3.

REPRODUCTION IN
PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

25-Feb-21
  Reproduction.-This is the which reduce intra specific
process by which organisms give
1
2
rise to offspring of their competition.
kind/species. Importance of
reproduction. 4. It is involved in
development of resistant
1. Procreation- It increases the stages in the lifecycle of
number of organisms in a some organisms.
species.
2. Quality improvement- It
increases genetic variety and
therefore helps the species to
adapt to changing
environmental conditions.
3. It brings about formation of
seeds, spores and larvae © Sam obare
Types of reproduction.

© Sam obare
 A. Asexual reproduction- in this type an changing environmental conditions. iii.
already existing individual develops Faster growth and development may result
3
into a new free existing individual and in overcrowding and competition where
does not involve the fusion of male and only a few members survive. iv. It reduces
female gametes. the strength and vigour gradually/ there is
Advantages of asexual reproduction. no hybrid vigor;
i. Good/ favorable qualities/ characteristics
of the parent are retained. ii. Plants mature
faster/ short life cycle/ faster reproduction.
iii. It does not depend on two parents/ it
does not depend on pollination, fertilization
and seed and fruit dispersal. iv. It exploits
the parental favorable conditions.
v. There is large store of food supply.
25-Feb-21
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction. i.
The undesirable qualities can be passed on to B. Sexual reproduction- it
the offspring. involves the fusion of male
ii. There is no genetic variation hence and female gametes
offspring may not be able to withstand
25-Feb-21
 (reproductive cells) to form 2. Harmful characteristics can be
a zygote (fertilized egg). passed from parents to
4

• The fusion of male and female offspring.

gametes is called fertilization. 3. Fewer offspring are produced
Advantages of sexual at a time.
reproduction. 4. It involves two organisms that
1. It leads to variation due to must mate.
crossing over which leads
to hybrid vigor and better
adaptations of organisms
to the environment.
2. Introduction of useful traits/
characteristics.
Disadvantages of sexual © Sam obare

reproduction.
1. It takes a long time.
© Sam obare
5
CELL DIVISION. 

 This refers to the division or The two chromatids (pair of chromatids)

multiplication of the cells. Cell are connected at a point called
division leads to growth and centromere.
formation of reproductive  In the body/somatic cells
cells/gametes.
chromosomes occur in pairs hence
 The cell is able to do all these called homologous chromosomes
because it contains chromosomes (which have the same shape and
found within the nucleus. size.
CHROMOSOMES.  Along the length of the chromatid
 They are thread like structures there are structures called genes.
found in the nucleus of animal and  Genes are found in the protein
plant cells. molecules called DNA (deoxy
 It is made up of two parallel strands ribonucleic acid)
called chromatids.  Chromosomes are able to form
exact copies of themselves. This is
called duplication
25-Feb-21
  There are two types of cells in the
human body, namely:
6
i. Body/somatic cells.
ii. Reproductive cells/gametes.

25-Feb-21

© Sam obare
7

Sister chromatids

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8

Homologous chromosomes

Centromere

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9

Types of cell division Stages of mitosis

There are two types of cell division 1. Interphase (I)
namely: 2. Prophase (P)
A. Mitosis. 3. Metaphase
B. Meiosis. (M)
4. Anaphase (A)
5. Telophase (T)
A. MITOSIS.
 This is the process in which a cell divides into two
daughter cell each having the same number of
chromosomes as parent cell.
 It takes place in somatic/body cells.
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10

1. Interphase. Centrioles Nucleolus

 This is a resting stage and
chromosomes are not visible
but
appear as threads called
chromatin.
 Chromosomes duplicate to
produce two sister
Chromatin
chromatids.
 There is synthesis of new organelles e.g. golgi apparatus,
centrioles, mitochondria, ribosomes.

 There is build up of energy to Nuclear

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
11

use in cell division. membrane

2. Prophase.
 The two chromatids shorten
and thicken, join at the
centromere hence appear
as visible chromosomes.
 Homologous chromosome
pair up.
 The centrioles move to the
opposite sides/ends of the
animal cell and spindle
fibres begin to form.

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12

 The nuclear membrane begins to break down while the

nucleolus disappears.
3. Metaphase.
 The nuclear membrane
disappears hence
chromosomes are free in
the cytoplasm.
 The chromosomes arrange
themselves at the
centre/equator of the cell.
 The chromosomes are
attached to spindle fibres
at the centromere.
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13

 This is important to ensure even distribution of chromosomes

between the daughter cells.

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14

4. Anaphase.
 Chromatids separate
at the centromere
and migrate to the
opposite poles of the
cell due to shortening
of the spindle fibres.
 The spindle fibres
begin to disappear.

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21
15

 In animal cells the

cell membrane
begins to constrict.

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© Sam
obare

obare
Feb-21
17

5. Telophase.  The cytoplasm

 The chromatids divides into two
collect together at leading to the
the ends of the cell formation of two
and duplicate to form daughter cells.
chromosomes.  The chromosomes

 The nuclear become less distinct

membrane forms and regain their
around each set of threadlike (chromatin)
chromosomes. appearance. N/B. In

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

animal cells, division of plant cells a cell plate
cytoplasm is by forms within the
constriction of cell cytoplasm and grows to
membrane while in separate the two cells.

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19

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

12
Early Late telophase telophase

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13

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22

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23

Significance/ importance of 4. It leads to replacement of

mitosis. damaged or dead cells.
1. It leads to growth of an B. MEIOSIS
organism.  This is the process of cell
2. It is the basis of asexual division which reduces the
reproduction/it is involved number of chromosomes
in asexual reproduction. in a cell by half.
3. It ensures that the genetic/
 This forms
gametes/reproductive
chromosomal constitution
of the offspring remains
cells.
the same as that of the  It involves two divisions
parent. resulting into four
daughter cells.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
24

 It takes place in ii. 2nd meiotic

reproductive organs e.g.
testes, ovaries, anther e.t.c.
divisionchromatids
separate.
Principle of meiosis.
1ST MEIOTIC DIVISION.
 It consists of 2
 It leads to separation
successive divisions:
of homologous
i. 1st meiotic
chromosomes.
divisionhomologous
 The stages include:
chromosomes
separate from each 1. Interphase I.
other. 2. Prophase I.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
25

3. Metaphase I. 5. Telophase I.
4. Anaphase I.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 1. Interphase 1
26

 Chromosomes appear
as chromatin and
replicate/duplicate.
 The cell builds up the
energy used in
meiosis.
 There is synthesis of
new organelles.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 2. Prophase 1  As prophase continues,
27

 The nucleolus disappears. chromatids of the two

 Centrioles become arranged homologous chromosomes coil
at the opposite sides of the around each other and remain
cell. contact at points called
chiasmata
 Chromosome condense and (singularchiasma).This is called
shorten hence become visible. chiasma formation.
 Spindle fibres begin to form.  During separation of
 Homologous chromosomes lie homologous chromosomes, the
side by side in the process chromatids separate at
called synapsis and forming chiasmata and exchange the
pairs called bivalent. genetic materials. This is called
crossing over which leads to
variation.
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© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
29
18
iii. Metaphase I.
 The nuclear membrane has
disappeared and spindle
fibres are fully formed.
 The homologous
chromosomes still as
bivalents arrange themselves
at the centre/ equator of the
cell.
 They attach to the spindle
fibres by their centromeres.
iv. Anaphase I
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30

 Homologous
chromosomes separate.
 They move to the
opposite sides of the
cell due to shortening
of the spindle fibres.
v. Telophase I.
 The spindle fibres
disappear.
 The cell divides into
two.
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31

 Each cell goes into a

short resting stage
(interphase II) directly
goes into prophase II.
i. Prophase II.
 The new spindle fibres are
formed.
 Chromosomes become
visible.
 There is no crossing over.
ii. Metaphase II.
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32

 The chromosomes
arrange at the centre of
the cell.
 They attach to the spindle
fibres by their
centromeres.
iii. Anaphase II
 The sister chromatids
separate from each other
and move to the opposite
sides of the poles.

