BUILDING

Definition:

Can simply be defined as the construction or erection of a structure.

The construction of a structure is done in stages and these stages include among others:

 Site clearance
 Setting-out
 Excavation
 Concreting
 Wall construction
 Roofing
 Plastering and
 painting

TOPIC 1

HISTORY OF BUILDING

The history of building is as old as mankind and hence the design and construction is
ever changing to suite the modern standards of living. Various construction materials
are available but however bricks are widely used since they:

are easy to work with

produce strong and durable structures
less costly as compared to stones and concrete
can be used to produce decorative work

The story of the Israelites in Egypt is a good reference to reveal that brickwork has since
been practiced even before Christ.

PURPOSE AND TYPES OF BUILDINGS

Generally, the purpose of a building determines its shape, style, quality and cost.

A building encloses space, and in doing so it creates an Internal Environment.

The structural elements (ext. walls) of a building are termed the External Envelope
and it protects the occupants and their belongings from the External environment.

Purpose of the External Envelope

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 a) To provide the desired internal environment
b) Providing safety and security to the occupants and their belongings
c) To provide privacy
d) Should also provide light and ventilation

What is a structure?
An organised combination of connected elements joined or constructed to perform
some required functions.

Many different structures are required to satisfy the needs of this ever changing and
demanding society and these different types of structures create the BUILT
ENVIRONMENT.

TYPES OF BUILDINGS

Buildings are classified under two main categories which are:

[A] LIVING ACCOMMODATION [DWELLINGS]

[B] WORKING ACCOMMODATION

(A) LIVING ACCOMMODATION [DWELLINGS]

Under this category we have all types of residential buildings. These should be so
constructed that they meet the minimum requirements such as:

 Light addimmitence
 Wall height
 Ventilation

Dwellings include: houses, flats, bungalows, mansions etc. The purpose of dwellings
is to provide human beings with shelter and a place to store their goods and
chattels [all their movable property].

Dwellings are divided into 3 groups according to their heights that is:

1) Low rise buildings – from 1 to 3 stories

2) Medium rise buildings – from 4 to 7 stories
3) High rise buildings – from 8 upwards

Glossary of dwellings terms:

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 I. Apartment- a set or suite of rooms that forms a complete dwelling.
II. Bungalow- this is a one storey house.
III. Charllet- this is a small light wooden built dwelling. Mostly found in
recreational facilities like safari lodges.
IV. Cottage- a small house originally intended for farm labourers or company
employees.

Examples of living accommodation:

a) Flat- a dwelling in a building of more than 1 storey but in form of a block. It

forms a separate dwelling and access to which is via communal entrance.
b) Maisonette- a dwelling occupying part of large building but unlike a flat, it
has separate entrance.
c) Tenement- a block of apartments or flats with certain shared facilities
mainly situated in the poor inner city areas.

(B) WORKING ACCOMMODATION

Divided into 4 main groups which are:

1. Industrial
2. Commercial
3. Offices
4. educational

Industrial

These include workshops, garages, mining buildings etc. These can be of solid
construction or framed structures. Mostly these structures are constructed to serve
intended purposes.

Commercial

Under this heading we have banks shopping complexes, markets.

Mainly they are solid wall construction with exception of structures like markets
or vending areas which can be of framed structures.

Most commercial buildings have an attractive outward appearance usually of face

brick, cladding etc.

Offices

Buildings used for administration and for clerical works and this usually in
connection with a business.

Educational

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 Buildings used for educational purposes e.g. colleges, schools and universities.
These can be purpose made or can be by conversion.

Other types of building are:

Agricultural

These include silos, drying sheds, green houses, granaries etc. they are also
constructed to serve the intended purpose.

E.g.: structures for tobacco processing require solid wall construction but drying
sheds require framed structures.

Religious accommodation

All buildings used as place of worship to cater for one’s spiritual needs.

THE BUILDING TEAM

The construction of a structure requires a team of tradesman to produce the desired

results.

This team is collectively known as the building team and they have their pattern of
operation and communication as shown by the diagram below:

CLIENT
[1]
QUANTITY
SURVEYOR
ARCHITECT [3]

[2]
SPECIALIST
ENGINEER
[4]
LOCAL
CLERK of
AUTHORITY WORKS [5]
[6]

HEALTH and
BUILDING
SAFETY
CONTRACTOR INSPECTOR
[7] [8]
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 SUB SUPPLIERS
CONTRACTOR [10]
[9]

[1] THE CLIENT

Is the person or company with the actual need for construction or building works?

Has the responsibility of financing the whole project, infect s/he employs directly or
indirectly the entire team?

[2] THE ARCHITECT

S/he is the client’s agent and is considered to be the leader of the building team. His
roles include:

I. Interpreting the client’s requirements.

II. Translates the requirements and develops them into drawings.
III. Generally, supervises all aspects of the project until completion.

[3] QUANTITY SURVEYOR

S/he is the client’s economic consultant or accountant and his roles include:

I. Giving advice during the design stage on how the project can be done within the
client’s budget.
II. Measuring the quantity of labour and materials required.
III. Calculate and prepare the value of work done to enable interim payments.
IV. Advises the architect on the cost of additional works or variations.
V. Prepares the final account of the work for presentation to the client at the end of
the contract.
VI. Prepares a bill of quantities [B.O.Q.] used by the contractors when pricing
building works.

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[4] SPECIALIST ENGINEER

Engaged by the Architect to assist in their areas of work and these include civil,
structural and service engineers.

S/he roles include:

I. Preparing drawings and calculations to enable contractors to quote for their

areas of work.
II. Make regular inspections to make certain installations are carried out according
to the designs.

[5] CLERK of WORKS (C.O.W.)

Appointed by the client or the architect to work as their on-site representative.

S/he makes sure work is done according to drawings and contract documents.

Make regular inspections on standard of work, materials and workmanship.

Roles include:

I. Makes regular and relevant reports to the client and to the architect and also
keeps a daily record of events in case of disputes.
II. Makes general agreements with the contractor on how work can
effectively be carried out.

[6] LOCAL AUTHORITY [L.A.]

Has the responsibility that work is done or confirms to the requirements of relevant
building regulations [by-laws].

Employs planning officers, building inspectors to approve and inspect construction

works e.g. building inspectors, health inspectors etc.

Allocates land for construction projects and provides basic services like provision of
water, plumbing services, roads etc.

[7] BUILDING CONTRACTOR

Enters into a contract with the client or the architect to carry-out building works.

To function effectively, contractors must establish and maintain good working

relationships within their organisation by:

a) Having good co-operation and communication within their various sections.

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 b) Providing good working conditions.
c) Nurturing a good working spirit where worker is motivated, rewarded for their
success and allowed to work on their own initiatives under supervision for the
good of the company.

[8] HEALTH AND SAFETY INSPECTOR

Is employed to ensure that gvnt’s legislations concerning health and safety are fully
implemented by the contractor.

s/he ensures that:

a) Employees have the right safety attire for the work to be done.
b) Equipment’s, machinery is in safe working conditions
c) Operators of various machineries receive adequate safety knowledge like: -safe
working loads, -safe workings speed.

