Chapter 11: Microprogrammed Control

Computer Architecture
and Organization

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Control Unit Organization

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 Micro-programmed Control
• Use sequences of instructions to control complex
operations
• Called micro-programming or firmware
• The set of micro-instruction is stored in the control memory.
• The control address register contains the address of the
next micro-instruction.
• When micro-instruction is read from the control memory it
is transferred to a control buffer register.
• Reading a micro-instruction from control memory is the
same as executing that micro-instruction.

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 Implementation(1)
• For each micro-operation, all the control unit is allowed to
do is generate a set of control signals.
• If we could construct a control word in which each bit
represents one control line.
• Then each micro-instruction would be represented by
different pattern of 1s and 0s in the control word.
• Sequence of control words represent the sequence of
micro-operations.
• Add an address to specify the next micro-instruction,
depending on conditions
• Also add a few bit to specify the condition.

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 Implementation(1)
• The result is know as a horizontal micro-instruction.

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 Horizontal Micro-instruction
• There is one bit for each internal processor control line and
for each system bus control line.
• There is a condition field indicating the condition under
which there should be a branch.
• There is a field with the address of micro-instruction to be
executed next when branch is taken.

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 Horizontal Micro-instruction
• Horizontal micro-instruction interpreted as follow
1. To execute this micro-instruction, turn on all the
control line indicated by a 1 bit and leave off all control
lines indicated by a 0 bit.
• The resulting control signal will cause one or more
micro-instruction
2. If the condition indicated by the condition bit is false,
execute the next micro-instruction in sequence.
3. If the condition indicated by the condition bit is true,
the next micro-instruction to be executed is indicated
in the address field.

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Organization of
Control Memory

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 Organization of Control Memory
• Shows how those control words or micro-instructions could
be arranged in a control-memory.
• The micro-operation in each routine are to be executed
sequentially.
• Each routine ends with a branch or jump instruction
indicating where to go next.
• There is a special execute cycle routine that signify one of
the machine instruction routine (like ADD, AND ..so on) to
be executed depending on the current opcode.

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 Organization of Control Memory
• The control memory is a concise description of the complete
operation of the control unit.
• It defines the sequence of micro-operations to be performed
during each cycle
• (fetch, indirect, executed, interrupt)
• Specifies the sequence of those cycle.
• It a way of implementing the control unit by simply executing
those program.

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 Implementation(2)
• Vertical micro-instruction

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 Vertical micro-instruction
• In a vertical micro-instruction, a code is used for each
action to be performed.
• E.g. MAR  (PC)
• The decoder translate this code into individual control
signals.
• The advantage of vertical micro-instruction is that they are
more compact (fewer-bit) than the horizontal micro-
instruction
• Their disadvantage is they need additional logic and have
time delay.

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Functioning of Microprogrammed
Control Unit

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Functioning of Microprogrammed Control Unit

• Sequence logic unit issues read command

• Word specified in control address register is read into
control buffer register
• Control buffer register contents generates control signals
and next address information.
• Sequence logic loads new address into control buffer
register based on next address information from control
buffer register and ALU flags

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 Next Address Decision

• At the end of each micro-instruction the sequencing logic

loads a new address to the control address register.
• Depending on ALU flags and control buffer register, the
next micro-instruction could be:
• Get next instruction
• Add 1 to control address register
• Jump to new routine based on jump microinstruction
• Load address field of control buffer register into control address
register
• Jump to machine instruction routine
• Load control address register based on opcode in IR

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Functioning of Microprogrammed Control Unit
• The previous figure shows two decoders
• The upper decoder translates the opcode of the IR into a
control memory address.
• The lower decoder is used for vertical micro-instruction.
• In vertical micro-instruction format , a code is used for each action
to be performed and the decoder translates this code into
individual control signals.

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 Wilkes Control
• Wilkes first proposed the use of micro-programmed
control unit in1951
• The heart of the system is a matrix partially filled with
diodes.
• During a machine cycle, one row of matrix is activated
with a pulse.
• This generate a signal where diode presents (indicated by a
dote in the diagram).
• First part of row generates control signals that control the
operation of a processor.
• Second part generates address of the row to be pulsed in the
next cycle.
• Thus each row of matrix is one micro-instruction and the layout
of the matrix is the control memory.

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Wilkes's Microprogrammed Control Unit

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Microprogramming
• Simplifies design of control unit
• Cheaper
• Less error-prone to implement.
• Slower than a hardwired unit of comparable technology.
• Dominant technique for implementing control units in pure
CISC architectures, due to its ease of implementation.

• RISC processors, with their simpler instruction format,

typically use hardwired control units.

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 Tasks Done By Microprogrammed Control Unit

• Microinstruction sequencing :- Get the next

microinstruction from the control memory.
• Microinstruction execution : -Generate the control signals
needed to execute the microinstruction.

• In designing a control unit, these two tasks must be

considered together.
• Both affects the formats of micro-instruction and the timing of
the control unit.

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 Design Considerations
• Two concerns involved in the design of microinstruction
sequencing technique:
1. Size of microinstructions
• Minimize the size of the control memroy ,
• Reduce the cost of the component
2. Address generation time
• Execute microinstructions as fast as possible.

