Chapter 12

E cosystem

Summar Table: A Small Pond Ecosystem

1. Abiotic Dissolved inorganic plus
Components organic subtances, rich
1. Ecosystem soil deposit at bottom
The ecosystem consists of two basic components: of a pond, solar input,
(i) abiotic (inorganic material and soil, water, temperature, wind,
etc.) and (ii) biotic (producer, consumer and climatic conditions there.
decomposer organisms). The ecosystem refers “to 2. Biotic Phytoplanktons, algae, free
a functional unit of nature and comprises abiotic Components swimming, bottom dwelling
and biotic components”. organisms, submerged
2. Ecosystem-Structure and Function plants, fungi, bacteria etc.

Abiotic components of ecosystem are CO 2 ,

5. Decomposition
O 2 , water, inorganic materials, fats, proteins,
carbohydrates and humid substances. Biotic It is another main function of the ecosystem.
components of ecosystem comprise the kinds, Decomposition includes 3 processes. They are :
number and distribution of living organs. 1. Fragmentation of detritus,
2. Leaching and
3. Productivity
3. Catabolism.
It is the main function of an ecosystem. It is
related to production of food in ecosystem. 6. Humification
The chemical energy is also released from dead It leads “to the accumulation of a dark coloured
animals and plants. The productivity is “the rate amorphous substance the humus.” Humus is
of biomass production by the producers.” It may highly resistant to microbial action. It undergoes
be primary and secondary productivity. decomposition at a very slow rate. Further
Net productivity = Gross productivity degradation of humus occurs by certain microbes.
The mineralisation is the process of release of
- Respiration rate
the inorganic substances/nutrients. Some of the
or NPP = GPR-R nutrients leach into the soil.
Net primary productivity results in the
accumulation of plant biomass which serves as the 7. Energy flow
food of herbivores and decomposers. It is the function of an ecosystem. The energy
flow is unidirectional i.e., one way. The plants
capture solar energy and prepare food. The
food is transferred from the producers to the
decomposers. Sun provides energy.
Energy is essential for circulation of matter
and for the maintenance of life.

4. Pond 7.1 Food Web and Food Chains

It is an example of an aquatic ecosystem. It shows The organisms of various trophic levels in nature
all the basic components of an ecosystem. are related to each other for food o energy
 relationship forming a food chain. storage and movement of nutrient elements
Chemical Energy in the living world is transferred through the different components of the ecosystem
through the food chain. In nature simple food is termed as the nutrient cycling.
chains do not exist. The food relationship are very Two kinds of cycling are (i) gaseous and (ii)
complex forming a kind of food web. sedimentary. Ecosystem cycles has 3 aspects
The examples of food chains are following : (i) input, (ii) output, (iii) internal cycling of
1. GFC (grazing food chain) : nutrients.
They are called biogeochemical cycles. The
Grass $ Goat
(Producer) (Primary consumer or Herbivore) gaseous cycles are “nitrogen cycle, oxygen cycle,
hydrogen and carbon cycles.” The sedimentary
cycles are “sulphur, phosphorus and Calcium
$ Human beings cycles.”
(Secondary consumer or carnivore)
10. Standing sate
2. DFC (detritus food chain) : Standing sate is “the amount of nutrients present
in soil at a given time”.
Saprotrophs $ Detritus consumers $ Gamefish
(microbes) (consumer) 11. Ecological succession: it is known as biotic
succession
1. Ecological succession is called “biotic
7.2 Transfer of Energy
succession.” It refers to “a natural
It follows 10 percent (lindeman law) law. development of a series of biotic communities
at the same place one after the other till the
climax community is developed there.”
Biotic communities are not static. Changes in
a community are the primary and secondary
successions. During succession one community
is replaced by another community.
2. E.L. Brun observed biotic succession in
vegetation. “Plant succession is an ordely
process of community change in an unit areas.”
(E.P. Odum).
Biotic succession brings about progressive
drastic changes in habitats. They may be
extreme to optimum for the plants. The life
7.3 Ecological Pyramid forms are changed during biotic succession.
In a food chain the numbers at the successive Biotic, topographic and climatic factors
higher level get gradually smaller, forming a may cause succession. Succession starts in
kind of food pyramid. There are three ecological different environmental conditions upto
pyramids : climax. Sometimes the actual climax may be
1. pyramid of biomass, destroyed by grazing, fire, cutting etc. The
climax may be replaced due to some factors.
2. pyramid of energy and
The modified climax is called disclimax.
3. pyramid of number.
3. Succession may be primary or secondary.
The base of a pyramid is broad. It narrows
towards the apex. Succession may be of following types:
mesosere, halosere, xerosere (on track or
8. trophic level sand), hydrosere (in pond or lake), lithosere
The trophic level is the position that an organism (on rocks) and serlue (miniature biotic
occupies in a food chain. succession of microbes).
Some areas are destroyed or modified by
9. Nutrient cycling man by his own activities. The secondary
It includes “the storage and transfer of nutrients succession starts on these areas with grasses
through various components.” Therefore, the and herbs. There are pioneer communities
 too. They are then replaced by shrubs and 14. biomes of the world
trees. The climax stage is woodland stage. The major biomes are: (i) Tundra, (ii) Northern
4. Ecosystem Development is called ecological conifer forest, (iii) Deciduous forest, (iv) Tropical
succession. Monoclimax theory pleads for rain forest, (v) Chaparral, (vi) Tropical Savannah,
only one climax which is determined by the (vii) Grassland, (viii) Desert.
climate of the area. (a) Tundra Biomes is located in Europe, North
Polyclimax theory was proposed by A.G. America, Asia about 60c N latitude. Trees are
Tansley and it holds that climax is determined absent in this area.
by many factors. (b) Taiga includes north coniferous forest of North
5. Sere : The whole series of communities (plant America, Europe and Asia. The rainfall is 10-
and animal life) which develop in a given 30 cm .
area is called a sere. e.g., Serial communities (c) Deciduous Forests are found in temperate
in rooted submerged stage are Vallisneria region of North Central Europe, Eastern Asia
and Potamogeton. Climatic climax is “the and Eastern United States.
maximum temperature at which a community (d) Tropical Rain Forests are located in equatorial
survives.” It is the last stage of succession in a regions where the annual rainfall exceeds
locality. 140 cm in Central America, South America
(a) Secondary Succession : It occurs when an etc. They are dominated by the trees.
early community gets damaged due to pets,
(e) Chaparral biome is called mediterranian
fire, floods, leaving only a few species to
scrub forest. Characterised by very limiting
survive.
winter rain.
It due course of time, new species get
established and the secondary succession (f) Tropical Savannah are tropical grassland and
ends. are dominated by herbaceous species. They
Secondary succession is also called subsere. are meadow like and treeless found in South
Examples of secondary succession are America, Africa and Australia where the
grasslands and forests. average rainfall is 100-150 cm.
(g) The Temperature Grasslands are found in
12. Plant succession the Prairies of Canada and U.S.A., Pampas
The biotic community is dynamic and undergoes in South America and Steppes in Europe
changes with the passage of time. These changes and America and velds in Africa. The annual
are sequentially ordered and constitute succession. rainfall is from 25-75 cm.
Succession involves “replacement of one (h) Desert Biomes are found is South Western
community by the other”. Succession begins with Mexico, Coastal aera of Chille and Peru,
invasion of the barren area by the pioneer species, Sahara desert of North Africa and Gobi.
which later, make way for other species. Ultimately,
They have low herb and shrub covers with
succession leads to a climax community.
bare ground, Thar desert of Asia etc. Their
The climax community remains stable as long
climate is very hot and dry with low rain fall
as environment remains unchanged.
and high evaporation rate. The animals found
Communities between pioneer and climax
stages are called seral. Succession on sand is called there are called desert animals.
psammosere. Succession in water is hydrosere. 15. Marine Ecosystem
Succession in dry places/deserts is called
xerosere. Succession on sand dunes is primary The main characteristics of marine environment
succession. The last established community of is high salinity. The deep waters of the ocean
plant succession is called climax community. basin are vertically divided into an upper layer
Succession in water is hydrosere. Succession in of euphotic zone followed by less lighted euphotic
dry places/deserts is called xerosere. zone and their dark abyssal zone. The three major
environments are-(i) littoral, (ii) benthonic and
13. Ecosystem services (iii) pelagic. Marine-life can be classified into-(i)
The various products of ecosystem processes Phytoplankton and (ii) Zooplankton.
are called ecosystem services. The examples are 16. Fresh water ecosystems
purification of air, purification of the water by
forests. They are lentic and lotic system. Lakes and
 species colonise an area and their populations productivity depends on the producers inhabiting
become more numerous, whereas populations of a particular area. Decomposers breakdown
other species decline and even disappear. complex organic matter into inorganic substances
Thus (a) is correct option. like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients. Parasitic
species feed on the body of other organism.
15. Most animals that in deep oceanic water are Thus (c) is correct option.
(a) primary consumers
(b) secondary consumers 19. Which one of the following is not a gaseous
(c) tertiary consumers biogeochemical cycle in ecosystem?
(a) Sulphur cycle
(d) detritivores
(b) Phosphorus cycle