TOPIC 2
BUILDING TOOLS

AIMS

 For the trainee to know the importance of using the correct tool for the right job.
 To know and understand the care and maintenance given to various building
tools.

QUALITIES OF GOOD BUILDING TOOLS

 They should be durable [robust] –provide service for a long period of time.
 Good tools should give accurate readings or measurements

When purchasing tools: cheap tools are not good to buy because they may be
eventually costly.
Tools should be bought from reputable manufacturers [e.g.] Stanely, Wimbely,
Gerdoe, Webco etc.

A good craftsman should take good care of his tools because they represent part of his
character.

CATEGORIES OF BUILDING TOOLS

Building tools are broadly classified under 4 categories:

[1] ALIGNMENT TOOLS

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Used mainly to obtain truly vertical and horizontal surfaces. Under this heading we
have: the spirit level, line level, line and pins, straight edge, gauge rod etc.

i. SPIRIT LEVEL

Mostly found within the range of 60mm to 1200mm.

-should be durable, able to resist occasional knocks

-should be long enough to give/provide better accuracy.

-spirit levels with adjustable bulbs are most preferable to those with fixed bulbs.

Care & Maintenance

-rub with a dump cloth after a day’s work and store in cool and safe place.
-avoid using it to push bricks into their final position.
-should not be left in direct sunlight

Uses
I. For plumbing vertical surfaces and leveling horizontal surfaces.
II. For transferring levels with the aid of a straight edge or a builder’s line.
III. To align bricks within its length
IV. To construct inclined surfaces like gable ends and staircases

[2] MORTAR TOOLS

This group comprises of all tools which work with mortar either during bricklaying,
plastering or flooring.

These tools include the bricklayer’s trowel, steel and wooden floats, internal and
external corner tools and also all types of jointers.

The Bricklayer’s trowel

handle

Tongue

Rivet/stopper

blade ferrule

toe

neck/shank

225 - 275

Uses of a bricklayer’s trowel

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-for picking mortar from the mortar board and spreading it onto the wall.

-for rough cutting of soft bricks

-for mixing mortar in small quantities

-for knocking bricks into their final position using the edge of blade

-for joggling and farrowing

Care and maintenance

-wash it with water after’s work

-oil the blade if it is to be left for a long period time

-avoid knocking bricks into position using the stopper

-should not be used cutting hard bricks

-avoid using it for leverage purposes

[3] SETTING-OUT TOOLS

These include the builder’s square, builder’s line, measuring tape, club hammer, pegs

[4] DIGGING AND CUTTING TOOLS

Under this category we have the bolster, comb or chasing hammer, mattock, pick, spade,
shovel

However, some text books have other categories of building tools which include:
Measuring and Plastering tools of which tools under these categories can be fused into
the main groups.

Topic 3
Building procedures

LOCATION OF BUILDNGS

This is done by considering factors like:

Accessibility
Intended use of the structure
Prevailing winds
Characteristics of a Good building site

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 I. Accessibility
A site should be well accessible. Materials to be delivered should reach the site
without any difficulties.
II. Water source
The provision of safe drinking on a site should be a first priority for without it
outbreak of diseases is likely to occur. Water for construction purposes can be
permanent or provided as work proceeds.
III. Sanitation
A good site should have sanitary facilities and these should be provided be for
the commencement of actual construction works.
IV. Site should have effective communication networks in the form of telephone
lines, wireless systems or good road networks. These are essential in reporting
accidents, vandalism and also making material delivery requests.
V. Accommodation
Sites should provide decent accommodation for employees during or after
working hours. Shelter for site administration and storage of materials should be
provided before commencement of work.

Preliminary site works

These are normally done on new sites and it includes:

Provision of water and sanitary facilities

Improving accessibility, that is road networks for delivery of materials.
Provision of temporary accommodation
Site clearance. This can be done either by hand or by machine depending on the
nature of the site.
On new sites, topsoil should be cleared to minimum depth of 150mm. topsoil is
composed of grassroots and humus thereby having an unreliable Bearing
capacity.
(MBBLZ [1977] chapter 2, section 25 subsection 1 and 2)

Setting Out

The transferring of information from the drawings onto the actual ground. Requires
adequate knowledge of interpreting building drawings which are building plans,
elevations, sections and specifications. This includes knowledge on scale drawing,
building symbols, abbreviations and also reading the measuring tape.

The first step is to establish a Building line. This a base line from where all other
setting out procedures are ascertained from.

In urban areas the building line will be clearly marked on the working drawings [on the
site plan].
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It is usually ascertained from fixed points like existing buildings, kerb line or from the
centre of the road or as shown on the plan. Its important to check for accuracy of the
building line to avoid infringement with the Local Authority’s requirements.

Before setting out is done, a set of drawings should be submitted to the Local Authority
for approval.

Drawings for Approval

According to the (MBBLZ [1977] Chapter 2, section 5, subsection 1, part 1 and 2) and
Rural Council Act Chapter 211states that:

“No person shall construct a building or alter an existing one, or undertake any
sewerage works on any site until plans have been submitted to and approved by the
relevant Local Authority.”

The plans to be submitted include:

I. Site plan
Shows the location of the proposed building in relation to its surrounding and
site boundaries.
Scale: 1:200, 1:500
Indicates particulars of location which includes:
- Name of adjacent streets
- Building lines
- Dimensions of boundaries
- Position of proposed bldng and existing features
- Direction of true north
II. Working drawings
Also known as the location drawing. Shows the position and dimensions of the
various rooms and spaces within the bldng.
Scale: 1:100, 1:50
Drawings indicate:
- Floor plan
- Elevations
- Sections
- Roof plan

Also shows:

- The owner’s details

- Name and stand number
- Intended use of all rooms
- Sanitary fittings

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III. Sewerage and Drainage plans
Contents of these plans can be shown on the working drawings though they can
be shown separately

Setting-out a rectangular bldng

This can be done using the large builder’s square and 3:4:5 method

Setting out a rectangular building using the 3:4:5 methods:

 Draw the baseline and mark points A and B 4m long along the line
 From point A draw a line approximately perpendicular to line AB measure 3m
and strike an arc
 From point B, measure 5m and strike an arc which intersects with the arc 3m
from point A
 Mark the point of intersection as C
NB the process creates a right angle at point A with AC- 3m, AB- 4m and BC- 5m
 Measure the length or width of the building along AC or AB and repeat the
process to the other remaining corners.

A B

Use the diagonal method to check for accuracy.

a and b must be equal.

b

TOPIC 4
BRICKWORK

A Standard Brick
Zim standard brick [230mm X 115mm X 75mm]
British standard [215mm X 102.5mm X 65mm]

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 KICK/FROG ARRIS
BED FACE

STRETCHER FACE
HEADER FACE

Bonding defined:
The arrangement of bricks in a pre-determined pattern maintaining strength and
stability.