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33

 This is due to shortening of

the spindle fibres.
iv. Telophase II.
 The spindle fibres disappear.
 The nucleolus reappears and
the nuclear membrane is
formed around each set off
chromosomes.
 The sister chromatids
duplicate and form
chromosomes. They uncoil

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34

and regain their thread like

form.
 The cytoplasm divides

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26
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
36

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

27
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
Significance of meiosis. 3. It leads to new

1. It leads to gamete combinations of genes

formation. in gamete cells. This
2. It ensures that each leads to variation due
gamete has half the to crossing over.
number of Similarities between mitosis and
chromosomes as those meiosis.
found in the original 1. Both take place in plant and
cell/ it helps to restore animal cells.
a constant diploid
chromosomal 2. Both involve division/
constitution in a multiplication.
species after
fertilization.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS.
29

Mitosis . Meiosis .
1. Two daughter cells are formed. 7. Takes place in only one nuclear division of
2. The number of chromosomes is retained/ four stages.
diploid cells are formed. 1. Four daughter cells are formed.
3. Daughter cells are identical to the mother/ 2. The number of chromosomes is halved/
parent cell. haploid cells are formed.
4. Homologous chromosomes do not 3. Daughter cells are not identical with the
associate with each other. parent/ mother cell.
5. There is no chiasma formation hence no 4. Homologous chromosomes associate with
crossing over/variation. each other.
6. Occurs in somatic cells leading to growth. 5. There is chiasma formation hence crossing
over/variation.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

6. Occurs in reproductive cells leading to 1. Binary fission in amoeba,
gamete formation.
plasmodium and bacteria.
40 7. Takes place in two nuclear divisions
each with four stages.
 The first step in binary fission is

Asexual reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction is the molecular division where there is
production of offspring from a internal reorganization of the
single organism without the fusion molecules necessary for structural
of gametes. construction.
Types of asexual reproduction.  The molecules are re-aggregated
1. Binary fission. and utilized in the formation of the
new cell.
2. Spore formation/sporulation.
 The nucleus undergoes mitotic
3. Budding in yeast. division to give rise to two nuclei

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 with the same number of
chromosomes.
 The cytoplasm then starts dividing
into two cells which separate from
each other.

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42

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43

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44

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45
 Rhizopus is a saprophytic fungus which
2. Spore formation /sporulation.
grows on a substrate e.g. bread, rotting
 A spore is a small reproductive unit which fruits and other decaying matter.
is usually microscopic and unicellular.
 The vegetative body/ whole organism
 When detached from the parent is called mycelium which consists of
organism and under favorable conditions, many branched threads called hyphae.
a spore germinates and grows into new
 The horizontal hyphae are called
individuals.
stolons and the vertical hyphae are
 It occurs in bacteria, fungi (e.g. Rhizopus/ called sporangiosphores.
Mucor/Mould, yeast, mushroom), mosses
and ferns.  The tips of sporangiosphores swell to
form sporangia (singular- sporangium).
Note- Spores are produced in large numbers
to increase the chances of survival and growth.  Sporangium contains many spores and
as the sporangium matures and ripens it
a) Rhizopus/ Mucor/ Mould. turns black.

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46

 When the sporangium is fully mature, it

bursts and releases the spores which are
dispersed and grows into new mycelium.
 Spores are dispersed by wind, insects and
animals.

© Sam obare

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Process of reproduction in generation forming a
47

Rhizopus/ Mould/ Mucor mycelium.

 The fungus reproduces Process of reproduction in
asexually by sporulation/ mushroom.
producing spores.  The fungus reproduces
 Spores develop from a single asexually by sporulation/
cell in the sporangium, which producing spores.
bursts on maturity releasing  Spores develop in the gill
spores. which bursts on maturity
 Spores are dispersed by air releasing spores.
currents/ wind, falling on  Spores are dispersed by air
suitable medium they currents/ wind, falling on
germinate to form new suitable medium they

25-Feb-21
 germinate to form new © Sam obare
48
generation.
Sporangiosphore

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

35
 Study question. developed on the tip of the
50
A student left a piece of bread on an sporangiosphores
open place accidentally. 3 days later he containing the spores. The
observed some black substance sporangia matured and
developing. dried up and turned black.
a) Suggest the identity of the black c) State the mode of
substance that grew on the bread. reproduction exhibited by
the organism named
 Rhizopus. above.
b) Explain how the black substance was
 Sporulation/ spore
formed.
formation.
 Spores of bread mould deposited on the d) State the kingdom to which
damp bread which germinated into the organism belongs.
hyphae. When mature the hyphae grew
into sporangiosphores. Sporangia  Fungi

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© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

25-Feb-21
52

3. Budding in yeast.
 Yeast is an example of a fungus
 This is a form of asexual
reproduction in which a new
individual is produced as an
outgrowth (bud) of the parent cell
and is later released as self
supporting individual and identical
copy of the parent plant
 It occurs in yeast under favorable
conditions e.g. plenty of sugar,
moisture, oxygen and optimum temperature.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Process of budding/ which fuse to form a fertilized egg called
53 reproduction in yeast. zygote.
 Yeast reproduces asexually  Gametes are produced in reproductive
by budding. structures called flowers.
 The parent cell forms an Parts of a flower.
outgrowth/ projection/ bud  It is attached to the stem of a plant through
followed by division of the pedicel/flower stalk. The top part of the
nucleus into two. pedicel is called receptacle. All the
 One of the nuclei moves floral/flower parts are attached to the
into the new bud which receptacle.
grows and develops into a  The flower/floral parts are divided into four
new cell. groups namely:
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN i. Calyx/sepals. ii. Petals/corolla.
PLANTS. iii. Stamens/androecium. iv.
 It involves the formation of Carpels/pistil/gynoecium.
male and female gametes

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54

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55
Structure and function of a flower.

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56

FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT 2. Stamen/androecium-

PARTS OF A FLOWER. They form the male part of
the flower. Stamen
1. Sepals/Calyx- Sepals
consists of anther and
collectively form calyx which filament. Stamens
are leaf-like structures. collectively form
 Sepals protect the inner parts Androecium.
of the flower in the bud/before  The anther produces pollen
the flower opens from pest grains which contain male
attack and from drying. gametes and the filament
 Some flowers e.g. hibiscus have holds the anther in position.
sepal-like structures below the
sepals that are called epicalyx.
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57

One stamen consists of 4 pollen  The stigma receives the

containing sacs which are fused pollen grains. The style holds
to form anther. the stigma in position.
3. Carpels/pistil/gynoecium- This is  Note: Calyx(sepals) and
the female part of the flower. corolla(petals) are called
Carpel consists of stigma, style nonessential parts while
and ovary. Carpels collectively androecium (stamens) and
make up pistil pistil/ gynoecium are called
(gynoecium). essential parts of the flower.
 Inside the ovary, there are several 4. Petals/corolla- Petals
ovules. The egg cell or female collectively form the corolla.
gamete is formed within the ovule.

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58

They are large and brightly

colored and conspicuous to attract
insects for pollination.

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59 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 Pore

Anther
60 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 Connective

Filament

Fig. stamen

61 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

62 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 Fig. Pistil

63 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Stigma

Style

Ovary

64 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

65

TYPES OF FLOWERS
1.
Gamepetalous flower- the Types of unisexual/ incomplete flowers.

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66

corolla/petals are fused. Pistillate/carpellate flower- has

a) only pistil/carpels/female parts.
2.
Polypetalous- the corolla/petals are
separate. Dioecious plant- plant with
unisexual flower separately but on
3.
Complete b) flower/bisexual different individual plants e.g.
flower/hermaphrodite flower- a pawpaw plant.
flower with all c) floral parts.
Monoecious plant -plant with
4.
Unisexual flower/
unisexual flower separately but on
incomplete flower- this is
the same plant e.g. maize plant.
a flower with either male or
5. Epigynous/inferior
female parts only. d)
Staminate ovary/flower- the 11. ovary is
flower-has only located below other floral
stamens/androecium/male parts only. parts e.g.

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67

apple flower. 15.