Ans : FREIGN 2020
(c) Nitrogen cycle
Most animals that live in deep oceanic waters
(d) Carbon cycle
and called benthos are scavengers or detritivores.
These organisms include crustaceans, polychaetes

Ans : DELHI 2007
and some microorganisms. Phosphorus cycle is a sedimentary biogeochemical
Thus (d) is correct option. cycle. It describes the movement of phosphorus
through the lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere
16. If 20 J of energy is trapped at producer level, then and the main reservoir pool is lithosphere.
how much energy will be available to peacock as Atmosphere does not play any significant role in
food in the following chain? the movement of phosphorus because phosphorus
Plant " Mice " Snake " Peacock and phosphorus based compounds are usually
(a) 0.02 J (b) 0.002 J solids at the typical ranges of temperature and
(c) 0.2 J (d) 0.0002 J pressure found on earth. The production of


Ans : SQP 2013 phosphine gas occurs only in specialised, local
According to 10% law of energy flow by Raynold conditions.
Lindeman. The total amount of energy that can Thus (b) is correct option.
be transferred to the next trophic level is the 10% 20. Which one of the following is not a functional unit
hence, peacock will receive 0.02 J of energy as top of an ecosystem?
consumer. (a) Energy flow (b) Decomposition
Energy received by other organisms are
(c) Productivity (d) Stratification
Plant " 20 J


Ans : OD 2010
Mice " 20 # 10% = 2 J Stratification is not the functional unit of
Snake " 2 # 10% = 0.2 J ecosystem. Vertical distribution of different species
occupying different levels is called stratification.
Thus (c) is correct option.
It represent the structural unit of an ecosystem.
17. Natural reservoir of phosphorus is For example, trees occupy top vertical strata or
(a) rock (b) fossils layer of a forest, shrubs the second and herbs and
(c) sea water (d) animal bones grasses occupy the bottom layers.


Ans : FOREIGN 2011 Thus (d) is correct option.
The natural reservoir of phosphorus is in phosphate 21. The upright pyramid of number is absent in
rocks. Phosphate is added in small amount into (a) pond (b) forest
the cycling pool through weathering of rocks.
(c) lake (d) grassland
Phosphate circulate in the abiotic environment in
lithosphere as well as hydrosphere.

Ans : DELHI 2019
Thus (a) is correct option. Pyramid of number represents the number of
individuals per unit area at various trophic levels.
18. Secondary productivity is rate of formation of
It is always upright in grassland, pond and lake
new organic matter by
ecosystems. But in forest or single tree ecosystem,
(a) producer (b) parasite
it is spindle-shaped and of parasitic food chain is
(c) consumer (d) decomposer considered then it will be an inverted pyramid.


Ans : COMP 2007 Thus (b) is correct option.
Secondary productivity is the rate of formation
of new organic matter by consumers. Primary
9. A river with an inflow of domestic sewage rich in 13. In which of the following both pairs have correct
organic waste may result in combination?
(a) increased population of aquatic food web
organisms (a) Gaseous nutrient Carbon and
(b) an increased production of fish due to cycle nitrogen
biodegradable nutrients Sedimentary Sulphur and
(c) death of fish due to lack of oxygen nutrient cycle phosphorus
(d) drying of the river very soon due to algal (b) Gaseous nutrient Carbon and sulphur
bloom cycle