The interlacement of bricks produced when they lap or project beyond those
immediately below or above them.

LAP

half lap

Terms in Bonding

Course: a complete layer of bricks comprising of the unit and the mortar joint [bed
joint].

Bond: refers to a recognized arrangement of units in a wall.

[e.g.: stretcher bond]
Lap: the distance by which a brick project beyond the face of that immediately below
above or below. [e.g.: half lap]
Quoin: refers to a corner of a wall and can either be squint or right-angled quoin.
Stopped-end: refers to a square termination of wall, no provision for future extension is
provided.
Bat: is a cut brick. [e.g.: a half brick]

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Elevation: the view of an object or structure as it appears directly in front of the viewer.
Features hidden from the viewer are shown using hidden feature lines.
Plan: the view of a structure or object as seen from the top.
Toothing: a method of providing for future extensions were alternate courses are
recessed.
Raking-back: another method of providing for future extensions were consecutive
courses are set back.
Indents: a method of providing for extensions mostly used on partitions whereby
bricks are laid on sand courses.

TOOTHING
STOPPED
END

RAKING-BACK

Reasons for Bonding

To maintain or enhance the strength and stability of the structure.

To facilitate even distribution of load among the units.
To maintain a recognized pattern on a wall hence giving a uniform surface.
For decorative purposes. It improves the esthetic value of a structure.

Principles in Bonding

In wall construction certain principles should be obeyed to satisfy the above reasons
and these include:
No perpendicular joints should coincide in consecutive courses.
No cut bricks less than a half bat should be used except a queen closer which
should only be placed next to a quoin header.
A quarter lap should be produced by introducing a queen closer next to a quoin
header or by using a three quarter bat.
Perpendicular joints should be kept in-line vertically as much as possible.
When changing direction, the bond also changes in the same course.

TYPES OF BONDS

There are various types of bonds but the common ones are:
1. Stretcher bond
2. English bond
3. English-garden wall bond

1 STRETCHER BOND

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Consists of stretchers in consecutive courses maintaining half lap which is obtained by
introducing a half bat or a header on alternate courses at the quoins.
Stretcher bond is mostly used on half brick thick walls [115mm] and on block work.
Used where appearance is of secondary importance, on work to be plastered unless
when used on face work.

ELEVATION OF A WALL IN STRETCHER BOND

HALF BAT OR HEADER

FACE

BED JOINT

PERP JOINT

STRETCHER FACE half lap

Half bat
PLAN OF COURSE 1

PLAN OF COURSE 2

PLAN OF COURSE 1 FOR 230mm THICK WALLS

Header Collar joint

PLAN OF COURSE 2

Transverse joint

Junctions in stretcher bond

Return Angle [115mm] Return Angle [230mm]

15
 Half bat

Plan of course 1 Plan of course 1

Plan of course 2 Plan of course 2

ELEVATION ELEVATION

RAKING-BACK TOTHING

ISOMETRIC VIEW

Tee junction Cross junction

Tie brick

16
 Plan of course 1 plan of course1

Half bats

3 3
Plan of course 1 /4 bats /4 bats

Tie
brick
Plan course2

ELEVATION

2 ENGLISH BOND

Consists of headers and stretchers in alternate courses maintaining quarter laps.

-said to be the strongest bond in wall construction hence its used in external load
bearing wall and in footing courses [brickwork in below d.p.c level.

The quarter lap is obtained by introducing a queen closer next to a quoin header.

Header course

Quoin header

Stretcher course

Quarter lap

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 ELEVATION

Queen closer

PLAN OF COURSE 1

Bed face Transverse joints

Longitudinal / Collar
joint

PLANOF COURSE 2

Junctions in English

Return Angle Tee Junction

Plan of course 1 Plan of course 1

Plan of course 2 Plan of course 2

ELEVATION ELEVATION

The cross junction

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 Plan of course 1

Plan of course 2

Elevation

Continuous outline showing visible corners of the junction

3 ENGLISH GARDEN-WALL BOND

Consist of a header course followed by an odd number of stretcher courses. It

incorporates both the aspects of the stretcher bond and the English bond on elevation.

It should be a common practice to maintain the same number of stretcher courses

through-out the wall. [1:3] or [1:5].

The header course can be laid using bricks of contrasting colour as a way of decorating
the structure.

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Its stronger than the stretcher bond since the header course terminates the collar joint
which is continuously found on walls in stretcher bond.

English bond

Stretcher bond

Elevation [1:3]

[* Plan of courses are the same as those for English and stretcher bond]

Double Return Angle

Continuous outline

showing visible corners

of the junction

Lines showing junction hidden from viewer Elevation

Double Return Angle

Plan of course 1

WALL CONSTRUCTION

Methods of work

Apart from principles and rules in bonding, other essentials in wall construction are
that walls should be:

i. Truly plumb
ii. Truly level
iii. Square
iv. Well gauged

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Plumbing

Defined as the establishment of true vertical surfaces which are at right angles to a true
level surface. A true vertical surface is that which is in line with pull of gravity

A wall which is out of level leaning outwards is said be overhanging.

A wall which is out of level leaning inwards is said to be battering.

Plumbing is done with a spirit level using the plumbing bulb. The bulb has two markings
on it and when plumbing the spirit bulb in the tube should be centralized between the
two markings.

Plumbing bulb

Leveling bulb

Leveling

Can be defined as the establishing of relative heights on the earth’s surface. A true level
surface is that which is perpendicular to the pull of gravity.

Leveling bulb plumbing bulb

A wall which is out of level is said to have a pig-in a wall. To avoid constructing walls
which are out level, all levels on site should be ascertained from a common fixed point
known as a Datum point or datum peg.

The relationship between plumbing and leveling is that the two planes or axis intersect
at right angles.

Gauging

Concerned with making courses to have the same thickness and the course thickness is
marked on a gauge rod. A gauge rod can be of metal or timber but 38mm X 38mm
timber sections are commonly used.

A course comprises of the unit [brick] with a thickness of 75mm or 65mm and the
mortar joint [the bed joint] having a minimum thickness of 5mm and maximum
thickness of 20mm.

Ways of laying bricks

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In wall construction there are 6 ways of laying a standard brick:

i. As a stretcher -with the stretcher face on elevation.

75

230
ii. As a header -with the header face on elevation.

75

115

iii. As brick on end -with the header face on elevation and the stretcher face
lying on the bed joint.

75

115

iv. As a brick on edge -with the bed face on elevation and the stretcher face on the
bed joint.

230

115

v. As a sailor -with the bed face on elevation and the header face on the bed
joint.

115

230

vi. As a soldier -with the stretcher face on elevation and the header face on the bed
joint.

75

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 230

Working along the line

Working along the line is termed running-in and it’s made with the aid of corner blocks
other than using line and pins.

It must be a common practice to leave a gap between the line and the brick to avoid
disturbing the line.

