Chapter 2
Basic Laws
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Overview
• This chapter will introduce Ohm’s law: a
central concept in electric circuits.
• Resistors will be discussed in more detail.
• Circuit topology and the voltage and current
laws will be introduced.
• Finally, meters for measuring voltage,
current, and resistivity will be presented.
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Resistivity
• Materials tend to resist the flow of electricity
through them.
• This property is called “resistance”.
저항
• The resistance of an object is a function of
its length, l, and cross sectional area, A, and
the material’s resistivity:
l
R=
A
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Ohm’s Law
• In a resistor, the voltage across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it.
V = IR
• The resistance of an element is measured in
units of Ohms, , (V/A).
• The higher the resistance, the less current will flow
through for a given voltage.
• Ohm’s law requires conforming to the passive sign
convention.
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Ohm’s Law
• In a resistor, the voltage across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it.
V = IR
• The resistance of an element is measured in
units of Ohms, , (V/A).
• The higher the resistance, the less current will flow
through for a given voltage.
• Ohm’s law requires conforming to the passive sign
convention.
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Resistivity of Common Materials
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Short and Open Circuits
• A connection with almost zero resistance is
called a short circuit.
• Ideally, any current may flow through the
short.
• In practice this is a connecting wire.
• A connection with infinite resistance is
called an open circuit.
• Here no matter the voltage, no current
flows.
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Short and Open Circuits
Short circuit
Open circuit
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Linearity
• Not all materials obey
Ohm’s Law.
• Resistors that do are
called linear resistors
because their current
voltage relationship is
always linearly
proportional.
• Diodes and light bulbs are
examples of non-linear
elements.
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Conductance
• Definition
• Reciprocal of resistance R
• Meaning
• Ability of an element to conduct electric current
• Unit
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Power Dissipation
• Running current through a resistor
dissipates power.
2
v
p = vi = i 2 R =
R
• The power dissipated is a non-linear
function of current or voltage.
• Power dissipated is always positive.
• A resistor can never generate power.
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Example 2.1
• Problem
• I = 2A, V = 120 V, R = ?
• Solution
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Example 2.2
• Problem
• Find I, G, P
• Solution
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Nodes, Branches and Loops
• Circuit elements can be interconnected in multiple
ways.
• To understand this, we need to be familiar with
some network topology concepts.
• A branch represents a single element such as a
voltage source or a resistor.
• A node is the point of connection between two or
more branches.
• A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
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Nodes, Branches and Loops
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Network Topology
• A loop is independent if it contains at least
one branch not shared by any other
independent loops.
• Two or more elements are in series if they
share a single node and thus carry the
same current.
• Two or more elements are in parallel if they
are connected to the same two nodes and
thus have the same voltage.
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Example 2.4
• Problem
• Branch, node ?
• Solution
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Kirchoff’s Laws
Ohm’s law is not sufficient for circuit analysis.
Kirchoff’s laws complete the needed tools.
There are two laws:
• Current law.
• Voltage law.
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K CL
• Kirchoff’s current law is based on
conservation of charge.
• It states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is
zero.
• It can be expressed as:
N
i
n =1
n =0
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K CL
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K CL
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KVL
• Kirchoff’s voltage law is based on
conservation of energy.
• It states that the algebraic sum of all
voltages around a closed path (or loop) is
zero.
• It can be expressed as:
M
v
m =1
m =0
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KVL
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises
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KVL
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Example 2.5
• Problem
• Find v1 and v2
• Solution
(Ohm’s law)
(KVL)
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Example 2.6
• Problem
• Find vo and i
• Solution
(KVL)
(Ohm’s law)
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Example 2.7
• Problem
• Find vo and io
• Solution
(KCL)
(Ohm’s law)
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Example 2.8 (1)
• Problem
• currents
• voltages
• Solution
(Ohm’s law)
(KCL in node a)
(KVL in Loop 1)
or
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Example 2.8 (2)
• Problem
• currents
• voltages
• Solution
(KVL in Loop 2)
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Series Resistors
• Two resistors are
considered in series if the
same current pass through
them.