12. 10. Inflorescence- consists of

6. Hypogynous/superior flowers that grow in clusters.
ovary/flowerovary is located above Polycarpous gynoecium/ pistilthe
other floral parts e.g. pistil has two or more carpels.
hibiscus flower. Apocarpous gynoecium/ pistilrefers
13.
to polycarpous pistil with free carpels
7. Perigynous ovary/flower- all floral e.g. rose flower.
parts are located at the same level Syncarpous gynoecuim/
e.g. rose flower. pistilpolycarpous pistil with fused
14.
carpels e.g. hibiscus flower.
8. Monocarpous gynoecium/ pistil- Actinomorphic/regular flowera
the pistil has one carpel. radially symmetrical flower and can be
9. Solitary flower- flower which occurs divided into two equal halves by any
singly. vertical section through the centre.

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68

Zygomorphic/irregular flower – bilaterally into two equal halve only in one

symmetrical flower and can only be divided particular plane.

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69

Epigynous flower/inferior ovary

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70

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71

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72
Hypogynous flower /superior ovary

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73

Perigynous flower Monocarpous flower

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74

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75

Apocarpous flower Syncarpous flower

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76

Solitary flower

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77

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78

Inflorescence

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79

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Disadvantages of self-
80
pollination. i. Lack of
POLLINATION variation. ii. Loss of hybrid
vigor.
 This is the transfer of pollen grains iii. Undesirable characteristics
from the anther to the stigma of a are retained/ transmitted to
flower on the same or on a different the offspring.
plant of the same species. 2. Cross pollination- transfer of
Types of pollination. pollen grains from the anther
1. Self pollination- transfer of pollen to the stigma of another
flower of different plant but
grains from the anther to the stigma
of the same species. This
of the same flower or from the
leads to cross fertilization.
anther of one flower to the stigma
of another flower on the same plant. Advantages of cross pollination.
This leads to self fertilization.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 i. It causes genetic variation hence 2. Wind.
81
better adaptations of organisms to
harsh environmental conditions.
 Pollination is brought about by agents
which include:
1. Insects.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
55 56

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Adaptations of insect pollinated 5. 4. Anther are located
57

(entomophilous) flowers. inside the flowers

1. The flowers are large, conspicuous with to ensure that they
brightly colored petals, 6. get into contact
inflorescence or bracts (modified with insect.
leaf e.g. in bougainvillea) to attract Anthers produce pollen
insects. grains which are large, spiky/
sticky to attach/ stick to the
2. They have nectary guides that direct
7. insect’s body.
insects into nectaries which secrete The stigmas are small, sticky
nectar. and occur inside the flower
so that pollen grains from
3. They are scented and produce nectar the body of insect stick onto
to attract insects. them.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

They have special shaped corolla tube to
enable insects land.

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Adaptations of wind pollinated 4. Pollen grains are small, light
58

(anemophilous) flowers e.g. maize. and smooth and hence can

1. The flowers are small with easily be blown by air
inconspicuous petals,dull currents without sticking
coloured bracts or inflorescence. together.
2. They lack nectaries and are not 5. The pollen grains are dry so
sweet scented, lacking the scent that they are easily picked
bait to attract insects. up and blown over greater
distances by wind.
3. Have stigma which are large, long,
feathery and hang outside the 6. Flowers are irregular in
flowers to increase the surface shape with male parts
area for trapping pollen grains in exposed for easy transfer
air. of pollen grains by wind.
 7.
Anthers are large and
loosely attached to the
filament so that the
slightest air movement can
shake them to disperse the
© Sam obare pollen grains.
25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
59
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INSECT AND WIND POLLINATED FLOWERS.

Insect pollinated Wind pollinated

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 1. Flowers are large with brightly 1. Flowers have dull petals.
60

colored petals/corolla. 2. They are unscented.

2. They are usually scented. 3. They do not produce nectar
3. They produce nectar. 4. They have large and feathery
4. They have small and sticky stigma hanging outside the
stigma found inside the flower.
flower. 5. Anthers are large and loosely
5. Anthers are small and firmly attached to the filament.
attached to filament.
6. Many pollen grains are
6. Fewer pollen grains are produced.
produced.
7. Pollen grains are small,
7. Pollen grains are large, heavy smooth and light so that
and sticky so that they stick to
they float in air.
insects.

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91

Features and mechanisms that earlier and anthers release pollen

promote cross pollination/ hinder self grains before the stigma is mature
pollination and fertilization. enough to receive them e.g. in
sunflower.
1. Monoecism- plants have the
male and female flower parts at 3. Protogny- this is a situation where
the stigma matures earlier and is
different parts of the same plant
ready to receive pollen grains
e.g. maize plant.
before the anthers are ripe
 There are risks of self pollination enough to shed the pollen grains
but they have natural mechanisms e.g. maize.
of preventing self-pollination.
4. Self - sterility or incompatibility
2. Protandry- this is a situation where This is where pollen grains from
the male parts/ stamens mature the anthers fail to germinate on
the stigma of the same plant e.g.

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92

maize. This ensures that self 1. Having both male and female
fertilization does not occur. parts on the same flower.
5. Dioecism- plants have male and 2. A
female flowers on different n
plants e.g. pawpaw plant. t
6. Heterostyly- this is where the h
stigma is above the anthers so e
that pollen grains do not reach r
them. s
Ways in which plants promote self
pollination.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

93

and stigma mature at the 3. Flowers remain closed and

same time. open after fertilization.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Fertilization in plants.
94

 Fertilization is the fusion of a

male nucleus and female
nucleus to form a zygote.
 In the male gamete is
contained in the pollen grain
produced in the anther while
the female gamete (egg cell) is
found in the ovules found
within the embryo sac.
 The synergids provide
nourishment to the egg cell.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 The process of fertilization in  As the pollen tube germinates,
95

flowering plants. the tube nucleus occupies a

 Pollen grain lands and sticks onto position at the tip of growing
the stigma. pollen tube while the
 The surface of the stigma generative nucleus follows
produces a sticky chemical behind the tube nucleus.
substance which stimulates the  As the pollen tube continues
pollen grains to germinate and to grow downwards, the
form a pollen tube. generative nucleus divides
 The pollen tube grows down the mitotically into two male
style, carrying with it the male gamete nuclei.
gametes (tube nucleus and  The pollen tube grows
generative nucleus) and it gets through the ovary wall, reaches
nutrients from the surrounding the ovules and enters the
tissues.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 embryo sac through the
96
micropyle.
 At this stage, the tip of the
pollen tube bursts open and the
tube nucleus disintegrates to
release the two male nuclei
which enter embryo sac.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 One male nucleus / one of the male © Sam obare
97
nuclei fuses with the egg cell nucleus 25-Feb-21
and forms the diploid zygote. The
other male gamete nucleus fuses
Changes /events that take place after
with the two polar nuclei to form a
triploid endosperm nucleus. The
fertilization.
process is called double fertilization.  The zygote undergoes mitotic division
to from the embryo which
Roles/ functions of pollen tube
differentiates into the plumule (which
1. It is a pathway through which male grows to from a shoot) and radicle
gametes reach the embryo sac to (which grows to form a root).
enhance fertilization.
 The triploid primary nucleus
2. It prevents other pollen grains from
germinating/ developing into pollen undergoes mitosis to form endosperm
tubes hence preventing multiple tissue for storage of food.
fertilization.
 The fertilized ovary develops into  Style, stigma and stamens dry up and fall
a fruit, the ovary wall becomes off.
the fruit wall (pericarp).  The calyx persists or it may dry up and fall
 The ovules develop into seeds. off.
 The integuments form the  The style leaves a scar on the fruit wall.
testa/seed coat.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Embryo sac

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66
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67

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102

Study question.
 The diagram below
represents an experimental
set-up used by students to
investigate a certain
process.

