenital Eye with high Correction

metria refractive power refractive power – of each eye
between the two eyes Dominant eye separately
Eye with less with
refractive power – appropriate
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Suppressed eye lenses

Aphakia Diplopia & Removal of lens Complete loss of Wearing

Astigmatism due to following cataract accommodation spectacles
absence of lens surgery / dislocation of (hypermetropic) with power
lens of + 11
diopters/IOL
implantation

-----------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6.
Describe the functions of middle ear.
Components of middle ear:
1. Three small bones (ossicles):
1)Malleus
2)Incus
3)Stapes
2. Two small muscles:
1)Tensor tympani
2)Stapedius muscle
Functions of middle ear
1. Tympanic Reflex:
• When loud sounds are transmitted through the ossicular system (Malleus, Incus, stapes) into
the CNS, a reflex occurs to cause contraction of both Stapedius and tensor tympani muscles.
This is called tympanic reflex or attenuation reflex
• The contraction of tensor tympani muscles pulls the handle of the malleus inward, while the
stapedius muscle contraction pulls the stapes outward
• These two forces oppose each other and this causes rigidity of the entire ossicular system
which greatly reduces the transmission of low frequency sounds.
Significance of tympanic reflex
to protect the cochlea from damaging vibrations caused by excessive loud sound i.e. low
frequency sounds.
2. Impedance Matching:-
• Whenever sound wave travels from a thinner medium to denser medium, some
amount of sound energy is lost at the interphase of two medium.
• This happens in ear also. When sound travels from air filled middle ear into
denser fluid medium of inner ear, there is a loss of sound energy at oval window
• Middle ear compensates this by increasing the sound energy level by several times at oval
window.
• Middle ear achieves this by three mechanism which are combinely referred as impedance
matching.
The mechanism are:-
1. Area difference
• As the area of the tympanic membrane is large than the area of the oval window,
the forces collected over the tympanic membrane are concentrated on a smaller
area of oval window.
• This increases the pressure at the oval window by 17 times.
2. Lever action of the middle ear bones.
• The arm of incus is shorter than that of malleus and this produces a lever action.
• This increases the force by 1.32 times and decreases the velocity at the stapes.
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3. Buckling factor:-
• The tympanic membrance is conical in shape. As the membrane moves in and out
it buckles so that the arm of the malleus moves less than the surface of the
membrane.
• This also increase the force and decreases the velocity
3. Function of Eustachian tube:
Equalizes the pressure on both sides of tympanic membrane
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7. Describe organ of corti
Organ of Corti
• Receptor organ of hearing
• Situated on the basilar membrane
• Extends from the base to apex of cochlea
Main components of Organ of Corti

1. Inner hair cells

2. Outer hair cells
3. Rods of corti
4. Tunnel of Corti
5. Lamina reticularis
6. Basilar membrane
7. Tectorial membrane
8. Deiters' cells
9. Hensen's cells

2 7

1 5

3 9

8
6
4

• INNER HAIR CELLS

- one row ( 3500 in number)
- flask shaped
- connected to lamina reticularis
- Stereocilia of hair cells float freely
• OUTER HAIR CELLS
- three or four rows ( 20000 in number)
- test tube shaped
- stereocilia –embedded in the tectorial membrane
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8. Trace the pathway for hearing

I order neuron :
From the bases of the hair cells  cell bodies form the spiral ganglion around the modiolus
 axons form the cochlear nerve joins with the vestibular nerve to form the
vestibulocochlear nerve  end in cochlear nuclei
II order neuron :
From cochlear nuclei  ascend to the nearby superior olivary nucleus (of both sides)  then
ascend in the lateral lemniscus  end in inferior colliculi of midbrain
III order neuron:
From inferior colliculi to medial geniculate bodies of thalamus
IV order neurons: complete the pathway from thalamus to primary auditory complex
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9. Trace the olfactory pathway