• Take the circuit shown:
• Applying Ohm’s law to both
resistors.
v1 = iR1 v2 = iR2
• If we apply KVL to the loop we have:
−v + v1 + v2 = 0
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Series Resistors 2
• Combining the two equations:
v = v1 + v2 = i ( R1 + R2 )
• From this we can see there is an equivalent
resistance of the two resistors:
Req = R1 + R2
• For N resistors in series:
N
Req = Rn
n =1
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Voltage Division
• The voltage drop across any one resistor
can be known.
• The current through all the resistors is the
same, so using Ohm’s law:
R1 R2
v1 = v v2 = v
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
• For N resistors in series:
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Parallel Resistors
• When resistors are in parallel, the voltage drop
across them is the same.
v = i1R1 = i2 R2
• By KCL, the current at node a is
i = i1 + i2
• The equivalent resistance is:
R1 R2
Req =
R1 + R2
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Parallel Resistors
• General Case (N resistors in parallel)
• Equivalent resistors
• Equivalent conductance
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Current Division
• Given the current entering the node, the voltage
drop across the equivalent resistance will be the
same as that for the individual resistors.
iR1 R2
v = iReq =
R1 + R2
• This can be used in combination with Ohm’s law
to get the current through each resistor:
iR2 iR1
i1 = i2 =
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
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Wye-Delta Transformations
• There are cases
where resistors are
neither parallel nor
series.
• Consider the bridge
circuit shown here.
• This circuit can be
simplified to a three-
terminal equivalent.
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Wye-Delta Transformations II
Two topologies can
be interchanged:
• Wye (Y) or tee (T)
networks.
• Delta () or pi ( )
networks.
• Transforming between
these two topologies
often makes the solution
of a circuit easier.
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Wye-Delta Transformations III
In Y and Δ networks
•
• Similarly
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Wye-Delta Transformations IV
In Y and Δ networks
•
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Wye-Delta Transformations V
• The superimposed
wye and delta
circuits shown here
will used for
reference.
• The delta consists of
the outer resistors,
labeled a, b, and c.
• The wye network are
the inside resistors,
labeled 1,2, and 3.
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Delta to Wye
• The conversion formula for a delta to wye
transformation are:
Rb Rc
R1 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Rc Ra
R2 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rb
R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
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Wye to Delta I
• The conversion formula for a wye to delta
transformation are:
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Wye to Delta II
• The conversion formula for a wye to delta
transformation are:
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra =
R1
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb =
R2
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc =
R3
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Design of DC Meters
• Resistors by their nature control current.
• This property may be used directly to control
voltages, as in the potentiometer.
• The voltage output is:
Rbc
Vout = Vbc = Vin
Rac
• Resistors can also be
used to make meters for
measuring voltage and
resistance.
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D’Arsonval Meter Movement 1
Here we will look at DC analog meters.
The operation of a digital meter is beyond the scope
of this chapter.
These are the meters where a needle deflection is
used to read the measured value.
All of these meters rely on the D’Arsenol meter
movement:
• This has a pivoting iron core coil.
• Current through this causes a deflection.
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D’Arsonval Meter Movement 2
• Below is an example of a D’Arsonval Meter
Movement.
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Ammeter
• It should be clear that the basic meter movement
directly measured current.
• The needle deflection is proportional to the current
up to the rated maximum value.
• The coil also has an internal resistance.
• In order to measure a greater current, a resistor
(shunt) may be added in parallel to the meter.
• The new max value for the meter is:
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Voltmeter
• Ohm’s law can be used to convert the meter
movement into a voltmeter.
• By adding a resistor in series with the movement,
the sum of the meter’s internal resistance and the
external resistor are combined.
• A voltage applied across this pair will result in a
specific current, which can be measured.
• The full scale voltage measured is:
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Ohmmeter 1
• We know that resistance is
related the voltage and
current passing through a
circuit element.
• The meter movement is
already capable of
measuring current.
• What is needed is to add a
voltage source.
• By KVL:
E
Rx = − ( R + Rm )
Im
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Ohmmeter II
• The internal resistor is chosen such that when the
external resistor is zero, the meter is at full
deflection.
• This yields the following relationship between
measured current and resistance.
I fs
Rx = − 1 ( R + Rm )
Im
• A consequence to measuring the current is that
the readout of the meter will be the inverse of the
resistance.
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