 Flower Q produced seeds while P

did not. Account for the results.
 The flower/plant is self

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69

sterile/not successfully self three parts: plumule (young

pollinated. shoot), radicle (young root)
 The covering prevents and one or two cotyledons.
pollination in flower P while  The triploid primary
flower Q received pollen endosperm nucleus
grains from other plants/ undergoes mitosis to form
cross pollination leading to the endosperm tissue.
fertilization.  The ovule becomes a seed and
FRUIT AND SEED the ovary becomes the fruit.
FORMATION. a)  The integuments form a
testa/seed coat which
Development of the seed
surround the cotyledons.
 The diploid zygote
undergoes mitosis to form
an embryo. The embryo has
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
104

 The testa has a scar called  The ovary wall develops to

hilum which is the point of form the pericarp which
attachment to the placenta differentiates into
 The embryo then completely epicarp/exocarp, mesocarp
separates from the and endocarp.
endosperm by a membrane  Some fruits e.g. pineapples and
leaving an opening called bananas develop without
micropyle which allows fertilization. This is called
entry of water into the parthenocarpy
seed.  A true fruit is formed from the
 It loses water, dries and ovary
hardens ready for dispersal. e.g. mangoes and beans.
b) Development of  A false fruit is formed when
fruit. The ovary other flower parts e.g.
forms the fruit.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 receptacle enlarges and testa/seed coat while a fruit
encloses the ovary or ovaries is covered with pericarp.
e.g. apple, pineapple, straw 2. A seed has one scar/hilum
berry. while a fruit has two scars
Differences between a seed (where it was attached to
and fruit. the fruit stalk and style.
3. A seed is formed from ovule
1. A seed is covered by a while the fruit is formed
from ovary.

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106

71 Coleorhiza
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
Study questions.  Primary endosperm
1. Name four changes that nucleus develops into
occur in the flower after endosperm.
fertilization. 2. Name three
 Ovary form a fruit. structures that
 Ovule develops into a wither off after
seed. Ovary wall forms fertilization.
pericarp.  Petals/ corolla.
 Integuments form a seed  Stamens (filament
coat/ testa. and anther).
 Zygote forms embryo.  Style.

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108
b)
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS. Drupe- Has thin epicarp,
They are broadly classified as fleshy and fibrous
succulent fruits and dry fruits. mesocarp, hard stony
1. SUCCULENT FRUITS- endocarp enclosing a
They are juicy/fleshy. They seed/ contain one seed
include: for example mangoes,
coconut and avocados.
a) Berry- Has fleshy/
succulent pericarp
(epicarp, mesocarp and
endocarp) with many/
several seeds e.g.
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109

tomatoes, oranges,
mangoes, bananas,
pineapples, passion,
pumpkin, .

a) Berry.

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110

b) Drupe.

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111

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112

Seed

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113

2. DRY FRUITS- They have low b)

moisture content. They are
further classified into Dehiscent
fruits and Indehiscent fruits.
a)Dehiscent fruits- They are dry
fruits that split open and
release seeds when
mature.
Indehiscent fruits-They do not split
open and release the seeds even if
they are dry.

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114

Types of dehiscent fruits.

1. Legumes/pod- Has two
lines of weaknesses/sutures
hence split and open into
two halves e.g. beans, peas,
crotalaria.

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115

2. Capsules- Has a dry pericarp and

dehisces along many lines of
weaknesses/sutures e.g. Cotton,
Datura stramoniun, poppy.

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116

3. Schizocarp-A ripe fruit breaks up into

small one seeded parts/fragments
called mericarps e.g. castor oil and
desmodium.
Types of
indehiscent
fruits

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117

1. Caryopsis- In this the seed

coat and the pericarp are
fused to form the testa e.g.
maize grain wheat grain,
rice grain e.t.c.
2. Nuts- A nut is one
seeded fruit whose
pericarp is
stony/hard and

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118

separate from seed coat e.g.

cashew nuts.
3. Cypsela- It is one seeded fruit
where the seed is free from
the pericarp e.g. Black jack
(Bidens pilosa).
 It is produced by many
composite flowers.
 The calyx persists in form of
spines or hairs that help in
animal dispersal.
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119

PLACENTATION.
 This is the arrangement of
seeds/ovules in the
ovary/seed.
Types of placentation.
1. Marginal placentation-
The placenta appears as
one ridge/ridge and the
seeds/ovules are arranged in one row e.g.
beans in a pod.
2. Basal placentation-
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120

In this the placenta is

formed at the base of
the ovary and seeds
attached to it e.g. in
sunflower.
3. Parietal
placentationSeeds
are attached to the
placenta on the
periphery of the fruit
wall e.g. pawpaw,
passion fruits.
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121

4. Axial/ axile placentation- In this the

seeds/ovules are attached to the
placenta located at the centre e.g.
tomatoes, oranges, lemons, banana.

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122

5. Free placentation- In this,

seeds/ovules are almost free in the
fruit e.g. tomatoes.

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123

FRUIT AND SEED DISPERSAL. Methods of fruit and seed

 Dispersal is the process by which dispersal.
seeds and fruits are spread from parent  They include:
plant to a new location. Advantages of
A. Wind dispersal.
dispersal.
B. Water dispersal.
i. It prevents overcrowding that leads to
competition for light, water, space etc. ii. C. Animal dispersal.
It ensures that seeds reach new D. Self mechanism/self
environments which may be suitable for explosive mechanism.
their growth.
A. Wind dispersal.
Disadvantages of dispersal.  In this, wind acts as an
 Some seeds/fruits may be dispersed to agent of fruit and seed
areas unsuitable for germination. dispersal.

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124

Adaptations of seeds and fruits to wind which are swayed by

dispersal. wind scattering the
1. Some seeds have developed hairy seeds (e.g. sycamore
structures, feather-like projections seeds).
(e.g. cotton seed), wing-like
structures (e.g. Jacaranda seed,
Nandi flame seed) which increase
their surface area to be carried away
by wind/ to be blown about by wind.
2. Seeds and fruits are small and light
(e.g. Nandi flame seed) to be easily
carried by air currents.
3. Some fruits have open/perforated
capsules attached on long stalks
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125
Examples of seeds dispersed by wind.

g. Milk weed seed

h. Sycamore seed
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 B. ANIMAL DISPERSAL- avocado) to attract/be easily seen
126  Animals are used as agents of dispersal. by animals.
4. Some fruits are brightly colored (e.g.
Adaptations of fruits/seeds to animal tomatoes) to attract/be easily
dispersal. seen by animals.
1. Some fruits have hooks/spikes (e.g. 5. Some seeds have a hard/ tough
black jack) to stick/attach to the testa (seed coat) with sticky/
animal’s body. mucoid/ slimy secretions (e.g.
2. Some fruits are succulent/ fleshy/juicy passion seeds and guava seeds)
(e.g. tomatoes, oranges) hence they making them resistant to
attract animals which eat them and digestive enzymes hence pass out
carry them away from the parent through the gut undigested/pass
plant. out with faeces.

3. Some fruits are in clusters (e.g. straw 6. Some fruits have sweet
smell/aroma/are scented (e.g.
berries)/large/ conspicuous ( e.g.
bananas) to attract animals.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
127
92

Tomato fruit

Avocado fruit

©Black jack(
Sam obare Bidens pilosa)
25-Feb-21
Lemon/orange
Examples of fruits/seeds dispersed by animals.
 C. WATER DISPERSAL- 3. Some fruits (e.g. water lily)
129
Water acts as an agent of produce seeds whose
dispersal. seed coats trap air
bubbles making them
Adaptations of seeds/fruits to
float on water.
water dispersal.
4. Fruits and seeds e.g.
1. Some fruits and seeds are coconut have water proof
light to float on water. pericarp and seed testa
2. Some fruits (e.g. coconut) respectively hence remain
have fibrous spongy afloat without
mesocarps to sinking/soaking.
accumulate/ trap air
making them buoyant or
for floating on water.

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130

D. SELF DISPERSAL MECHANISM/ self

explosive mechanism/ explosive
mechanism- Some fruits (e.g.
legumes/pods) have lines of weakness
(sutures) which split open when dry
scattering/ throwing away the seeds.

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131

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS.

