I.

TWO WAYS TO LAYER THE EARTH

Earth is layered using two different bases:

A. CHEMICAL LAYERING – THE CRUST

The crust is the outermost solid layer of the Earth and is defined by its chemical composition.

Characteristics of the Crust

• It is the thinnest Earth layer

• Made of solid rock

• Rich in light elements compared to deeper layers

Main Elements Found in the Crust

• Silicon

• Oxygen

• Aluminum

• Calcium

• Potassium

• Sodium

These elements form rock types that differ depending on location.

B. TYPES OF CRUST

1. Continental Crust

• Makes up continents and land areas

• Thickness ranges from 25–65 km

• Less dense, therefore lighter

• Floats higher on the mantle

• Main chemical composition:

o Silica + Aluminum (SIAL)

• Does NOT subduct during plate interactions

• When it collides with oceanic crust, it stays on top

• Forms the seafloor beneath oceans

• Thickness ranges from 5–20 km

• Denser and heavier

• Highly compressed due to the weight of ocean water

• Main chemical composition:

o Silica + Magnesium (SIMA)

• Subducts during plate interactions

• Sinks beneath continental crust into the mantle

C. WHAT IS SUBDUCTION

• A process where one tectonic plate moves beneath another

• Happens because of density differences

• When oceanic and continental crust collide:

o Oceanic crust sinks

o Continental crust remains on top

• Subducted crust melts and becomes magma

II. MECHANICAL LAYERING – THE LITHOSPHERE

The lithosphere is defined by mechanical strength, not chemical makeup.

Characteristics of the Lithosphere

• Rigid outer shell of the Earth

• About 100 km thick

• Includes:

o The entire crust

o The uppermost part of the mantle

• Broken into tectonic plates

• Plates float on the asthenosphere

• Located below the lithosphere

• Hot, weak, and semi-molten

• Allows tectonic plates to move

• Responsible for:

o Earthquakes

o Volcanoes

o Mountain formation

III. TECTONIC PLATES

• Large rigid sections of the lithosphere

• Move slowly over the asthenosphere

• Their movement causes:

o Earthquakes

o Volcanoes

o Mountain ranges

o Continental drift

IV. VOLCANISM

A. WHAT IS A VOLCANO

A volcano is:

• A rupture in the Earth’s crust

• Allows magma, lava, ash, and gases to escape

• Connected to a magma chamber underground

B. VOLCANO VS MOUNTAIN

Feature Volcano Mountain

Formation Magma erupts Plate collision/uplift

Magma/Lava Present Absent

Can erupt Yes No

Vent/Crater Yes No

Danger Can be very dangerous Usually safe

Key Idea

• All volcanoes are mountains

• Not all mountains are volcanoes

C. WHY VOLCANOES ERUPT

• Heat causes magma to rise

• Gas builds up pressure

• Pressure forces magma out through vents

D. MEASURING ERUPTIONS

• Scientists use the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)

• Higher VEI = more powerful and dangerous eruption

E. TYPES OF VOLCANOES

1. Shield Volcano

o Wide and gently sloping

o Low viscosity lava

o Quiet, flowing eruptions

2. Cinder Cone

o Steep and cone-shaped

o Gas-rich magma

o Explosive but short-lived

3. Stratovolcano
 o Tall and steep

o High viscosity magma

o Alternates between quiet and explosive eruptions

V. LIFE CYCLE AND MOODS OF VOLCANOES

A. LIFE CYCLE

1. Youth – Small steep cone

2. Adulthood – Large cone

3. Old Age – Massive complex (Massif)

B. VOLCANO MOODS

• Active – Recently erupted, expected to erupt again

• Dormant – Sleeping, may erupt again

• Extinct – No magma source, will not erupt

VI. LAVA AND ERUPTION PRODUCTS

A. LAVA COMPOSITION

• Mafic (low silica) – Fast-flowing, common

• Intermediate – Moderate viscosity

• Felsic (high silica) – Thick, explosive, dangerous

B. LAVA FLOW TYPES

• Pahoehoe – Smooth, ropy surface

• ‘A‘ā – Rough, jagged, sharp

• Blocky – Thick, broken blocks

• Pillow lava – Forms underwater

C. PYROCLASTIC MATERIALS

• Volcanic Ash – < 2 mm

• Blocks and Bombs – > 64 mm

• Pyroclastic Flow – Fast, deadly hot gas and debris

VII. PHILIPPINE VOLCANOES

• Philippines lies along major plate boundaries

• One of the most volcanically active countries

• Scientists mapped 731 volcanic edifices

Examples

• Mayon – Bicol Region

• Pinatubo – Western Luzon

• Apo – Mindanao

• Kanlaon – Negros

A. MORPHOMETRY

• Study of a volcano’s:

o Height

o Volume

o Slope

• Used to classify volcano families

B. VOLCANO FAMILIES

• Small flat cones

• Small steep cones

• Large cones

• Massifs

C. ALERT LEVELS

• Level 0 – Quiet
 • Level 1 – Low unrest

• Level 3 – High unrest

• Level 5 – Eruption, life-threatening

VIII. TYPHOONS

A. HOW TYPHOONS FORM

• Warm ocean water provides heat

• Moist air rises

• Pressure causes rotation

• Weakens over land

B. PAGASA SIGNALS

• Signal #1: 30–60 km/h – no classes in kinder

• Signal #2: 61–120 km/h no classes in primary

• Signal #3: 121–170 km/h no classes in all levels

• Signal #4: 171–220 km/h

• Signal #5: >220 km/h

2. What is a Tropical Cyclone?

it's a big rotating storm with:

• Low-pressure center.

• Strong winds & heavy rain.

• Works like a "massive engine" fueled by warm ocean water.

The 3 Main Parts

Part What it is

Eye The calm center of the rotation.

Eyewall The ring around the eye; has the most violent winds and heaviest rain.

Rainbands Spiraling arms of rain that can go for hundreds of miles.

3. History of Naming Storms

we name them so it's easier to talk about them and get ready for disasters. here is how it changed over
time:

• Late 1800s: Clement Wragge named them after politicians he didn't like.

• WWII: Meteorologists used names of wives and girlfriends.

• 1953: US starts using only female names.

• 1975: Australia is the first to add male names.

• 1979: US starts switching between male and female names.

• Present Day: The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) manages 6 lists that rotate. If a
storm is super destructive, that name gets retired forever.

4. The 2014 Study Theory

this study found something wild:

• People think storms with female names are less dangerous.

• Because they don't take them seriously, they don't prepare as much, which leads to higher
death rates.

1. How Typhoons Form & Move

• The Process: Warm, moist air rises and gets replaced by cooler air blowing underneath.

• The Result: This cycle causes pressure changes that lead to high-velocity winds.

• Monitoring: Once a storm enters the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR), the national
weather bureau watches it closely.
 • Direction: Most tropical cyclones move in a northwest direction because of large-scale wind
patterns.

2. Why They Die Out (Dissipation)

• Typhoons "die" when they hit land because they are cut off from warm water.

• Warm water is basically their fuel; without it, they can't keep going.

3. Why the Philippines Gets Hit So Much

• The Philippines is super susceptible to extreme weather because it is located in the West Pacific
Basin.

• This area has some of the warmest ocean temperatures in the world.

• High-risk areas: Northern Luzon, Bicol Region, and Eastern Visayas are hit frequently.

4. Types of Tropical Cyclones

they get classified by how fast their winds are blowing:

Type Wind Speed

Tropical Depression Up to 61 kph

Tropical Storm 62 to 88 kph

Typhoon 118 to 220 kph

Super Typhoon Over 220 kph

Quick Check Table (Coordinates for PAR)

• Formation: they form when warm, moist air rises and cool air flows underneath. this cycle
makes pressure changes that cause high-velocity winds.

• Movement: they usually move in a northwest direction because of big wind patterns.

• Dissipation (How they die): when a typhoon hits land, it dies out because it gets cut off from the
warm water it needs for fuel.

• The Philippines: our country gets hit a lot because we are in the West Pacific Basin, which has
some of the warmest water in the world. specific spots like Northern Luzon, Bicol, and Eastern
Visayas get hit the most.

2. Tropical Cyclone Categories

based on wind speed:

• Tropical Depression: up to 61 kph.

• Tropical Storm: 62 to 88 kph.

• Typhoon: 118 to 220 kph.