Openings on walls
These are made for some of the following reasons:
To admit light into the building
For ventilation purposes
To provide acess into and within the various rooms of the building.
To give a decorative appearance.

Such openings include:

Window openings
Door openings
Verandas

Light admmittence

The MBBLZ chapter 8, section 3 states that only openings or portions of openings
situated 300mm above the floor level shall be included in the area of required daylight
openings.

Section 4, subsection [1] states the minimum permissible area required for daylight
openings expressed as a percantage of the floor area:

 Kitchen - 12%
 Workrooms / workshops - 15%
 Other habitable rooms - 10%

Ventilation area

MBBLZ chapter 10, section 5, sub-section [1] states that every habitable room shall have
an opening of an aggregate area not less than 5% of the floor area.

Sub-section [2] states that such opening shall included on the external walls of the
building.

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BRIDGING OF OPENING

This can be done by either of the following methods:

 Arch construction
 Construction of a lintel

ARCHES

Defined as curved constructions on walls. They provide a more ornmental way of

bridging openings than lintels.

Arches are generally classified under 3 groups which are:

1) Rough arches
2) Fine axed arches
3) Gauged arches

Rough Arches

Little or no cutting of bricks is done on this type.

Joints are wedge shaped because of the curved construction.

Mostly used on work to be plastered, work which does not require a high standard
finish.

Fine-axed Arches

Carefully set out with bricks cut to the same size in wedge shape.

Has a pleasing appearance and can be used on general face work.

Gauge Arches

Built using purpose made bricks producing a very ornamental piece of work. Requires a
lot preparatory work before layng the bricks to produce even joints and smooth curves.

Terms in Arch construction

i. Voussiors –these are the individual bricks used in arch construction.

ii. Span –the distance between the jambs. The distance in-between the wall
supporting the arch or the springing points.
iii. Soffit –this is the surface of the underside of an arch.
iv. Springing points –these are points from where the arch curve starts.
v. Rise –the vertical distance from the centre of the springing line to the highest
point on the soffit.
vi. Key brick –the highest or central brick on an arch. It’s ussually the last brick to
placed in position during arch construction.

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 vii. Crown –the highest point of an arch upon where the key brick is placed.
viii. Intrados –the underside edge of an arch as seen on elevation. The voussiors for
rough arches are set out on this curve.
ix. Extrados –the upper edge of an arch as seen on elevation. The voussiors for fine-
axed and gauged arches are set out on this curve.
x. Haunch –the lower part of an arch from the springing point half way to the
crown.
xi. Skew back –the sloping abutments from where the aech springs.
xii. Striking point –the centre point from where the curve of an arch is drawn. This
is the centre of rotation. Voussiors should radiate from this point and they be
said to be normal to the curve of the arch.

Crown keybrick

Extrados voussiors

Haunch

Skew back rise soffit

Span striking point

springing point

TYYPES OF ARCHES

1) Segmental Arches

Under this type we also find the Rough, Fine-axed and Gauge arches.

The Rough Segmental Arch

Constructed using normal shaped bricks resulting in ‘V” shaped or wedge shaped
joints.
Used on work to be plastered or work to be covered by cladding. No cutting of
bricks is required.

Key brick

C extrados

A B

skew back soffit

auxiliary circle striking point

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Geometrical construction

I. Draw the span AB and bisect it

II. Mark the rise C
III. Join points A and C
IV. Bisect AC and extent it until it intersects the bisector of the span at O
V. With O as centre, radius OA or OB draw an arc joining points ACB which becomes
the intrados of the arch.
VI. With centre O, radius OA + depth of face, draw an arc to form the extrados of the
arch.
VII. Mark the voussiours on the intrados
VIII. Draw an auxiliary circle at point O with a diameter equal to the thickness of the
brick.
IX. To draw the voussiours, radiate lines alternating from the tangents of the circle
and it forms the wedge shaped joint.

2) The Semi-circular Arch

We also find the three groups of arches under this category. The dead man used
for the type of this arch is termed the arch centre.

Geometrical construction of the Rough circular Arch

Draw the span AB and bisect it.
The radius of the arch is ½ the span and it makes the rise of the arch.
The centre of the span is the striking point to draw the intrados and the
extrados.
Draw the auxiliary circle and follow the same procedures as for the rough
segmental arch.

LINTELS

These are horizontal beams bridging over openings. Can either be concrete, wood, steel
or brick lintels.

In concrete works, reinforced concrete is used and this can either be pre-cast or in-situ
cast.

The points or the place where the lintel rests transmitting it’s load to is termed the
abutments.

Lintels should rest on abutments by a minimum distance of 150mm and this distance is
termed bearing.

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Reinforcements are place near the bottom of the lintel to counter act the action of
tensile stress. The distance to be left between the reinforcements and the bottom part of
the lintel is termed concrete cover.

Pre-cast lintels should be clearly marked top or bottom for the correct positioning of
reinforcements.

Action of forces on Lintels

compressional force lintel failing under load

Reinforcements load

tensile force
abutments
bearing
span

DOORS AND WINDOW FRAMES

These can either be of metal or wood and can be fixed during or after construction of
walls.

It’s advisable to fit frame during construction to produce a strong unit.

Frames are fixed to the wall by building the lugs on their sides into the walls.

Fixing a door frame

Identify the frame to be positioned.

Support the frame using props with nails driven at the ends to hold the frame in
position.
Plumb and level the frame by adjusting it were necessary by pushing or pulling
the props.
Place weights at the base of the props to avoid free movements of the frame.
Fix a distance piece at the centre of the frame to avoid bricks pushing it inwards.
You can mark your courses on the frame using your gauge rod and stretch your
line from the frame.

27
 Lay your bricks against the frame and apply mortar on the space between the
frame and the bricks as work proceeds.
Secure the frame into wall by building in lugs into walls or by fixing hoop irons
onto the frame and then build into the wall.
Secure at least 3 lugs on each side of the frame. Two in-line with the bottom and
top hinges and the third in line with the key box or at the centre of the frame.

Space between wall and frame to be filled

with mortar vertical surfaces to be
frequently checked for plumpness

Lugs to be built into the wall

Door frame

Brick wall

When working with timber frame, secure hoop irons to the frame by driving wire nails
or wood screws into the frame.

TOPIC: 5

FOUNDATIONS AND FLOOR construction

Foundation: part of the structure which is in direct contact with the natural ground.

-part of the substructure which transmit the weight of the whole structure to the
natural ground.

Terms in foundations

28
 I. Backfill- refers to excavated materials from trenches which when suitable
can be used to fill in and around the walls.
II. Bearing capacity- the safe load which the soil can carry without sinking.
III. Bearing pressure- the weight/ force per unit area being exerted to the
ground by a structure.
IV. Dead load- refers to load from permanent elements of the structure like
the roof and that from all permanent fittings.
V. Imposed load- load from movable property, occupants and thei0r
belongings.
VI. Natural foundation- refers to the permanent rock or ground on which a
structure is to be constructed upon.
VII. Artificial foundation- refers to the man-made foundation
VIII. Settlement-refers to ground movement caused by:

Both dead and imposed loads from the structure

Changes in volume of ground water as a result of seasonal changes.
Mass movement of the soil in unstable areas
Vibration of heavy machinery
IX. Damp proofing- is a way of preventing the penetration of moisture into a
building or structure.