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132

It involves fusion of male Types of fertilization.

gamete/sperm and female A. External fertilization in
gamete/egg/ovum forming a amphibians and fish.
zygote/fertilized egg.
B. Internal fertilization.
 Male gametes/sperms are formed
A. EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION.
in the testes while female
 It occurs in amphibians (e.g.
gametes/ova are formed in the
ovaries. frogs/ toads) and fish
 It takes place in water. The
 The nucleus of sperm fuse with the
nucleus of ovum to form a diploid female lays eggs and the male
zygote. This process is called sheds sperms on the eggs as
fertilization. they are laid to fertilize them.

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133

This leads to fertilization outside  While mating the males

the body. mount on female and sheds
 Many/ large number of eggs sperms as female lays eggs.
are laid to increase the This is to increase the
chances of survival because chances of fertilization.
some eggs could be eaten by  The eggs are laid in a jelly like
animals of attacked by substance which:
bacteria. i) Protects the eggs.
 During mating season in frogs ii) Prevents the predators from
and toads, the males croak at feeding on the eggs.
night to attract the females.

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134

iii) Separates the eggs from each

other allowing good aeration.
iv) Attaches the eggs to water plant
and makes them buoyant.

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135

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136

B. Internal fertilization. are deposited into the

 It takes place in reptiles, female body and protection
birds and mammals. of gametes and fertilized
 Male and female gametes eggs/ zygotes are higher.
fuse/ fertilization takes Disadvantages of internal
place inside the body of fertilization.
female. 1. Pregnant mother are
 The female produces susceptible to predators
fewer number of eggs than 2. Mothers may die during
males because there are giving birth
higher chances of 3. The disease affecting the
fertilization as the sperms mother may be

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137

transmitted to the young to bacterial attack and others

ones fail to be fertilized.
4. Young ones may deplete 2. Give reasons why frog eggs
the mother’s nutrients have the jelly-like substance. 
Study questions. For protection.
1. Explain why a female frog  Prevents the predators from
lays many eggs. feeding on the eggs.

 This is to increase the chances of  Separates the eggs from each

survival because many eggs other allowing good aeration.
may die through predation,  Attaches the eggs to water
drying. Some eggs may rot due plant and makes them buoyant.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Differences between external and internal fertilization.

138

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139

External fertilization 1. exposed to danger e.g.

predation, desiccation.
It occurs outside the body.
Internal fertilization
2. Many eggs are laid. 1. It occurs inside the body of
female animals.
3. There is usually less contact
between males and 2. Fewer eggs are released.
females. 3. There is close contact
between males and
females through
4. Both fertilized and copulation.
unfertilized eggs are

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

4. Fertilized and unfertilized females e.g. in duck-billed
eggs are enclosed hence platypus.
highly protected inside the b) Oviviparity- the embryo
body of females. develops within the female’s
REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS. body
 Fertilization occurs internally c) Viviparity- the embryo
and the egg is either laid or develops within the mother
develops within the female’s and obtains nourishment
body in the uterus/ womb. directly from the mother’s
body. The young ones are
a) Oviparity- the embryo
born alive e.g. human beings.
develops outside the body of
 In some mammals, embryo

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141

develops to a certain stage and called a pouch where it

then released into a structure develops fully e.g. in kangaroo.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 and is nourished by the egg yolk.
The young ones are born alive
102 e.g. some fish and reptiles.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-

21
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF FEMALE
143
102

© Sam obare 25-Feb-

21
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-

21
103 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
104 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
105

Adaptations of parts of female  It has cilia which waft the

ovum moving it towards the
reproductive system.
uterus.
1. Ovary- it has secretory cells  It has smooth muscles which
that secrete female sex
contract to help in
hormones e.g. oestrogen and
progesterone. movement of the ovum.
3. Uterus/womb- It has
It has a germinal epithelium
which produces the eggs/ ova. muscular walls (myometrium)
that contract facilitating
2. Fallopian tube/ oviduct- this is parturition.
where fertilization takes place.
 The muscular walls are also
 It is funnel shaped to receive the able to expand as the embryo
ovum after ovulation. develops and return to its
original size after birth.
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106

 It has endometrium/inner wall  The walls of vulva have vestibular

with dense network of capillaries glands (Bartholin's glands) that
to facilitate implantation and secrete mucus when the female
nourishment of the embryo. is sexually for lubrication of
4. Cervix- It is a muscular ring which vagina during copulation.
close to keep the fetus within the Ways in which sperms move within
womb. the female reproductive system.
It secretes a plug of mucus which i. By help of a tail in the fluid
prevents entry of pathogens into medium of the female
the uterus during pregnancy. reproductive system.
5. Vagina/birth canal and ii. They are attracted by the
vulva- the vagina is tubular/ chemical produced by the
hollow thus allows passage of the ovum.
foetus during parturition.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

iii. Muscular/peristaltic contraction of
uterine walls. Ways in which the
ovum moves within the fallopian
tube.
i. The cilia beats/wafts the egg
facilitating movement.
ii. By contraction of smooth muscles
of the fallopian tube.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 25-Feb-21

107

Foreskin
Glans
© Sam obare
 Foreskin

108 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Foreskin

108 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

109

Adaptations of parts of male reproductive

system
1. The penis is made up of spongy tissue 
The testes also have and
blood vessels which fill with blood interstitial cells which causing
it to erect to facilitate copulation. produce male hormones called
androgens. The main
2. The testes are protected by scrotum
androgen is testosterone.
and are made up of several and highly
coiled seminiferous tubules which 3.
The Epididymis is highly
provide a large surface area for sperm coiled to provide a large

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 production. surface area for storage of
sperm
s. The testes have sertoli cells that nourish the
sperms. The testes are located to hang outside the
body to provide a cooler environment for sperm
production.

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156

4. The Seminal vesicle alkaline fluid to neutralize the

(connected to the sperm vaginal fluids and activate the
duct a short distance sperms.
from where the sperm 6. The Cowper’s gland (located
duct enters the below the prostate gland)
urethra)secretes an secretes an alkaline fluid to
alkaline fluid which neutralize the acidity along the
contains nutrients for urethra (caused by pH
the sperms. variations of urine).
5. The Prostate gland (is The alkaline fluid and sperms
located at the junction form semen.
between the sperm duct 7. The Sperm duct/ vas deferens
and urethra) secretes an is tubular connecting the

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157
epididymis and urethra 8. The Urethra is tubular to expel
and is used for passage urine and semen (hence said to
of sperms/ acts as have urino-genital role).
ejaculatory duct.

25-Feb-21
158

Spermatozoa (sperms)

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©Sam obare
159

25-Feb-21
160

Ovum/egg cell/female gamete.

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161

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

162

ADAPTATION OF AN 4. contains
OVUM/EGG CELL. genetic material
1. It has follicle cells to nourish and fuses with
the ovum. the nucleus of
sperm to form
2. It has vitelline 5. membrane zygote.
which thickens
It has large cytoplasm
after penetration of the first
which contains stored
sperm preventing entry of
food substances that
other sperms.
nourish the embryo
3. It has nucleus which before implantation. It
has cell membrane which

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163

encloses contents of the egg and eventually develop

allows selective movement of after puberty.
substances in and out of ovum.  At birth eggs are
Development of the ovum. enclosed by a layer of
 Egg formation in the ovary is primary follicles which
called oogenesis. provide nourishment.
 Egg formation begins in the  During puberty
ovary of the foetus before birth. primary follicles
At birth, there are about 70,000 develop into Graafian
potential eggs in the ovary of a follicle that contains
baby girl but only 500 ova mature ovum.

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164

 Ova are at different levels of

development such that one
Graafian follicle matures every
month.
 At ovulation the Graafian
follicle bursts to release the
mature egg surrounded by a layer
of follicle cells.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Mature ovum

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116

Differences between the sperm and ovum.

Sperm. Ovum.

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117
1. It has a tail and 1. It lacks a tail and
acrosome. acrosome.
2. It is smaller in size. 2. It is relatively larger in
3. It has less food size.
reserve. 3. Has more food
4. It is motile/mobile reserve.
5. Has prominent 4. It is
nucleus and immotile/nonmotile
negligible cytoplasm 5. Has large amount of
cytoplasm
The process of fertilization in man.