receptor cell axon

↓
pierce the cribriform plate of ethmoid
↓
enters olfactory bulb
↓
synapse with dendrites of mitral cells to form olfactory glomeruli
↓
axons of mitral cells pass posteriorly through olfactory stria
↓
olfactory cortex
(anterior olfactory nucleus, olfactory tubercle, prepyriform cortex, amygdala, entorhinal cortex
↓
From the olfactory cortex signals reach
↓
– Orbito frontal cortex
– Hypothalamus
– Hippocampus
Thus olfactory impulses are projected both to
– Neocortex
Perception & discrimination of odours
– Limbic system
Emotional, motivational, behavioral & physiological effects of odours

Olfactory
Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone Glomerulus
straie
bone

Olfactory bulb

Olfactory
neuron

Olfactory receptors
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10. High light the special features of olfactory pathway

Pathway involves only two sets of neurons

Receptor is a modified neuron
Neurons are in direct contact with external environment
Neurons degenerate & regenerate periodically
No relay in thalamus
Olfactory signals do not reach somatosensory cortex but reach orbitofrontal cortex
Impulses reach limbic system & so related to food and sex related beaviour
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11. Trace the taste pathway
Taste buds

Taste fibres in vii, ix & x nerves (I order neuron)

Tractus solitarius (in medulla)

Nucleus tractus solitarius (II order neuron)
 Cross over
Joins medial leminiscus

VPM (Ventral Postero Medial Nucleus of thalamus (III order neuron)

Brodman’s area 43

Gustatory Pathway from Taste

Buds

Figure 16.2
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12. Name the primary taste sensation. How are they distributed on the tongue?
Outline the basic taste modalities & explain the mechanism of taste sensation

Primary taste sensations

1. Sweet
2. Salt
3. Sour
4. Bitter
5. Umami

BASIC TASTE PRODUCED BY MECHANISM OF PART OF TONGUE MOST

SENSATIONS STIMULATION SENSITIVE

Sweet Sugars, glycols & ↑ cAMP→↓K+ Tip

aldehydes. conductance

Bitter Alkaloids ↑ IP3→ ↑Ca++ release Back

Sour H+ ions Blocking K+ channels Posterior ½ of lateral

Salt Anions of ionised salts Na+ ion permeability Anterior ½ of lateral

Umami Monosodium -------- ---------

Glutamate
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SPECIAL SENSES - Applied

1. Mention the visual field defects that occur when optic tract is cut.
Right optic tract – Left homonymous hemianopia
Left optic tract – Right homonymous hemianopia
2. Why unilateral cerebral/brain stem lesion can not produce unilateral deafness?
[Link] auditory signals from both the ears are transmitted through the pathways of
both sides of the brain.
2. In three places in the brain stem , crossing – over occurs between the two pathways
3. How is hearing affected in middle ear diseases?
Block the conduction & magnification of sound energy in the middle ear. So no
stimulation of receptors & no generation & transmission of impulses. This type of loss
of hearing is called conduction deafness.
4. Describe the formation of image in hypermetropic eye. How is it corrected?
The image is formed behind the retina. This is corrected by using convex lens which
refract the light rays & converge them on retina
5. Diagrammatically represent image formation & its correction in myopic eye

Light rays focused in front of retina

- can be corrected by using concave lens (diagrammatic representation – refer

book)
6. What type of deafness is expected in the middle ear infection.
Conduction deafness
7. Name the type of defect due to loss of accommodation of the eye
Presbyopia
8. Explain how color blindness can be inherited
Colour blindness is inherited as X-linked recessive trait. Mostly the males are
affected and the females act as carriers
9. Mention any two tests to distinguish between nerve & conduction deafness
Rinnie’s test & Weber’s test
10. What is the effect of lesion of nasal fibres at optic chiasma?
Bitemporal Hemianopia
11. Name the types of deafness. Mention the tests used to determine the type of
deafness
Types of deafness: Conduction deafness & nerve deafness
Tests to determine : Rinnie’s test , Weber’s test & Audiometry
12. What will happen in diseases affecting stapedius muscle?
Attenuation reflex will be lost & that leads to a condition called hyperacusis
13. A 70 year old man complaints of defective hearing over the last few years
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a. What is the reason for his loss of hearing?