Classes of dpc and an example in each class:

a) Flexible dpc like bituminous felt and damp-proof membrane.

b) Semi-rigid dpc like asphalt and lead
c) Rigid dpc like slate and engineering bricks laid in English bond.

The Building Regulations states that no wall or pier shall permit moisture movement
from the ground up the wall or into the inner surface of the structure.

A horizontal damp proof material must be incorporated on the wall at a minimum

height of 150mm from the highest point on the ground.

Building regulations on foundations

a) Should be able to receive, sustain and safely transmit to the ground both dead
and imposed load imposed on it.
- This should occur without causing settlement or any movement which might
impair the strength and stability of the structure.

b) A foundation shall be taken to such a depth and be so constructed that it will

safeguard the structure against damage by swelling, shrinking or freezing of the
subsoil.

29
 c) Should be capable of resisting any attack by sulphates or other deleterious
substances which might be in the soil.

Choice of foundation type

The choice of a type of foundation to use is done after a physical visit and site
investigation is done. Factors considered include:

a) The bearing capacity of the soil on the site

b) Topography of the site
c) Purpose or intended use of the structure
d) Excavation costs

Types of foundations

There are four basic types of foundations which are:

Strip Foundation

Type of foundation which is used on most low rise buildings. The width of the
foundation should be at least 3 times the thickness of the wall. The thickness of should
be equal to the projection but in no case should it be less than 150mm.

Should be equal to B but in case

less than 150mm

Ax3

Stepped Foundation

Type of foundation used on sloping grounds to reduce the amount of excavation and
materials to be used on the substructure. Steps to be set in multiples of course thickness
to avoid use of split bricks. They should overlap to a minimum of 300mm and the
concrete should have minimum thickness of 150mm.

To be in multiples of course thickness

Minimum 150mm steps may be beveled

30
 300 minimum overlap

Raft Foundation

Type of foundation which covers the whole area upon where the structure is to be
constructed. Suitable on loose and unstable soils.

Can be reinforced and thickened under walls for added strength. Should be constructed
with an apron to prevent water from scouring underneath the concrete slab.
Finished floor level

Apron

Raft thickened under walls reinforcements

Pad Foundation

Most suitable on framed structures where the roof is to be supported by columns

either of concrete, steel or bricks. Eternal walls will be built as curtain or panel
walls not for load bearing purposes.

Panel wall or ground beam

brick column pad foundation base plate

floor slab ground beam steel column

bolt and nut

pad foundation

plan

cross section

FLOOR CONSTRUCTION

A floor can be defined as the interior base of any development or building which is
boarded by the envelope walls.

Floors are classified are classified under 3 categories:

1. Basement floors –these are floors below the natural ground level. Access is by
means of staircase or by hoists [lifts]

31
 2. Ground floors – floors at the natural ground level. This class of floors is found on
most if not all types of buildings.
3. Upper floors – floors above the natural ground level. Access is also by means of
staircases or by hoists.

Functional Requirements

i. All floors resting on the natural ground should be impermeable

ii. Floors should be able to receive and sustain then safely transmit both dead and
imposed loads to the ground.
iii. Floors should be thermal and sound insulators.
iv. All floors should be durable and so constructed to serve the intended purpose of
the structure.

Types of Floors

There are two common types of floors which are:

a) Solid floor
b) Suspended floor

The Solid Floor

The most common type of floor on most buildings. Can be found in all the classes of
floors. [basements, ground and upper floors]

When constructed on buildings without basements, they rest directly on the natural
ground and will be termed Solid ground floors.

THE SOLID GROUND FLOOR

Floor finish [tiles or cements slurry]

230
30mm Floor screed [cement/river sand]
100mm Concrete Floor Slab

d.p.c. damp proof membrane

150 30mm Blinding [sand or ash]

n.g.l. 150mm Hardcore

450 natural earth

32
 Back fill [compactable gravel]

690 200mm Concrete foundation [mass concrete]

Solid floors on upper levels will not have the hardcore and the blinding. They act as the
roof for those underneath and as a floor to those at their level.

i. Floor finish – the final finishing done on top of the floor screed to give to serve
the desired purpose. This can be tiling or floor topping. If the building requires a
rough floor finish, the screed can be finished by floating using a wooden float.

ii. Floor screed – should have a minimum thickness of 30mm consisting of cement
and river sand in the proportion of 1:3 or 4. Should be mixed to a semi-dry state
or so as to bond well with the floor slab. Can be the final floor finish depending
on the purpose of the building. The floor screed is normally finished with a
wooden float finish.

iii. Concrete floor slab – mostly mass concrete [unreinforced] having a minimum
thickness of 100mm. The concrete should be well compacted to form a dense
unit in the proportion of 1:3:6. The floor slab should be finished so as to provide
a key to the floor screed [rough finished]. In some buildings, the floor slab can be
laid so as to provide the final floor finish and completed with a wooden float
finish.

iv. Damp proof membrane – laid to prevent moisture rising from the ground up the
floor. Polythene sheets [plastics] are normally used and it should overlap with
the d.p.c. on the external wall.

v. Blinding – consist of river sand or ash with a minimum thickness of 30mm laid to
protect the d.p.m. from being punctured by the material forming the hardcore.

vi. Hardcore – should be constructed to a minimum thickness of 150mm using

compactable materials. Non-decomposable materials only should be used like
broken bricks, stone and gravel.
The hardcore can be laid on top of backfill. The backfill should be well compacted
at 250 to 300mm intervals.

Methods of Laying Solid Floors

1) Monolithic Method

33
 A process whereby the floor slab, the floor screed and the floor topping are laid
continuously. This method provides a very strong and durable floor since the
floor will be comprised of one unit.

2) The Separate method

A process whereby the screed and the topping are laid after the concrete work
has since been done. When laying the floor screed:
 the concrete slab should be hacked
 well cleaned and all loose and dust particles removed
 some powder cement should be sprinkled
 The slab should be wetted so as to form a good bond between the slab
and the screed.
 The screed can be laid in sections to obtain accurate levels and easy
cutting using the straight edge.

THE SUSPENDED GROUND FLOOR

230 Skirting Board

Floor Boards [eg T&G]

Floor Joist [75mm x 50mm]

d.p.c.

34
 Air Brick [38x38mm] Wall plate

d.p.c. d.p.c. 125min Honey comb wall

100mm floor slab

150

150mm Hardcore

450 Backfill [compactable gravel]

690 200mm Concrete Foundation

TOPIC: 6
ROOF construction

Roof

This is the framework above walls upon where covering materials are fixed or placed.