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118
 Fertilization is the fusion of penetrate the egg hence head
male and female gametes and it of the sperm enters the ovum
occurs in the oviduct/fallopian and the tail is left outside the
tube. ovum.
 When the sperm comes into  The vitelline membrane then
contact with the egg, the undergoes a change which
acrosome bursts open and stops any other sperm from
releases lytic enzymes, which entering the ovum.
dissolve the vitelline/ egg  Once the head is in the
membrane and also disperse cytoplasm, it bursts to release
the follicle cells surrounding the the male nucleus which fuses
egg cell. with the female nucleus to form
 The acrosome forms a fine a diploid zygote.
filament that is used to

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 After ovulation, the ovum can can remain viable for 2-3 days
remain viable for 8-24 hours within the female reproductive
before it dies while the sperms system before they die.

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© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
119

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
120

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

The significance of producing a large 4. The egg produces a
number of sperms yet it is only one chemical that inactivates
that fertilizes the ovum. the sperms.
 This is because many die before Reason why fertilization must
reaching the ovum due to: take place in the fallopian
1. Inappropriate temperature for tube/ oviduct but not in the
production in the testes and uterus.
storage in the epididymis.  The ovum can take up to 7
2. Inappropriate pH (e.g. acidity) in days to travel through the
the female reproductive tract. oviduct to the uterus. By
3. Others deplete their energy before then it would be dead
reaching the ovum because the because it survives for 824
distance between the vagina hours after release from the
and oviduct is long. ovary.

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122
175

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Changes that take place after which attach it to the
endometrium.
fertilization.
 The attachment of the
(a) Zygote.
blastocyst to the wall of
 It moves along the oviduct to
the uterus/endometrium is
the uterus by help of cilia and
called implantation.
contraction of the oviduct
smooth muscles.  After implantation the
blastocyst develops into
 It undergoes mitotic division
embryo.
forming a hollow structure with
several cells called blastocyst.  The embryo uses the villi
to absorb nutrients from
 The blastocyst develops the endometrium.
fingerlike projections called villi

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124
177

(b)Uterus
  The villi and endometrium  The uterus lining/
develop into placenta endometrium thickens.
 The movement of the zygote from  There is increased blood
the oviduct until it is implanted supply.
lasts for about 7 days. FORMATION OF PLACENTA.
 Sometimes the zygote fails to  During implantation, the
move down the oviduct to the
uterus but instead gets implanted
blastocyst differentiates
into the walls of the oviduct. This is into 3 layers;
called ectopic pregnancy which is 1. Chorion- the outermost
deadly if it is not surgically membrane which
removed as soon as possible. develops chorionic villi

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 which grow into the  The amnion secretes
endometrium. amniotic fluid which fills
During early stages of embryo the amniotic cavity.
development the villi form sites 3. Allantois- together with
for exchange of materials chorionic villi and
between the embryo and endometrium it forms
maternal blood vessels in the the placenta which is
uterine lining. connected to foetus by
2. Amnion- which surrounds the umbilical cord.
embryo forming amniotic The umbilical cord has:
cavity in which the embryo
a) Umbilical vein- which
lies.
carries blood into the

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179

foetus rich in oxygen and Carbon (IV) oxide in the foetal


nutrients. blood diffuses across the
b) Umbilical artery – which brings placenta into maternal
blood to the placenta from the blood, it accumulates in the
foetus with high amount uterine vein which
carbon (IV) oxide and transports it away from the
nitrogenous wastes e.g. urea uterus.
but low nutrients and oxygen.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
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181

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Role of amniotic fluid. 4. Prevents the foetus from
1. Protects the foetus drying.
against mechanical 5. It ensures constant
damage/ injury/acts as a temperature within the
shock absorber. womb.
2. Provides a medium for 6. Equalize pressure around
foetus to move about/ the foetus.
suspends the embryo Materials that are not
providing it with allowed to pass through the
support.
placenta.
3. It is a source of 1. All blood cells.
nourishment for the
foetus within the first 3 2. Plasma proteins.
months of pregnancy. 3. Most bacteria.

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183

Materials that pass from foetus to 3. Vitamins.

mother. 1. Carbon (IV) oxide. 4. Mineral salts.
2. Nitrogenous waste products/ 5. Hormones.
urea.
6. Water.
Materials that pass from mother to
7. Antibodies and antigens.
foetus.
8. Drugs, alcohol and some
1. Oxygen
chemicals from
2. Digested food substances cigarette.
(glucose, amino acids, fatty
Role of the placenta
acids, glycerol)

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

184

1. It allows passage of nutrients from the Adaptations of the placenta to

mother to the foetus for growth and its function. / How is the
development. placenta suited to its functions?
2. It allows diffusion of gases between 1. Has numerous
the mother and foetus. capillaries/highly
3. It secretes hormones e.g. vascularized to increase
progesterone, oestrogen, human concentration gradient for
chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) efficient exchange of
4. Prevents destruction of delicate blood materials.
vessels of the foetus and prevents 2. It has a thin membrane for
entry of pathogens into the foetus. faster diffusion of
materials/reduce the
distance travelled by
substances.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
185

3. It has numerous (chorionic) villi to gradient hence

increase the surface area of efficient diffusion of
diffusion of substances.
substances.
4. It has selective membrane Note.
which allows selective
The foetal blood does not
diffusion of substances. 
mix with maternal blood in
5. It is glandular to secrete the placenta because there
hormones e.g. progesterone, is no direct connection
between the foetal blood
oestrogen. system and that of the
6. Has counter current flow of mother. This is important
maternal and foetal blood to because:
maintain steep concentrated
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
186

1. It ensures that no agglutination [Link] prevents the transfer

occurs in foetal red blood cells due of waste products from
to incompatible blood groups of maternal blood into the
the mother and foetus, both ABO foetus
and Rhesus antigens. TERMS RELATED TO
2. It ensures that the foetus delicate REPRODUCTION.
blood vessels are not destroyed/do
1. Gestation period: this is a
not burst by the high pressure in
period between
the mother’s/ maternal circulatory
conception and birth.
system.
2. Miscarriage: This is natural
3. It prevents the transfer of
termination of pregnancy
pathogens from mother into
before completion of six
foetus.
months. The baby will not
survive.

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187

3. Abortion: Intentional  Such twins are of the same sex.

termination of pregnancy either They are genetically identical
chemically or physically. and are completely alike.
4. Premature birth: If birth occurs after 7 6. Siamese twins: these are
months but before the full term, the identical twins who develop
birth is called premature birth. without separating
The baby can survive if it has attained a completely so that they are
certain weight or else it will be cared for in born with some parts fused
incubators. 7. Dizygotic or fraternal twins:
5. Monozygotic or identical twins: These are as a result of
These are as a result of a fertilized egg that simultaneous release of two
divides into two independent parts in the or more ova, which are
early stages of development, which fertilized independently.
proceed to develop into two separate
embryos.  Such twins may be of the
same or of different sex. They
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
188

are genetically different and have the

same degree of resemblance as that of
other brothers and sisters born at
different times.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

189 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
190 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
191 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
192 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
193

PREGNANCY/GESTATION PERIOD.