• Super Typhoon: over 220 kph.

3. PAGASA Storm Signals (TWCS)

since 2020, PAGASA uses Tropical Cyclone Wind Signals (TWCS):

Signal Winds Expected Timeframe

TWCS #1 30–60 kph within 36 hours

TWCS #2 61–120 kph within 24 hours

TWCS #3 121–170 kph within 18 hours

TWCS #4 171–220 kph within 12 hours

TWCS #5 over 220 kph within 12 hours

4. Monitoring & Mitigation

• PAGASA has a station in Tayabas City that records pressure, wind, and rain.

• they send that info to the Main Office in Quezon City.

• understanding how typhoons act helps us "mitigate" (lessen) the bad impacts they have on us.

1. The Secret Life of Super Storms

• History: The Japanese called typhoons "divine wind" or Kamikaze. In the 13th century, these
winds actually saved Japan by destroying a Mongol fleet.

• Energy: Tropical cyclones work like massive atmospheric heat engines.

2. Why Do They Spin? (Coriolis Effect)

• The Rule: If u try to draw a straight line on a spinning ball, the line will curve.

• The Spin: As air rushes to the low-pressure center, the planet spins underneath it, forcing the air
into a spiral.

• Directions:

o Northern Hemisphere: Spin counter-clockwise.

o Southern Hemisphere: Spin clockwise.

3. Anatomy of a Cyclone (Deep Dive)

1. The Eye: The very center, eerily calm. Air sinks here, creating a 20-to-40-mile wide zone of clear
skies.

2. The Eyewall: A furious towering ring of clouds surrounding the eye. This is where u find the
absolute strongest, most destructive winds.

3. Rainbands: These spiral out and can stretch for hundreds of miles, dumping huge amounts of
rain.

4. Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR)

The national weather bureau monitors any disturbance that enters this specific zone.
5. Facts & Movements

• Direction: Cyclones usually move northwest because of large-scale wind patterns.

• Strike Zones: They frequently hit Northern Luzon, Bicol Region, and Eastern Visayas.

• Location: The Philippines is susceptible because we are in the West Pacific Basin, home to some
of the world's warmest ocean temps.

1. The Typhoon "Heat Engine"

think of a typhoon like a Giant Heat Engine. instead of gas, it runs on warm ocean water ( 26.5 degree
Celsius and above).

How it Works (4 Steps):

1. Evaporation: warm water turns into light, humid air.

2. Rising Air: that light air starts to rise up.

3. Condensation: as it goes higher, it cools down and turns into massive clouds.

4. Energy Release: when it condenses, it releases a huge burst of heat energy. this creates a cycle
that makes the storm grow like crazy.

2. The Coriolis Effect (Why they spin)

• The Rule: if u draw a straight line on a spinning ball, it curves.

• Step 1: air rushes from high to low pressure toward the center.

• Step 2: the earth’s rotation deflects the path of that air.

• Step 3: this makes the spiral:

o Northern Hemisphere: counter-clockwise.

o Southern Hemisphere: clockwise.

3. The Deadliest Killer: Storm Surge

• What it is: powerful winds push a literal wall of ocean water onto land.

• How big: it can be 20 ft high or more.

• Danger: this is responsible for 90% of deaths from hurricanes/typhoons.

meteorologists use this tool to track where a storm might go.

• What it shows: the most likely path that the center of the storm (the eye) can travel.

• The Rule: the further out in time the forecast goes, the wider that cone gets because the future
is so uncertain.

• Note: the cone does not show you the size of the storm, how big the winds/rain are, or where
storm surges can happen.

2. Can Something So Destructive Be Necessary?

even though they are scary, tropical cyclones act as the Planet's Circulatory System.

• Balancing Heat: they move excess heat from the warm tropics toward the cold poles to help
balance global climate.

• Ending Droughts: they bring vital rain to places suffering from dry spells.

• Supporting Life: they spread nutrients through ecosystems and create new habitats for marine
life by reshaping coastlines.

3. Quick Review of the "Killer" Stats

• Storm Surge: powerful winds push a wall of water (up to 20 ft or more) onto land.

• Example: Hurricane Maria in 2017 was so bad people said it "took the color away" from them in
Puerto Rico.