CHAPTER TWO

CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

5-page summary PDF with important details from the chapter and 20 objective questions (A-D) with answers and explanations.

1. Introduction
• Living organisms show great diversity, ranging from simple unicellular bacteria to complex multicellular mammals and large trees.
• In spite of this diversity, living things share basic features that distinguish them from non-living entities.
• Studying these characteristics and the principles of classification helps biologists understand biology, ecology and evolution and organize life
systematically.
• Plants are highlighted as good examples because their forms, processes and adaptations clearly show how life functions in sessile autotrophic organisms.

2. Characteristics of Living Things - Cellular Organization

• All living organisms are made of one or more cells, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
• Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life.
• Organisms may be unicellular (made of one cell), such as Escherichia coli, or multicellular (made of many specialized cells), such as Mangifera indica.
• Cells may be prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
• Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; this is typical of bacteria and archaea.
• Eukaryotic cells possess a true nucleus and specialized organelles and occur in plants, protists, animals and fungi.

3. Metabolism, Homeostasis, Growth and Development

• Metabolism refers to the complex biochemical reactions that support life, growth, energy transformation and material synthesis.
• It includes anabolism (building complex molecules from simpler ones) and catabolism (breaking complex molecules into simpler ones to release energy).
• Examples include photosynthesis in plants and cellular respiration in animals.
• Homeostasis is the regulation of internal conditions to maintain stability despite changes in the external environment.
• Examples of homeostatic control include thermoregulation, pH balance and osmoregulation.
• Growth involves irreversible increase in size and mass and is commonly accompanied by cell division and enlargement.
• Development refers to progressive changes in form and complexity, including differentiation, maturation and specialization of cells, tissues and organs.
4. Reproduction, Response, Adaptation and Hierarchical Organization
• Reproduction ensures continuity of life and species.
• It may be asexual, producing genetically identical offspring, or sexual, involving fusion of gametes and generating variation.
• Living things respond to environmental changes; this is called response to stimuli or irritability.
• Responses may be immediate or gradual. In plants, examples include phototropism (shoots growing toward light) and geotropism (roots growing toward
gravity).
• Adaptation and evolution explain how populations change over time through natural selection, improving survival and reproduction in particular
environments.
• Living systems are organized in a hierarchy: cells -> tissues -> organs -> organ systems -> organisms -> populations -> communities -> ecosystems.
• This structural complexity allows specialized functions and supports ecological balance.

5. Classification of Living Things

• Classification is the systematic arrangement and naming of organisms based on shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships.
• It helps biologists organize biodiversity into hierarchical groups using evidence from morphology, physiology, embryology and molecular data.
• Historically, Aristotle began simple grouping of organisms, while Linnaeus introduced binomial nomenclature and a hierarchical system.
• Modern classification combines classical Linnaean principles with molecular phylogenetics to reflect evolutionary history.
6. Modern Classification and Taxonomic Hierarchy
• Modern taxonomy recognizes three broad domains: Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya.
• Bacteria are prokaryotic single-celled organisms with wide metabolic diversity.
• Archaea are prokaryotic organisms, often extremophiles, with distinctive genetic and biochemical features.
• Eukarya includes organisms with eukaryotic cells, such as the kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
• Taxonomic hierarchy arranges life from broad to specific levels as: Domain - Kingdom - Phylum/Division - Class - Order - Family - Genus - Species.
• Each lower level is more specific and groups organisms that are more closely related.