25-Feb-21
  This is a period between conception then develops into a baby ready to be
and birth. It lasts for 9 months (38-40 born.
194
 The heart and blood vessels are among
weeks). the first organs to form in the embryo
 The signs of pregnancy include: because blood is needed in all the
developing body parts to supply
1. Laboratory test for the presence of
oxygen, nutrients and also remove
Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin
metabolic wastes.
hormone (HCG) in blood.
2. Failure of menstruation after sexual  The corpus luteum (yellow body) in
intercourse. the ovary persists and continues to
secrete progesterone during the first 4
3. Morning sickness/ nausea/ vomiting. months of pregnancy.
4. Gradual enlargement of breasts.  After 4 months, the placenta takes
 During this time, the zygote develops over producing the hormone. Therefore
into an embryo and further into foetus even if the ovaries are removed after 4
(at 3 months when all organs and months, there would be no effect on
tissues are fully developed), the foetus pregnancy.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 © Sam obare bone formation and iron for
 Progesterone keeps pregnancy by formation of haemoglobin.
195
 At 9 months, the head is directly
maintaining a thickened and highly
above the cervix/facing downwards
vascularized inner lining
(endometrium) hence providing and dilation of cervix hence a sign
nourishment to the foetus. of near parturition.
 Menstruation should stop during  During pregnancy, the pregnant
pregnancy to ensure that the inner mother should avoid the following
wall (endometrium) remains intact which may damage the foetus:
which is essential for the
development of the foetus. i. Vigorous physical
 If menstruation occurs it will lead to exercises. ii. Smoking
miscarriage.
(cigarette). iii. Intake of alcohol.
 The pregnant mother should have a
balanced diet with plenty of proteins
for growth and development of
embryo, calcium and phosphorus for

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 PARTURITION/BIRTH.
196

 It is brought about by Dilation of  Oxytocin stimulates the

cervix and strong contractions myometrium to contract
of the uterus and abdominal providing the force to expel the
walls. foetus from the uterus.
 Thisis accompanied by some pains
 At delivery the pituitary glands
hence called labour pains.
also secrete prolactin hormone
 Oxytocin also stimulates milk let down
which stimulates the secretion of
by the mammary glands.
milk by the secretory cells of the
 The placenta also secretes Relaxin
mammary glands.
hormone prior to labour which
 Towards the end of pregnancy, the causes the ligaments within the
level of progesterone falls. This pelvic girdle to loosen, providing a
causes the pituitary gland to more flexible passage for the baby
secrete oxytocin hormone. during delivery.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

  The contraction of the myometrium baby. This is called caesarean
is accompanied by dilation of the delivery.
197
cervix, rapture of amnion and  After birth, the baby cries
chorion releasing the amniotic immediately because of fall in
fluid. body temperature. Crying is
 The contraction of uterus pushes important because it stimulates
the foetus downwards, head first the breathing system and
through the widened cervix into expands the lungs so that the
the birth canal. baby starts breathing.
 After birth the umbilical cord is
tied and cut to separate the baby
from the placenta. The placenta
is later expelled as after birth.
 Incase of difficult in normal
delivery, surgical operation is
done on the abdominal and
uterine walls for delivery of the
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
198
PARENTAL CARE.

25-Feb-
21
  It is the attention given to the new 2. It contains all nutrients required

born by providing food/ milk for growth and in the right

protection and providing amounts.
favourable conditions for growth. 3. It contains antibodies which
 At delivery the pituitary glands also provide passive immunity to the
foetus.
secrete prolactin hormone which
stimulates the secretion of milk by 4. Reduces chances of infections
since no preparation is needed.
the secretory cells of the
mammary glands.  Various stimuli e.g. cry of the baby,
smell, suckling and sight of the baby
 Mother's milk is the best food for stimulates hypothalamus of the
the offspring because: mother to send impulse to the
pituitary gland which secretes
1. It does not require mechanical
oxytocin hormone.
breakdown for it is in a liquid form
that is easy to swallow.  Oxytocin hormone stimulates

25-Feb-21
 contraction of muscles of mammary  At puberty (at age of 12 years in girls
glands allowing milk let-down to the and 14 years in boys), other features
200
nipple where the baby sucks from. develop that distinguish males and
 Milk let-down is inhibited by females.
distraction, embarrassment, anxiety of  They are controlled by oestrogen
fatigue. hormone in females and androgens in
males hence called secondary sexual
© Sam obare
ROLE OF HORMONES IN DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY SEXUAL
CHARACTERISTICS.
141

 The presence of vagina and penis is used to characteristics.

differentiate between a baby boy or girl. Secondary sexual characteristics in males.
These physical characteristics are called  In males secondary sexual
primary sexual characteristics. characteristics begin to show at the age
of 14 years. The sex hormones /
gonadotrophins produced are:
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)- which © Sam obare
stimulates synthesis and maturation of Secondary sexual characteristics in
sperms. females.
2. Luteinizing hormone (LH)/interstitial cell
stimulating hormone (ICSH)- stimulates  In females secondary sexual
the interstitial cells to produce male characteristics begin to show at
hormones called androgens and the main the age of 10-12 years. The
androgen is Testosterone. hypothalamus stimulates the
 Testosterone stimulates the development of pituitary gland to release
secondary sexual characteristics which gonadotrophins which include:
include:
a) Luteinizing hormone (LH)-
a) Deepening of voice.
which stimulates mature
b) Growth of beards and hair in pubic area
Graafian follicle to release a
Enlargement of testes and penis.
c)
mature ovum in the process
d) Broadening of shoulders. called ovulation.
e) Enlargement of muscles around the chest
and shoulders. b) Follicle stimulating hormone
f) Production of sperms. (FSH)- which stimulates the
ovary to release the hormone
25-Feb-21
 oestrogen. Oestrogen stimulates
the development of Graafian
202
follicle in the ovary and
development of secondary sexual
characteristics.
Secondary sexual characteristics in
females include:
i) Enlargement of pelvic girdle. ii)
Widening of hips.
iii) Growth of hair in pubic and armpit
regions.
iv) The ovaries mature and start
releasing eggs and the girls begin to
menstruate.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

B. ROLE OF HORMONES IN MENSTRUATION IN FEMALES.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

143
204
controlled by pituitary
  Gamete production in females gonadotrophins.
is cyclical after every 28 days hence Role
called menstrual cycle.
 After/ at the onset of menstruation,
 It begins with menses i.e. discharge (the anterior lobe of) pituitary gland
of blood and tissue debris from the secretes Follicle Stimulating
uterus which takes place for 5-7 Hormone (FSH) which:
days. Before menses the females
experience abdominal pain, back 1) Causes/ stimulates the Graafian
pains and nausea. follicle to develop in the ovary.
The graafian follicle contains the
 The events of menstrual cycle ovum.
involves the ovaries (ovarian cycle)
and in the uterus (uterine cycle) 2) Stimulates the ovary tissues to
secrete

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205

Oestrogen hormone. secretion of Follicle stimulating

 Oestrogen hormone has the hormone.
following effects:  Luteinising hormone has the
1) Brings about/ causes/ stimulates following effects:
repair and healing of 1) It stimulates the maturation of
endometrium/ uterine lining Graafian follicle.
(after menstruation).
2) It stimulates or causes
2) Its concentration increases to a ovulation/stimulates the
level which stimulates the
(anterior lobe of the) pituitary
Graafian follicle to burst
gland to secrete Luteinizing releasing the ovum.
hormone. 3) It stimulates the remains of
3) Its concentration increases to a Graafian follicle to form a yellow
level which stops further
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
206

body (Corpus luteum) in the gland from secreting follicle

ovary. stimulating hormone.
4) It stimulates the corpus luteum 3) Further increase in progesterone
to secrete progesterone. level inhibits the pituitary gland
from secreting Luteinizing
 Progesterone has the following hormone.
effects: 4) Further increase in progesterone
1) It stimulates thickening of level causes the corpus luteum
endometrium/ inner lining of to degenerate.
uterine wall in readiness for  Degeneration of corpus luteum
implantation. reduces the amount of
2) As the level of progesterone progesterone.
increases it inhibits the pituitary  The sudden drop in secretion
of progesterone causes the
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
207

endometrium to slough off/ to ovary to sustain corpus

menstruation occurs. The cycle luteum.
is then repeated.
 The hormone is excreted
 Ovulation and hormonal through urine. The presence
imbalance causes a rise in of this hormone in urine is
temperature during used to confirm pregnancy
menstruation. during a pregnancy test.
 During pregnancy the
implanted embryo produce
another hormone called
human chorion gonadotropic
hormone (HCG) which is sent

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

147 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
209

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
148

211

Study question
 a)
The figure shows changes that take Name the hormone whose
place during menstrual cycle in concentrations are
humans. represented by curves F and
G.
 F- Oestrogen.