Functional requirements:

Must be strong and stable

Must be durable

Roof covering: refers to the materials used to cover the framework eg asbestos, grass,
tiles, plastic and corrugated iron sheets.

Pitch: refers to the angle of slope or inclination between the framework and the
horizontal members or surfaces.

Pitches for various roof covering materials:

Asbestos 150

Corrugated iron sheets 100

Tiles- 350

Grass [thatch] 450

Roofs are classified are according to shape of construction or pitch. There are two basic
types or classes of roofs:

1) Flat roofs
2) Pitched roofs

35
Flat Roof

This is a type of roof with a pitch that is not more than 100

Pitched Roof

These are roofs with a pitch more than 100.

Under this heading we have:

i. Gable-end roof
A double pitched type of a roof with the shorter end terminating with a
triangular section of brickwork. This is the most common type of roof on many
structures.

ii. Hipped-end roof

A double pitched type of a roof with the roof slope returned around the shorter
end to form a sloping triangular section.

iii. Gambriel roof

A double pitched roof with the shorter end having a small gable at the ridge and
lower part having a half hip.

iv. Mansard roof

A double pitched roof where each side has two pitches. The lower part has a
steep pitch while the upper part rarely exceeds 300 the shorter ends may be
finished with a gable-end or a hipped-end.

Most roofs are constructed of timber and we have purlin roofs and trussed roofs.

Purlin roof is mostly used on small size dwellings whereas trussed roofs are for
buildings with large spans [width] ranging from dwellings to industrial complexes.

Section through a Trussed Roof

Ridge

Roofing sheets purlins

36
 Queen post king post

wallplate strut

Cornice

ceiling board ceiling brandering ext wall

d.p.c floor screed concrete slab

150

150 hardcore blinding 450

690 concrete foundation

Topic 7
Heat and fire science

Fire triangle: a model used to show or illustrate the components necessary for most
types of fires. The elements should be present in correct proportions for a fire to start
and to extinguish a fire you eliminate one of the elements:

i. An oxidising agent [oxygen]

ii. Fuel

iii. Heat oxygen[blue] heat [red]

Fuel [brown]

Fire starts when all these elements are present in their correct proportions:

i. Oxygen- this supports combustion by providing a combustible gas.

ii. Heat- essential for the fire to start and helps to remove moisture from
nearby fuel thereby pre-heating the material like wood.

iii. Fuel- this is the combustible material like papers, combustible liquids etc.

4 types of fire and their control measures:

37
 i. Class A [Green, ordinary combustibles]

Fire from ordinary combustibles like wood, papers, cloth, grass etc. this type of fire
represented by green triangle and can be controlled by water or by the use of fire
extinguishers with the green colour code containing carbon dioxide.

ii. Class B [Red, flammable liquids and gasses]

This fire from liquids like petrol, diesel and are represented by a red triangle and can
easily controlled by fire extinguishers labelled class B. cannot be controlled by water
because it causes the liquids to float on top and the fire continues.

iii. Class C [Blue, electrical fire]

Fire caused mainly by electrical faults like short circuits in electrical equipment’s.
Represented by a blue triangle and these cannot be controlled by water but by using
specific fire extinguishers and also by switching off power supply.

iv. Class D [Yellow, combustible metals]

Involves fire from combustible metals as a source of fuel. Represented by a yellow

triangle and can be controlled easily by class A extinguisher which contain carbon
dioxide to reduce oxygen.

Ways of heat transfer:

i. Conduction- transfer of heat between materials in direct contact or in

metals. Heat travels from high to low temperatures until the whole body has
a uniform temperature.

ii. Convection- the transfer or movement of heat in liquids like during boiling
water.

iii. Radiation- the movement of heat through space or in the air, does not
require body contact.

Definition of terms:

i. Flue- a duct or pipe which conveys burnt gasses into the atmosphere.

ii. Chimney- the structure enclosing a flue or flues. This mostly of brickwork.

iii. Hearth- part of a fireplace upon where fire is made.

iv. Chimney stack- part of the chimney which projects above the roof of the building.

38
 Fire place construction
Minimum diameter 100mm
flue
flue lining]
concrete lintel

fireback
superimposed hearth

constructional hearth

hardcore

concrete foundation

Single breast fire place in English bond

TOPIC 1: BUILDING DRAWING

Definition: a universal language which uses drawings to convey information in the

engineering industry.

 Provides effective communication between the designer and the craftsman (e.g.)
between the architect and the bricklayer.
 Drawings should be explanatory

For this to be achieved one should know:

I. symbols
II. abbreviations
III. lines
IV. dimensioning

39
 V. scale drawing

DIMENSIONING

Def: a way of showing the exact measurements of an object or drawing.

 dimensions should not be written to scale

 they should be exact
 usually written using the same unit
 dimensions should be placed such that they can be easily read

FORMS OF DIMENSIONING

1 CHAIN DIMENSIONING

-the most commonly used form in engineering drawings

-each part is dimensioned independent of the other in a chain

-each size can be read easily and does not occupy a large surface

- has a disadvantage of cumulative errors

2 DUTUM DIMENSIONING

-each size is measured independently from one edge

-has no cumulative errors but sizes cannot be read independently and it uses a lot of
space

TYPES OF DIMENSIONS

I. SIZE DIMESIONS

-a type of dimensioning used in most diagrams to describe lengths, widths, heights,

diameters, radii etc.

100

25

15

45 20 20 15

Size dimensions in the form of Chain Dimensioning.

40
 II. LOCATION DIMENSIONS

-necessary to locate various features of a drawing relative to others

(e.g.) reference to a center line

25

75

Location dimensions in the form of Datum dimensioning

Colour Codes On Building Plans

-All building plans with additions to existing work should be prepared with the
following fixed colours and forms of representations:

Red: -proposed new masonry work or vent pipe

Brown: -new private sewers pr soil pipe

Green: -new concrete works or new waste pipe

Blue: -new iron/steel works or new private drains

Yellow: -new wood/timber works

Orange: -new waste pipe or new private sewers carrying trade effluent

Work to be demolished is represented by uncoloured dotted lines

SCALE DRAWING

Def: a method of reducing or enlarging a drawing such that it can fit on drawing paper
or it becomes more visible.

Types of Scale

1 Enlargement scale

-a scale that magnifies an object such that it can be easily seen or it becomes more
visible

(e.g.) 5:1, 20:1

41
 -it implies that 5 units on paper are representing 1 unit of the physical object

2 Reduction scale

-a scale that reduces physical sizes of objects such that they fit on drawing papers

(e.g.) 1:5, 1:20

-it implies that 1 unit on paper represents 5 units of the physical object

Factors Considered When Choosing a Scale

1. Paper Size

-size of paper to be used should encompass the whole drawing hence the size of paper
to be used should be such that the drawing will fit on that paper size given.

2. Size of Drawing

-the drawing also determines the size of scale in that it should be seen clearly.

-it must not too small to be seen.