b. What are the tests that can be employed to diagnose the condition?
a. Degeneration of auditory fibres due to aging
[Link] – already discussed
14. Explain terms anosmia and Parosmia
Anosmia – absence of smell sensation
Paraosmia – altered sensation of smell
15. A patient suffering from otosclerosis developed poor hearing ability leading to
deafness
a) How would you distinguish between nerve deafness and conduction
deafness
b) Explain the effect of masking
a) The tests are Rinnie’s ,Weber’s & Audiometry
b) Masking effect- The low frequency sounds in a loud environment cover the high
frequency sounds. Because of this masking effect, the auditory mechanism is
unable to separate the total stimulation in to separate components
16. When a Myope and Hypermetrope (of same age) are compared, who will
develop Prespyobia at an earliest age- Give reasons
In myopic subjects, the near point in his youth is so close to the corneal surface that
even in his old age his near point may be at a distance which is normal for a young
person. So he does not need any correction & the development of presbyopia in old
age is delayed.
But in hypermetropic subjects, his near point of vision is far away from
corneal surface. It moves farther away in old age. More over far vision also is
possible only with some accommodation which makes the eye tired. So if
hypermetropic individual suffers from presbyopia, he requires correction at an early
age.
17. A patient came with complaints of inability to hear on the right ear. O/E, his
right side ear showed a positive response for Weber’s test and negative response
for Rinne’s test.
Identify the problem and explain the differences in the responses to both these
tests
The problem with hearing is conduction deafness of right ear.
Air conduction is affected in this. So in Rinie’s test, bone conduction is longer than
air conduction. This response is Rinnie’s negative
In the right ear, as the environmental sound is not conducted, there is no
masking effect on bone conduction of tuning fork sound. This loss of masking
effect makes the sound to be heard louder in affected ear (right ear). This is what
meant by Weber’s test positive
18. With the suitable diagram, explain the effect of transection at various levels of
visual pathway
Refer the book
19. A man aged 45 years had difficulty in reading books comfortably. His
visual vicinity was 6/6. He had no other complaints in his eyes
a) Mention the type of visual defect and give reasons for this & how
can this be corrected
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b) Mention whether this is a physiological or pathological condition

a) This condition is presbyopia at early stage or hypermetropia of old age. This is
corrected by using biconvex lens.
b) It is a physiological condition that arises due to the effect of aging
20. What is glaucoma? How is it produced?
Increase in intraocular pressure above 80 mm Hg is called as glaucoma.
It is caused by accumulation of intraocular fluid in the eyes.
This condition is produced either by increased secretion of intraocular fluid or
by blockage of the canal of Schlemm which drains the fluid from the eye
21. A 50 year old woman complains that she could not read the news paper
while keeping the paper at a normal distance
a) Identify the above condition
b) How do you manage the above condition?
a) Presbyopia
b) By using convex lens
22. How do you test the middle ear functions?.
Tests:
Rinnie’s , Weber’s & Audiometry
23. The young man is unable to pick up his red color hat from a bundle of
different colours
Name the defect. What is the physiological basis for this?
The condition is called protonopia. This due to the absence of porphyropsin.
24. Explain why audiogram is superior to tuning fork tests to assess hearing
Impairment?
1. can asses the degree of deafness
2. can assess the frequency range in which deafness is most affected
- these advantages of this test help in designing hearing aids to overcome some of the
hearing problems of the individual patient
25. What is the effect of a large pituitary tumor on the visual field?
Large pituitary tumor damage the crossed fibres & leads to bitemporal hemianopia
26 Following repeated middle ear infection on left side, a little girl
complained of some hearing impairment. O/E, the rinnie’s test was
negative
a) What is the type of deafness?
b) How is it caused?
a) conduction deafness
b) May be due to damage of tympanic membrane or ear ossicles
27. Why does pain occur in the ear after common cold & sore throat?
Common cold & sore throat  blockage of Eustachian tube  retraction of
tympanic Membrane  stimulation of pain receptors in the tympanic membrane
28. Mention the visual field defects that occur when right optic tract is cut.
Left homonymous hemianopia
29. What is colour blindness?
Inability to distinguish certain colours is called colour blindness. Classified as
follows:
1) Trichromats – Presence of all three cone systems but one of them is defective
 4