 G- Progesterone.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 a) State the effects of the
hormones named in (a) above
on the lining of the uterus.
 Oestrogen-Promotes healing and repair.
 Progesterone -Causes thickening and increased blood supply
/vascularisation.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 c) (i) Name the hormone which is  Stimulates corpus
released by the pituitary gland luteum to release
150
213
in high concentration on the progesterone.
14th day of the menstrual cycle. d) State the fertile period during
Luteinizing hormone. the menstrual cycle.
12th-16th.
(ii) State two functions of
the hormone named in (c) (I ) e) State the dietary requirements
above. that maintain the menstrual
 Causes / stimulates cycle.
ovulation.  Iron for the formation of
 Stimulates graafian haemoglobin.
follicle to become  Vitamin K for blood clotting to
corpus luteum. prevent prolonged bleeding.
 Vitamin C to heal the uterine
wall and absorption of iron.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
f) State the factors that change the Symptoms
menstrual cycle. 1. Night sweat.
 Change in diet. 2. Random hot flashes during the day.
 Stress. 3. Changes in mood that shows
 Disease infection. depression.
 Emotions. 4. Fatigue.
Menopause 5. Vaginal dryness.
 This is the permanent end of 6. Loss of minerals e.g. Calcium. This
menstruation and fertility. It may leads to softening of bone, a
begin between the age of 40 and condition called osteoporosis.
50.
 It is a gradual process signified by :
i)Decrease in number of graafian
follicles, ii) The follicles become less
sensitive to follicle stimulating
hormone, iii) Secretion of oestrogen
declines.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES.
215
1. HIV and AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome)
152
a) [Link] by the HIV  From infected mother to child
(Human Immunodeficiency during birth or through breast
Virus). milk.
b) Mode of transmission. c) Symptoms.
 Sexual intercourse with an i. Swollen lymph glands.
infected person. ii. Diarrhoea, fever, sweating and
 Sharing of contaminated body fatigue. iii. Sudden weight
needles with infected people. loss. iv. Persistent cough.
 Blood transfusion with v. Generalized skin infections.
infected blood.
Prevention and control of HIV
and AIDS
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
1. Abstaining from sexual 7. Public health interventions to
intercourse before curb/ stop the spread of HIV.
marriage.
2. Correct and consistent use of
male and female condoms.
3. Have one faithful sexual
partner/ avoid multiple
sexual partners
4. Screening of blood before
transfusion.
5. Use of antiretroviral (ARV)drugs
by those affected.
6. Sex education to enlighten the
public on socio-economic
effects HIV/ AIDS.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

217
8. 12. Promote male circumcision to
Avoid risky cultural practices e.g. reduce the risk of contracting HIV.
female genital mutilation,
traditional male circumcision 13. Encourage people to know their HIV
status hence minimize the spread.
and wife inheritance.
Study question
9. Use of bottle feeding instead of
breast feeding for babies. a) Give the possible reasons why
HIV/AIDS is still rampant
10. Enforce laws that make it an despite a lot of awareness
offence to spread HIV
creation.
intentionally.
1. Many adolescents engage in sexual
11. Avoid sharing surgical and activity through excitement, wrong
piercing instruments e.g. ear advice, peer pressure, or ignorance.
piercing and sharing of
2. Many people especially youths
needles by drug users.
misuse their leisure time through

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

218
engaging in erotic dances, 8. Presence of quack , bush doctors and
reading and watching conmen/ women who cheat people
pornography. about cure drugs or miracle cures of
HIV/AIDS condition.
3. Lack of strict policy on drug
abuse. b) Offer possible solutions to
4. Commercial sex/ prostitution due to these problems.
unemployment. 1. Avoid bad company.
5. Pervasive behavior e.g. 2. Proper use of leisure time by
homosexuality and rape. avoiding reading erotic
6. Long incubation behavior of HIV magazines, watching
makes people complacent. pornography and not attending
7. Many traditionalists have opted not night clubs.
to believe HIV hence continuation
of wife inheritance, traditional 3. Abstain from misuse of drugs/
circumcision tattooing etc. drug addiction.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

219
4. Public awareness of months the child tested HIV
HIV/AIDS e.g. lack of cure, negative. Explain.
no miracle cure of the At birth, the child tested HIV positive
disease. because of the presence of HIV
5. Abstaining from antibodies which passed through
commercial/ the placenta. After a few months the
indiscriminate sexual antibodies are removed from the
behavior. blood hence the child tested HIV
6. Avoiding risky behaviors negative.
e.g. wife inheritance.
c) A child born of a HIV
2. Syphilis.
positive mother tested HIV
positive after birth.  It affects the genital organs of
However , after a few both males and females.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

220
 Caused by the bacterium Symptoms.
Treponema pallidum. 1. Painless sore appearing on or around
Transmission. the sex organs.
1. Through sexual 2. Skin rashes.
intercourse with
infected person. 3. Flu like symptom i.e.
2. Transfusion with Fever, sore throat, bone and
infected blood. joints pain.
3. Transmission from 4. Headache.
infected 5. Insanity.
mother to the child
during birth or Prevention.
through the placenta i. Avoid indiscriminate sex. ii. Use of
before 7th month of
condoms.
delivery
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
221

Pain when passing urine.

3. Gonorrhoea.
1.

2. Bleeding in between the

periods in women.
 It is a disease affecting
genital organs caused by the
3. Females have unusual
bacterium Neisseria vaginal discharge which is
gonorrhoea. watery, yellow or
Transmission greenish in color.
1. Sexual intercourse with 4. Yellow or green discharge in
infected person. males.
2. During birth when a 5. Tenderness and pain in the
mother is infected. testicles in males.
Symptoms. 6. Inflammation of the foreskin in
males
Control and prevention
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
222
1.
Public education on dangers of
1. Sexual intercourse
indiscriminate sex. with an infected
2. Use of condoms during sexual person.
intercourse.
3. Treatment using antibiotics. 2. Kissing infected
4. Genital herpes.
It is caused by the person.
virus Herpes 3. Sharing of
simplex. contaminated
Transmission. needles and
syringes.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
223

2. Painless lesions on the

Symptoms. head of the penis
1. Lesions on the skin Control and prevention.
and mucous 1. Avoid indiscriminate sex
membrane of the and contaminated
mouth/ buccal needles and syringes.
cavity, vaginal canal
and conjunctiva in 5. Hepatitis B.
females.  It is a condition that describes
inflammation of the liver.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

224
 It is caused by a virus which v. Kissing an infected person. vi.
attacks liver cells eventually Infected mother to unborn
causing damage in the liver. child.
Transmission. Symptoms.
[Link] contact with an infected i. Loss of appetite. ii. Jaundice.
person. iii. Headache and muscle ache. iv.
ii. Sharing contaminated Vomiting.
instruments used by v. Dark urine .
barbers and dentists. Prevention.
iii. Sharing contaminated i. Screening of blood before
syringes and needles (by transfusion. ii. Avoiding
drug addicts). indiscriminate sex. iii. Avoiding
iv. Blood transfusion with sharing needles.
infected blood. iv. Using condoms during sexual
intercourse.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
225

6. Trichomoniasis.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

  Caused by a protozoa called 3. Itching in the urethra and
226

Trichomoniasis vaginalis. vagina.

Transmission Control and prevention.
i. Through sexual 1. Use protective
intercourse. methods during
ii. Contaminated clothes or sexual intercourse/
beddings. avoid indiscriminate
Symptoms. sex.
1. Yellow smelly discharge 2. Avoid sharing linen/
in females.
clothes.
2. Burning sensation when
urinating. 3. High personal hygiene
in the genitals.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 ii. White discharge from the
vagina which does not
227
smell.
7. Candidiasis. Control and prevention.
i. Avoid indiscriminate sex. ii.
 Caused by a fungus,
Candida albicans. Using condoms during sex.
iii. Proper hygiene (e.g. wiping
Transmission.
oneself from front to back
 Through sexual contact after using the toilet, use of
with infected person. pure cotton and loose
Symptoms. pants in females).
i. Itching and burning iv. Proper treatment using
sensation in the genital antibiotics.
area.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21