Lines in Building Drawing

Type of line Description and Uses

Construction line -thin faint line, used in the first stages of making a drawing.
Out line -thin visible line, used to show the exact shape of an object.
They are drawn along the construction line.
Projection/Extension -thin visible, used to project features of an object from one
line view to another. Also used with dimension lines to show
exactly where the actual measurement refers to.
Dimension line -thin visible lines used to show the measurements of a
drawing or part of a drawing.
Centre/Symmetric lines -thin long chain line with long and short dashes, used to
show the center of circular or cylindrical objects or to
designate the axes of symmetric objects.
Leader lines -thin visible with an arrow or dot at the end, used to indicate
part of a drawing to which a note refers to.
Cutting plane -chain line with long thin and short thick dashes, can be long
chain line thickened at the end. Used in section view to show
where an imaginary cut was made.
Break line -Can be thin irregular or straight with zig-zag, used to
shorten views of objects with uniform a design
Hidden feature line -shows features of objects hidden from viewer. Dashes
approximately 4mm and spaced 2mm.

PRESENTATION OF DRAWINGS

-Any drawing can be represented either in:

42
(A) Pictorial Form

(B) Orthographic Form.

(A) PICTORIAL DRAWINGS

-a type of drawing that shows an object in 3 dimensions (L, W and H).

-extensively used in preliminary designs as it has a minimum of work and a maximum of

clearness.

-assists one to realize the final picture of an object and also viable in illustrating written
articles. -basic part of a draughtsman’s training both in free hand sketches and
instrumentally.

Under this heading there is the Isometric and the Oblique Projections.

TYPES OF PICTORIAL PRESENTATION

(1) Isometric Projection

-Isometric means equal measure.

-uses 3 basic lines inclined at angle of 1200 to each other or:

1-line vertical and the other two inclined at 300 to the horizontal plane.

-all Isometric drawings start with these axes.

-Vertical axes are for Heights and inclined axes are for lengths and widths.

(N.B)-Three faces are seen in Isometric drawing, the top and two sides

-these are the Plan and the elevation in Orthographic drawings.

-hidden information is omitted in Isometric projections.

Isometric Axis

vertical plane 1200

300

Horizontal plane

43
Sketching aids in Isometric drawing

 Draw the horizontal axis

 Draw the vertical axis
 Estimate angles of 30 and draw the inclined axis (receding lines)
 Mark the length and width on the receding lines and the height on the vertical
axis
 Join the marked points and complete/ outline the drawing.

Vertical plane

Receding lines at 300 to

the/plane

Horizontal plane

A CORNER BLOCK IN ISOMETRIC VIEW

The Isometric Circle

-circles are mostly drawn in isometric projection using the4 center method;

The 4 Centre method

Steps

-draw an isometric circle with sides equal to the diameter of the circle

-label the corners ABCD

-label mid-points of CD, AB, CA, and DB E, F, G, H respectively

-join AD, GH, and EF

-join CH and GB

-line GB intersects line AD to have center 1 and line CH intersects line AD to have center
2

-points C and B are the remaining two centers.

44
- With center 1 radius 1G or 1F draw an arc joining these two points GF

-With center 2 radius 2E or 2H draw an arc joining these two points EH

-With Center B radius BG or BE draw an arc joining these two points GE

-With Center C radius CF or CH complete the circle by joining these two points HF.
D

C [3] 2 H

G 1

B [4]

(2) Oblique Projection

-also use three axis but one is vertical, the other horizontal and the other inclined.

-the receding/ inclined axes are drawn at any angle other than 0 or 90 degrees and they
remain parallel on the same drawing.

-it must be usual to keep to set square angles (30, 45, 60) and of the three 45 is
commonly used.

-The face with a right angle to the horizontal and vertical axis is termed the True face
and it gives the true shape of the object and that inclined is termed the Oblique face.

Oblique face

45
 True face

A CORNER BLOCK IN OBLIQUE PROJECTION

(B)ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWINGS

-Adopted from Architectural plans of building drawings.

-every part is drawn as it appears immediately before or in front of the observer.

-sides or surfaces are termed according to their relative positions to the ground,

 Surface which rests or is parallel to the ground is termed the plan

 Surface which is at right angle to the ground is termed Elevation
 Any interior construction desired to be drawn is shown on the Section

The Plan

The view of an object as seen from the top. On a building it shows:

 The dimensions of a building.

 The names of various rooms within a building.
 Wall thickness
 Windows and door frames and all access points on the building.
 Drainage lay-out

Elevations

The view of an object as it appears directly in front of the viewer. It shows the length
or the width as well as the height of the building or object.

Sections

It shows construction design within the object or building. Information on sections

is obtained when an imaginary cut is done showing a specific direction of view.

It shows details of roof and floor construction which cannot be shown on the floor
plan and elevation.

10 000

5 000

46
 A

Floor Plan

Roofing sheets purlins

Queen post king post

Wallplate strut

ceiling board ceiling brandering ext wall

d.p.c floor screed concrete slab

150

150 hardcore blinding 450

690 concrete foundation

Specifications. This is written information on a drawing to enrich or give more

information about the drawing. They give information which cannot be shown on
actual drawings for example:

Floor construction. 1:3 cement/sand floor screed on 100mm grade 30 concrete floor
slab laid on 150mm well compacted hardcore.

Wall construction. walls to be in English bond,

-brickforce after every 3 courses below dpc and every 4 courses thereafter

-external joints to be raked out 10mm

-reinforced concrete lintels on all openings

Schedules. These are representations of single units or elements on a drawing; they

show the size and or shape of elements like:

Window schedule: showing the various sizes and shape of the w/ frames used on
the building

Door schedule: shows the sizes of doors used on the building. Any regular solid can be
represented in these 3 views (i.e.) the plan and two elevations (front and side
elevations)

47
-In Orthographic projections, there are four ways of representing drawings namely 1st,
2nd, 3rd and 4th angle projections.

-However in Zimbabwe the 1st and 3rd angle projections are commonly used.

1st Angle Projection

-In 1st angle, the plan and the front elevation are always in line vertically with the front
elevation above the plan.

-The side or end elevation is always in line with the front elevation horizontally

-Two side elevations can be used depending on the details or information to be shown.

-When presenting the drawings, theis object seen as between the viewer and the plane
of projection (i.e.) horizontally or vertically.

-*The view seen from the top (plan) is drawn below the horizontal plane and that seen
from the front is drawn above the plan.

-*The view seen from the left is drawn on the right side of the front elevation and that
seen on the right is drawn on the left side of the front elevation.

-*These are the essential features of the 1st angle projection which distinguish it from
the 3rd angle projection.

-* The common factors between the 3 views are that:

 The side of the front elevation in line with the plan will have the same
measurement.
 The end elevation and the front elevation will have the same height.
 The side of the plan which is at right angles to the end elevation will have the
same measurements.

3rd Angle Projection

-In this method, the plan is drawn above the f- elevation.

-The view seen from the left is drawn on the left side of the f- elevation and that on the
right is drawn on the right side of the f- elevation.