Protonamaly – Defective red cone system

Deuteronomaly – Defective green cone system
Tritanomaly – Defective blue cone system
2) Dichromats – Presence of two cone systems & absence of one cone system
Protanopia – absence of red cones
Deuteranopia – absence of green cones
Tritanopia – absence of blue cones
3) Monochromats – Presence of only one system. They see only black & white
& shades of gray
30. Briefly explain the role of Vit.A in scotopic vision? How the process of dark
adaptation is affected in Vit.A deficiency?
Dim light vision is called scotopic vision. In dim light vision, rods play an important
role. Retinal, a chromatophore in rods is an aldehyde of vitamin A. This helps in the
resynthesis of rhodopsin during dark adaptation. In deficiency of Vit.A, resynthesis
of rhodopsin is affected and dark adaptation does not take place. This is called as
night blindness.
31. While performing Weber’s test, it was found that the patient was able to hear
better on the left ear than on the right ear.
a) What type of deafness he is suffering from?
b) Explain the basis.
a) Conduction deafness in left ear.
b) Basis: In Weber’s test, bone conduction is tested. Due to loss of masking effect
of environmental sound over the sound transmitted through bone, the sound is
heard louder in affected ear than normal ear
32. Radiologists wearing red goggles in bright light has some advantage when he
resumes his work in dim light. What is this advantage?
During dark adapation in dim light, rods take a long time ( 20 – 25 minutes ) for
adaptation compared to cones ( 4 – 5 minutes). By wearing red goggles in bright
light will reduce the time taken for rod adaptation. Because the light wavelengths in
in the red end of the spectrum stimulate the rods only to a slight degree while
permitting the cones to function reasonably well in bright light.
[Link] a diagram of light reflex pathway with proper labeling. Locate the site of
lesion in the diagram in case of a neurosyphilitic patient showing Argyll
Robertson Pupil with a cross mark.
Draw the pathway from book. Put X mark on pretectal nucleus
34.A child of 6 years old had difficulty in seeing pictures in TV screen. After a
thorough check up he was given a glass for correction. Explain what the problem
was & how it was rectified?
TV is normally seen from long distance(more than 20 feet). Inability of the eye to see
long distance objects is called myopia or short sight. It can be rectified by wearing
biconcave lens

35. A middle aged man was found to have unsteadiness of gait with eyes closed and
the bladder incontinence. On examination, his eyes showed papillary
constriction (miosis) to near vision, but no miosis when light was thrown in his
eyes.
 5

a) Name the condition of the pupil.