7. Examples, Principles and Importance of Classification

• For plants, an example hierarchy given is Vernonia amygdalina (bitter leaf): Eukarya -> Plantae -> Magnoliophyta -> Magnoliopsida -> Asterales ->
Asteraceae -> Vernonia -> V. amygdalina.
• For humans, the example is Homo sapiens: Eukarya -> Animalia -> Chordata -> Mammalia -> Primates -> Hominidae -> Homo -> H. sapiens.
• Principles used in classification include morphological features, physiological traits, molecular evidence such as DNA/RNA/protein sequences, and
ecological roles such as habitat and behavior.
• Classification is important because it standardizes naming and identification, reveals evolutionary relationships, and supports conservation, agriculture,
medicine and biotechnology.
• The chapter concludes that studying characteristics and classification not only explains the complexity of life but also has practical value in science, health
and environmental management.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (1-10)
1. Which of the following best describes a living thing?
A. It has no internal organization B. It shares no features with other organisms C. It possesses defining features that distinguish it from non-living matter D. It must
always be visible to the naked eye
C - Living organisms are identified by a set of intrinsic characteristics that separate them from inanimate objects.
2. The basic structural and functional unit of life is the:
A. Tissue B. Organ C. Cell D. Molecule
C - The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
3. An example of a unicellular organism mentioned in the text is:
A. Mangifera indica B. Homo sapiens C. Escherichia coli D. Vernonia amygdalina
C - Escherichia coli is specifically mentioned as a single-celled organism.
4. Which of the following is characteristic of prokaryotic cells?
A. They have a true nucleus B. They lack membrane-bound organelles C. They are always multicellular D. They belong only to plants
B - Prokaryotic cells do not have a true nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.
5. Anabolism is the process by which organisms:
A. Break down complex molecules B. Build complex molecules from simpler ones C. Lose water by osmosis D. Respond to stimuli
B - Anabolism is constructive metabolism involving synthesis of larger molecules.
6. Catabolism mainly involves:
A. Building tissues B. Reproduction C. Breakdown of complex molecules to release energy D. Naming organisms
C - Catabolism is degradative metabolism that releases energy.
7. Which of the following is an example of homeostasis?
A. Binomial nomenclature B. Thermoregulation C. Mutation D. Speciation
B - Thermoregulation helps maintain a stable internal environment.
8. Growth in living organisms is best described as:
A. Temporary increase in size B. Irreversible increase in size and mass C. Only increase in age D. Change in species name
B - Growth involves a permanent increase in size and mass.
9. Development includes:
A. Only cell death B. Only sexual reproduction C. Differentiation, maturation and specialization D. Only locomotion
C - Development is the progression toward more complex forms through these processes.
10. Sexual reproduction differs from asexual reproduction because it:
A. Produces only identical offspring B. Does not involve gametes C. Involves fusion of gametes and promotes variation D. Occurs only in plants
C - Sexual reproduction involves gamete fusion and leads to genetic variation.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (11-20)
11. The ability of organisms to detect and respond to environmental changes is called:
A. Adaptation B. Irritability C. Taxonomy D. Catabolism
B - Response to stimuli is also called irritability.
12. A plant shoot bending toward light is an example of:
A. Geotropism B. Osmoregulation C. Phototropism D. Homeostasis
C - Phototropism is growth response toward light.
13. Roots growing downward in response to gravity illustrate:
A. Respiration B. Geotropism C. Anabolism D. Evolution
B - Geotropism is the growth response to gravity.
14. Adaptation helps organisms by:
A. Preventing all changes B. Improving survival and reproduction in specific environments C. Removing all competition D. Eliminating variation
B - Adaptation increases fitness under particular environmental conditions.
15. Which sequence correctly shows hierarchical biological organization?
A. Organs -> cells -> tissues -> ecosystems B. Cells -> tissues -> organs -> organ systems -> organisms C. Communities -> populations -> cells D. Species ->
genus -> kingdom -> tissue
B - This is the correct order from simpler to more complex levels in the organism.
16. The scientist credited with introducing binomial nomenclature is:
A. Aristotle B. Darwin C. Linnaeus D. Mendel
C - Linnaeus introduced binomial naming and hierarchical classification.
17. Modern taxonomy recognizes how many domains?
A. Two B. Three C. Four D. Eight
B - The modern system recognizes Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya.
18. Which of the following belongs to Domain Eukarya?
A. Archaea only B. Bacteria only C. Plantae, Fungi, Protista and Animalia D. Viruses alone
C - These groups contain eukaryotic cells and belong to Eukarya.
19. In the taxonomic hierarchy, the category directly above species is:
A. Domain B. Family C. Genus D. Class
C - Species is nested within genus.
20. One major importance of classification is that it:
A. Prevents evolution B. Standardizes naming and reveals relationships among organisms C. Replaces metabolism D. Makes all organisms identical
B - Classification provides universal naming and shows biological relationships.