-These are the essential features of the 3rd angle projection which distinguish it from the
1st angle projection.

1STANGLE PROJECTION

[A] front elevation [B] end elevation

48
 B

[C] PLAN

end elevation f - elevation

plan

TOPIC 2: BUIDING CALCULATINS

Definition: concerned with the calculation of quantities (materials) required for the
construction of a structure.

(e.g.) calculating volume of concrete stones, river sand, cement and number of bricks

Methods of Calculating Quantities

49
1. THE GIRTH METHOD

- uses the Mean Perimeter of the plan or the length of the Centre line to calculate
quantities like number of bricks, volume of concrete and volume of excavated earth.

[NB]The mean perimeter is not used to calculate quantities for floors quantities like volume
of concrete floor slab, floor screed materials for plastering.

- Given the external dimensions of the wall or trench of a floor plan, you calculate the mean
perimeter using the following formula:

Mean Perimeter = (L + W)2 - 4T,

When given internal dimensions of the wall/trench, use the formula,

Mean Perimeter = (L + W)2+ 4T

Where L = length of the wall or trench, W = width of the wall or trench and T = thickness of
wall or trench.

Example 1

230 9 540 230

230

5 540 6 000

230

10 000

Using external dimensions:

Length - 10m, Width - 6m and thickness of wall - 0.23m, the mean perimeter is calculated
as:

Mean Perimeter = (10m + 6m)2 - 4 x 0.23m

= 32m – 0.92m

= 31.08m

Example 2

Given internal dimensions, length - 9.54m, width - 5.54m

50
 Mean Perimeter = (9.54m + 5.54m)2 + 4 x 0.23m

= 30.16m + 0.92m

= 31.08m.

Structures with Partitions

(1) When the partitions have the same thickness with the external walls or trenches:

 The sum of their independent lengths is added up to the Mean perimeter.

 That figure will be the total mean perimeter of the structure and is used to
calculate for all quantities required.

Example

9000

230 230

2500 1500

230 230 5000

2810

1810

230 230

230 4155 230 4155 230

To calculate the mean perimeter:

([L+ W] - 4T + Sum of partitions)

([9+5]2 – [4x0.23] + 4.155 + 4.155 + 2.5 + 0.23 + 1.81)

([28 – 0.92] + 12.85)

(27.08 + 12.85)

39.93m

(2) When the partitions are not of the same thickness with the external walls or trenches:

 Work-out the mean perimeter for the external wall only and use it to calculate for
quantities required on the external wall.

51
  The sum of the partitions is used to calculate for the quantities of the partition walls
only.

 After working for various quantities required, the figures will be added to get the
total number or information of materials required.

8500

230 230

2500 1615

115 115 5000

1925 2810

230 230

230 3962.5 115 3962.5 230

Mean perimeter: [8.5 + 5]2 – [0.23 x 4]

27 – 0.92

26.08m

Sum of partitions: 3.9625 + 3.9625 + 2.5 +0.115 +1.925

12.465m

The mean perimeter will be used to calculate all quantities for the external wall and the sum
of the partitions will be for the partitions only.

2. THE SECTION METHOD

- In this method, the plan is divided into sections and quantities for each section can be
calculated for independently.

This method is essential when calculating for quantities of structures with irregular shapes.

N.B. Sections having the same wall or trench thicknesses can be calculated for their
quantities simultaneously.

Quantities of sections with thicknesses different from others are calculated independently.

[A]

52
 [B] [C] 4 155

[B] [C] [B] 4 540

[A] 9 000

 The plan above has been divided into sections. Since the sections have the same
thickness, they have been grouped according to lengths shown by “letters”.

 Quantities of each section can be calculated for independently.

 When asked to work-out quantities for the whole structure, add all the sections and
use the sum as the overall lengths [mean perimeter]

 All the methods, [Girth and Section methods] should give the same overall length
when correctly done.

[1a] Overall length using the Section method:

[A x 2] + [B x 3] + [C x 2]

[9 x 2] + [4.54 x 3] + [4.155 x 2]

18 + 13.62 + 8.31

39.93m

[1b] Overall length using the Girth method:

([L + W]2 – 4T + Sum of partitions)

([9 + 5]2 – 4x0.23 + [ 4.155+4.155+2.5+0.23+1.81])

([28 - 0.92] + 12.85)

27.08 + 12.85

39.93m

*NB Both methods should give the same answer so either method can be used to
calculate for the quantities required.

53
 Quantities for sections having different thicknesses cannot be worked out
simultaneously because of information like number of bricks/m2.

E.g.: 1m2 of 230mm wall requires 110bricks

1m2 of 115mm wall requires 55bricks

QUANTITIES FOR CIRCULAR WORK

- When calculating quantities for circular work, use the Girth method.

- To work out the mean perimeter or length of the center line given the diameter or radius,
use the formula to calculate circumference of a circle,
22
(1) /7 x Diameter

OR
22
(2) /7 x (2R) where R = Radius.

(a) Given the external diameter of the floor plan, you subtract the thickness of the wall
or trench from the diameter and multiply the answer by 22/7.

230

1500

Mean perimeter = [1.5m –0. 23] x 22/7

1,27m x 22/7

3.9914m

b) Given the internal diameter, you add the thickness of the wall or trench and
multiply the answer by 22/7.

54
 230

1040

Mean Perimeter = [1.04m +0. 230m] x 22/7

1.27m x 22/7

3.9914m

N.B- the mean perimeter or the length of the center line will now be used to calculate
for other quantities required like number of bricks, volume of concrete for the
foundation, (etc.)

Terms in Calculations

(1) Bulking

- Excavated earth tends to increase in volume when disturbed from its natural
compaction.

- So if the soil is to be carried to another place a % for bulking should be added to cater for
that natural increase.

Example:

Given that earth bulk by 15% and the total volume of the excavated earth is 30m3, how
many loads will a 5m3 truck carry to a dumping place?

- The answer is got by adding 15% of 30m3 to 30m3and then divide the answer by 5m3 (size
of truck)

= [15/100x 30m3] + 30m3

= 4.5m3 + 30m3

55
 = 34.5/5

= 7 loads

(2) Reduction

- The concrete in trenches is termed the yield and is usually said to be 2/3 of the dry mix.

- So when given a reduction % like 12% and then asked to calculate the volume of concrete
before reduction when the yield is 45m3 the answer is got by:
=88%of x=45

=0.88x=45

X=45/0.88

X=52

Dry mix =52m

(3) Wastage

- When calculating for quantities like bricks, an extra % should be provided for wastage due
to breakages during transportation, rough cutting (etc.)

- Given that a wall 40m2is to be built and a m2 of 0.115mm thick wall require 55 bricks,
calculate total number bricks required adding 5% wastage.

40m2 x 55bricks/m2

= 2200 bricks

5
/100 x 2200 +2200

= 110 + 2200

= 2310 bricks

Mashonganyika Gibson

56