b) Draw the reflex pathway which is impaired
c) What may be the overall diagnosis? What may be the cause?
a) Argyll Robertson pupil
b) Impairment of light reflex pathway
c) Neurosyphilis.
- Destruction of pretectal nucleus causes loss of light reflex.
- Damage of dorsal nerve roos leads to sensory ataxia(unsteadiness of
gait with eyes closed) & bladder incontinence
36. A 36 year old male with eyes deviated inwards fail to move downwards. In this
case, it would be because of either nerve or muscle involved.
Which nerve & muscle could have been involved?
Muscle impaired – Superior oblique
Nerve impaired – Trochlear nerve
37. A motorist while driving observed something catching his attention (out of
corner of his eye). He immediately turn to the object of his attention & found his
friend waving his hand.
- What is the visual mechanism responsible for detecting the object of attention?
- What is the visual mechanism responsible for identifying the object finally?
- List the differences between two mechanisms at retinal level.
- Peripheral visual mechanism
- Macular vision
- Peripheral visual mechanism involves rods which are situated at the periphery of
retina. Macular vision involves cones.
38. In dim light colours are not appreciated properly and the coloured objects
appear as shades of grey. Explain
Cones are responsible for colour vision. In dim light, rods play an important role in
vision. So colours are not appreciated properly in dim light
39. Write in short about various errors in refraction in image forming mechanism.
Learn about myopia, hypermetropia, astigmatism & presbyopia
40. Discuss the relation between olfaction & sexual behaviour.
The sense of olfaction plays an important role in food & sex-motivated behaviour.
This is mainly because of projection of olfactory fibers to limbic system which is
concerned with control of sexual behaviour
Moreover the sexual behaviour is associated with odoriferous hormone like
substance called pheromones secreted by the opposite sex.
41. Give physiological basis of blurred vision following installation of homatropine
into the eye.
Homatropine is a parasympatholytic drug which causes pupillary dilatation when
installed in to the eye. This is the reason for blurred vision. This is done to carry out
fundus examination through opthalmoscope.

42. Give physiological basis of decrease in olfaction if a person suffers from common
cold.
Nasal congestion prevents the contact of odoriferous substances with the
olfactory epithelium. This decreases the perception of smell.
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43. Watching TV for long periods may produce severe headache. Why?
Watching TV for long periods causes strain on ocular muscles which leads to
headache
44. A 60 year old man complaints of sudden loss of vision. O/E, his intraocular
vision was 70 mm Hg.
a) What is the clinical condition?
b) What is the cause for loss of vision?
a) The clinical condition is glaucoma.
b) Severe glaucoma may lead to gradual atrophy of retina that causes loss of
vision
45. A school girl was found to have difficulty in reading words written on black
board, but no difficulty in reading her text books.
a) What common refractive error could cause this?
b) How is the error corrected?
- Myopia
- corrected by biconcave lens
46. Explain why, colour blindness skips generation and appears in males of every
second generation.
It is a X-chomosome linked inherited disorder. As males have only one X chrosome
they exhibit this disorder when affected. But in females, as they have two X
chromosomes, they will not exhibit this disorder & they will carry the affected gene
to the next generation males
47. What is the normal intraocular tension? What is the condition called glaucoma?
Normal intraocular pressure is 15 mmHg.
A rise in intraocular pressure above the normal range is called glaucoma
48. Why, a person who entered a cinema theater, little late, was not able to locate
his seat immediately.
When a person entered into a dark room from a bright area, it takes time for the eye
to get adapted to the dark environment. This is called dark adaptation. Adaptation of
cones take 4 – 5 minutes. Adaptation of rods take 20--25 minutes
49. When a person aged 80 shows progressive loss of hearing without any middle
ear dysfunction. What may be the probable diagnosis & name of the condition?
How will you establish your diagnosis with the help of tuning fork tests?
Diagnosis – nerve deafness due to aging. The condition is called presbycusis.
Rinnie’s test – Negative in affected ear
Weber’s test – sound is lateralized to normal ear
50. List out differences between presbyopia & cataract. How are they rectified?
Presbyopia Cataract
Loss of accommodation due to loss Opacity of lens due to aging or
of elasticity of lens diseases like diabetes
Corrected by wearing bifocal lens Corrected by surgical replacement of
lens
51. What results from poor drainage of aqueous humour & how
parasympathomimetic drugs can help in such conditions?
Accumulation of aqueous humour leads to increase in intraocular pressure. This
condition is called glaucoma. Parasympathomimmetic drugs like pilocarpine
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facilitates the outflow by causing meiosis.