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 Address of the Next Microinstruction
• In executing a microprogram, the address of the next
microinstruction to be executed is in one of these
categories:
1. Determined by instruction register
• Once per cycle, after instruction is fetched
2. Next sequential address
• Common in most designed
3. Branches
• Both conditional and unconditional

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 Sequencing Techniques

• Based on current micro-instruction, condition flags and

content of IR, control memory address must be generated
for the next micro-instruction.
• A wide variety of techniques have been used.
• Based on the format of the address information in the
micro-instruction, We can group them into three general
categories.

1. Two address fields

2. Single address field
3. Variable format

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Branch Control Logic:
Two Address Fields

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 Two address field
• The simplest approach is to provide two address field in
each micro-instructions.
• A multiplexer is provided that serve as a destination for
both address fields and the instruction register.
• Based on the address selection input the multiplexer
transmit either the op-code or one of the two address to the
control address register.
• The branch logic module has inputs from flags and from
the control portion of the micro-instruction.

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Branch Control
Logic: Single
Address Field

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 Single address field
• A common approach.
• This approach reduce the number of address filed to one.
• In this approach, the option for next address are:
• Address filed
• Instruction register code
• Next sequential address.
• The address selection signal determine which option is
selected.

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Branch Control
Logic: Variable
Format

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 A variable format
• This format support two different micro-instruction formats.
• One bit designates which format is being used.
• In first format, the remaining all bits are used as active
control signal.
• The next address is either the next sequential address or an address
derived form the instruction register.
• In second format, some bit drive the branch logic module
and the remaining bit provide the address.
• In this format either conditional or unconditional branch is specified.

• One disadvantage of this approach is that one entire cycle is

consumed with each branch micro-instruction.
• With the other approaches, address generation occurs as part of the
same cycle as control signal generation, minimizing control memory
access.
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 Address Generation
• Another sequencing factor is, the various way in which the
next address can be derived or computed.
• They can be explicit or implicit techniques-
• Explicit technique:
• In this technique address is available in micro-instruction.
• Implicit technique:
• Which require additional logic to generate the address.

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 Address Generation

Explicit Implicit

Two-field Mapping

Unconditional Branch Addition

Conditional branch Residual control

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 Execution

• The microinstruction cycle is the basic event

• Each cycle is made up of two events
• Fetch
• Determined by generation of microinstruction
address
• Execute

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 Execute

• Effect of the execution of a microinstruction is is to

generate control signals
• Some these signals control points internal to processor
• Rest signals go to external control bus or other interface

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Control Unit
Organization

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 A Taxonomy of Microinstructions

• Microinstructions can be classified in a variety of ways :

• Vertical/horizontal
• Packed/unpacked
• Hard/soft microprogramming
• Direct/indirect encoding

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 Improvements over Wilkes
• In the original proposal by Wilkes each bit directly produced
a control signal or directly produced one bit of next address
• We have seen more complex address sequencing
schemes, using fewer microinstruction bits, are possible.
• These schema require more complex sequencing logic
module.
• A similar sort of trade-off exists for the portion of the
microinstruction concerned with control signals.
• By encoding control information, and subsequently
decoding it to produce control signals, control word bits can
be saved.

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 How to Encode
• Consider K different internal and external control signals
• Wilkes’s:
• K bits dedicated
• One bit for each control signal.
• 2𝑘 possible combination of control signals during any instruction
cycle
• But we can do better than this if we observe that not all the
possible combinations will be used.
• Example:
• Only one pattern presented to ALU at a time.
• Only one pattern presented to external control bus at a time.

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 Encoding
• A pure Wilkes schema requires most bit
• Every control signal is individually controllable by the micro-
programmer.
• Encoding is done in such a way to aggregate function or
resource. So that the micro-programmer is viewing the
processor at higher, less detailed level.

• One of the use of encoding is also to prevent certain

allowable combinations.

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 From hardware point of View
• Pure unencoded format
• Needs little or no decoder logic

• A more compacted and more aggregated encoding

schema,
• Needs more complex decode logic.
• This may affect performance.

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 Specific Encoding Techniques
• In practice, microprogrammed control units are not designed
using a pure unencoded or horizontal format.
• At least some form of encoding is used to reduce control
memory width and to simplify the task of microprogramming
• Microinstruction organized as set of fields
• Each field contains code, which upon decoded and
activates one or more control signals
• It must be possible for each control signal to be activated by
at least one field.
• Consider the individual field.
• A filed consisting of L bit can contain 2𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 each which can be
encoded to a different control signal pattern.

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 The Design of an Encoded Microinstruction
• Organize format into independent fields
• Field represent a set of actions (pattern of control signals)
• Actions from different fields can occur simultaneously
• Define each field such that the alternative actions that can
be specified by a field are mutually exclusive
• That is only one of the action specified for a given field could
occur at a time.

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 Approaches to Organize Microinstruction into
Fields
1. Functional and Resources
• Functional – designates fields by function type
• Resource – designate fields by resources type.
• I/0, ALU, Memory
2. Direct and indirect
• Direct – each field contains code, which upon decoding, activates
one or more signals.
• Indirect – one field is used to determine the interpretation of
another filed.

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Microinstruction Encoding
Direct Encoding

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Microinstruction Encoding
Indirect Encoding

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 End of Chapter 11

Computer Architecture
and Organization

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering