Chapter 1:
When psychology first emerged as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the debate
over how to describe and explain the human mind and behavior began. The different schools of
psychology represent the major theories within psychology.
The first school of thought, structuralism, was advocated by the founder of the first psychology
lab, Wilhelm Wundt. Almost immediately, other theories began to emerge and vie for dominance
in psychology.
In the past, psychologists often identified themselves exclusively with one single school of
thought. Today, most psychologists have an eclectic outlook on psychology. They often draw on
ideas and theories from different schools rather than holding to any singular perspective.
This article discusses some of the major schools of thought that have influenced our knowledge
and understanding of psychology.
The Structuralist School of Thought
Structuralism is widely regarded as the first school of thought in psychology. This outlook
focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Major thinkers
associated with structuralism include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener.
The focus of structuralism was on reducing mental processes down into their most basic
elements. The structuralists used techniques such as introspection to analyze the inner processes
of the human mind.
The introspective experimental technique used by the structuralists involved having trained
observers examine their inner responses. Using this approach, also known as experimental self-
observation, experimenters like Wundt trained people to analyze their thoughts as carefully and
objectively as possible.
While these methods were understandably not the most empirically rigorous, the structuralist
school of thought played an important role in the development of experimental psychology.
The Functionalist School of Thought
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was
heavily influenced by the work of William James. It functioned on the mind's functions and
adaptations.
Instead of focusing on the mental processes themselves, functionalist thinkers were interested in
the role that these processes play.
In a functionalist approach, for example, instead of trying to understand the underlying processes
that cause mental states, the focus would be on understanding the function that those states serve.
Gaining a better understanding of the purpose would allow psychologists to better understand
how the mind allows people to respond and adapt to their environments.
The functionalist school was interested in the purpose of thoughts and behaviors, whereas
structuralism was concerned with the elements that make up consciousness. While functionalism
largely disappeared as a school of thought, its influence persisted in applied psychology,
behaviorism, and educational psychology.
Unlike some of the other well-known schools of thought in psychology, functionalism is not
associated with a single dominant theorist. Instead, a number of functionalist thinkers are
associated with this outlook, including John Dewey, James Rowland Angell, and Harvey Carr.
Some historians have questioned whether functionalism should be considered a formal school of
psychology, given its lack of a central leader or formalized ideas.
The Gestalt School of Thought
Gestalt psychology was a school of psychology based upon the idea that people experience
things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the
late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism.
Some thinkers associated with the Gestalt school of thought included Max Wertheimer,
Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka.
Instead of breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest elements, the gestalt
psychologists believed that you must look at the whole of experience. According to Gestalt
thinkers, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, a philosophy known as holism.
Some examples of Gestalt thinking include explanations for optical phenomena, such as visual
illusions. Wertheimer described the phi phenomenon by observing how alternating railway lights
created the illusion of movement. The phenomenon suggests that a succession of images seen in
rapid sequence are perceived as moving.
The Behaviorist School of Thought
Behaviorism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. It was based upon the work
of thinkers such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner.
Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by
internal forces. Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior. Examples of behavioral theories
that emerged during this time include:
Classical conditioning: This is a type of learning that involves associating a previously
neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. For
example, pairing the sound of a bell with the presentation of food. After an association is
formed, the previously neutral stimulus will produce the same response as the natural
stimulus.
Operant conditioning: This type of learning involves using rewards and punishments to
create an association between the behavior and the consequences of that behavior.
The behavioral school of psychology significantly influenced the course of psychology. Many
ideas and techniques that emerged from this school of thought are still widely used today.
Behavioral training, token economies, aversion therapy, and other methods are frequently
used in psychotherapy and behavior modification programs.
The Psychoanalytic School of Thought
Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud. This school of thought
emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. Other major psychoanalytic
thinkers included Anna Freud and Otto Rank and neo-Freudians such as Erik Erikson, Alfred
Adler, and Karen Horney.
Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, ego, and superego.
The id consists of primal urges.
The ego is the component of personality charged with dealing with reality.
The superego is the part of the personality that holds all the ideals and values we
internalize from our parents and culture.
Freud believed that the interaction of these three elements was what led to all of the complex
human behaviors.
Other important theories within the psychoanalytic school included the idea of the conscious and
unconscious, Freud's psychosexual approach to personality development, and the concept of life
and death instincts.
Freud's work also played an important role in the development of talk therapy as an approach to
treating mental illness. Many traditional Freudian approaches to treatment are no longer in favor,
but modern psychoanalytic therapy continues to play an important role in psychology today.
Research has shown that using self-examination can play an important role in emotional growth. 6
Recap
Freud's school of thought was enormously influential, but also generated considerable debate.
This controversy existed not only in his time but also in modern discussions of Freud's theories.