52. How pupillary dialatation facilitates dim light vision?
Pupillary dialatation allows more light to enter into the eye. This facilitates dim
light vision
53. What is night blindness? How is it corrected?
Night blindness is failure of dark adaptation and the person will not be able to see the
objects in dim light. This is due to deficiency of Vit.A as vitamin A is required for
synthesis of rhodopsin. Rhodopsin helps in dim light vision.
Can be corrected by administering therapeutic doses of vit.A
54. When the person was looking at the stars in the sky he could see a cluster of dim
stars at the corner of his eye. When he looked at them directly he could not see
them. Explain this visual magic
When the image falls on the peripheral part of retina, he was able to see the stars.
Because peripheral part consists of rods which help to see the stars at night (dim light
vision). When he looked directly at stars the image falls on central part of retina
where only cones are present. As cones help in bright light vision, the stars are not
seen in dark
55. Explain how the sudden pressure changes act against the ear drum.
Sudden pressure changes produced by sound waves

tympanic membrane moves in and out

Tympanic membrane acts as a resonator and reproduces the vibrations of the sound
Source

Auditory ossicles (Malleus, Incus & Stapes act as lever system and convert the
resonant vibrations of ear drum into movements of Stapes against perilymph filled
scala vestibuli of the cochlea

This increases the sound pressure at oval window

60% of the sound energy impinged on the tympanic membrane (ear drum) is
transmitted to the fluid in the cochlea
56. Name the primary colours. What is colour blindness?
Red, Green & Blue are primary colours.
Colour blindness – inability to detect one or two colours
57. What substance is frequently used by psychologists for demonstrating taste
blindness?
Phenyl thiocarbamide
58. What is the fifth taste sensation which is triggered by glutamate and particularly
monosodium glutamate?
Umami is added as fifth taste sensation triggered by glutamate and particularly
monosodium glutamate
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59.
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Environmental physiology (High altitude, Deep sea, Space, Cold & Hot environment)

1. Explain the cause of cyanosis on exposure to extreme cold weather

Exposure to extreme cold weather  Vasoconstriction  stagnant hypoxia
 peripheral cyanosis
2. What is the effect of Hypothermia on
a) Pulse pressure
b) Heart rate
c) Peripheral resistance
d) Ejection fraction
a) Pulse pressure decreases as the systolic pressure decreases and diastolic
pressure increases ( vasoconstriction)
b) Heart rate is decreased as [Link] is depressed
c) Peripheral resistance increases as vasoconstriction occurs
d) Ejection fraction decreases as the heart contractility is decreased
3. What are the changes seen in the Total body Water and electrolyte level during Heat stroke.
How can it be treated?
Decrease in TBW & electrolyte level due to excessive loss of fluid & electrolytes
in the sweat.
Treatment:
- Placing the person in a cold water bath
- Sponge or spray cooling of the body
4. Explain why perspiration aggravates the effect of sun stroke.
During perspiration (excessive sweating) the sweat spreads over a greater area of skin before it
evaporates. It delays the cooling of body & aggravates the effect of sunstroke
5. Explain how humidity aggravates effects of sunstroke
Humidity causes excessive sweating (perspiration). During perspiration the sweat spreads over a
greater area of skin before it evaporates. It delays the cooling of body & aggravates the effect of
sunstroke
6. Explain the mechanism of alteration of cutaneous circulation in response to altered
environmental Temperature
- High environmental temperature  stimulation of anterior hypothalamus  vasodilation
- Low environmental temperature  stimulation of posterior hypothalamus  vasoconstriction
7. Describe the features of hypothermia
Effects of hypothermia on CVS
- Stimulation of posterior hypothalamus  vasoconstriction
- Vasoconstriction  stagnant hypoxia  peripheral cyanosis
- Pulse pressure decreases as the systolic pressure decreases and diastolic pressure increases
( vasoconstriction)
- Heart rate is decreased as [Link] is depressed
- Peripheral resistance increases as vasoconstriction occurs
- Ejection fraction decreases as the heart contractility is decreased
Signs & Symptoms:

Mild hypothermia:
-intense shivering
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