Ans : SQP 2017 Sedimentary Nitrogen and
A river with an inflow of domestic sewage rich nutrient cycle phosphorus
in organic waste will reduce the dissolved oxygen
(c) Gaseous nutrient Nitrogen and
(DO). The organic waste will increase biological
cycle sulphur
oxygen demand of the river thus depleting the O 2
content and may result in death of fish due to lack Sedimentary Carbon and
of oxygen. nutrient cycle phosphorus
Thus (c) is correct option. (d) Gaseous nutrient Sulphur and
cycle phosphorus
10. Which is the National Aquatic Animal of India?
(a) River dolphin (b) Blue whale Sedimentary Carbon and
(c) Seahorse (d) Gangetic shark nutrient cycle nitrogen


Ans : FOREIGN 2020

Ans : DELHI 2006

River dolphin is the National Aquatic Animal

of India. This mammal exclusively reside in Gaseous nutrient cycle Carbon and nitrogen
freshwater or brackish water. Sedimentary nutrient Sulphur and
Thus (a) is correct option. cycle phosphorus
11. Which one of the following is a characteristic The biogeochemical cycles are of two types, i.e.
feature of cropland ecosystem? gaseous cycles, in which the reservoir for the
(a) Least genetic diversity nutrient elements is in the atmosphere (air) or
hydrosphere (water). The four most abundant
(b) The absence of weeds
elements in the living systems, i.e. hydrogen,
(c) Ecological succession carbon, oxygen and nitrogen have predominantly
(d) The absence of soil organisms gaseous cycles.


Ans : COMP 2015 In sedimentary cycles, the reservoir for the
Cropland ecosystem is largest anthropogenic nutrient elements is in the sediments of the earth.
ecosystem characterised by less diversity and high Elements, such as phosphorus, sulphur, potassium
productivity. and calcium have sedimentary cycles.
Thus (a) is correct option. Thus (a) is correct option.

12. The primary producers of the deep-sea 14. During ecological succession
hydrothermal vent ecosystem are (a) the gradual and predictable change in species
(a) green algae composition occurs in a given area
(b) chemosynthetic bacteria (b) the establishment of a new biotic community
is very fast in its primary phase.
(c) blue-green algae
(c) the numbers and types of animals remain
(d) coral reefs
constant


Ans : OD 2018
(d) the changes lead to a community that is in
The primary producers of the deep-sea near equilibrium with the environment and is
hydrothermal vent ecosystem are archaebacteria. called pioneer community
There have chemosynthetic mode of nutrition.


Ans : SQP 2020
Thus option (b), i.e., chemosynthetic bacteria is
the correct option. The gradual and fairly predictable change in
Thus (b) is correct option. the species composition of a given area is called
ecological succession. During succession some
[Link] about man-made ecosystem. [Link] an arrow diagram showing energy flow


Ans : OD 2014 through different trophic levels.
Man-made ecosystem are artificial ecosystem

Ans : COMP 2011
which are artificially created by man. Here,
natural balance is continuously disturbed by
human interventions eg. croplands, orchards,
gardens, aquarium, etc.
These ecosystem have lesser biodiversity as
compared to natural systems. Whereas the natural
systems do not have definite goals and envolved by
trial and error and their survival value, the man-
made ecosystem is pragmatic with well defined
goals. Man-made systems are more fragile and are
more vulnerable to failure due to lack of diversity
and strong self regulatory systems, characterizing
the natural systems.

[Link] well labelled diagrammatic representation

of an aquatic/pond ecosystem.


Ans : OD 2014

A- Primary consumer
B- Producer
C- Phytoplankton
D- Tertiary consumer
E- Secondary consumer [Link] graphic representation of decomposition
F- Minute floating plankton cycle in a terrestrial ecosystem.


Ans :
[Link] do you understand by an ecosystem?


Ans : OD 2011
The term ecosystem was proposed by A.C.
Tansley in 1935. Ecosystem may be defined as the
system resulting from the integration of all living
and non-living factors of the environment. Thus,
any structural and functional unit of biosphere
where the organisms interact with the physical
environment so that a flow of energy leads to
clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity
and material cycle (i.e., exchange of materials
between living and non-living components)within
the system is known as an ecological system or
ecosystem.
22. The second stage of hydrosere is occupied by (c) It is upright in shape.
plants like (d) Its base is broad.
(a) Azolla (b) Typha


Ans : OD 2015
(c) Salix (d) Vallisneria
Pyramid of energy is graphic representation of


Ans : SQP 2013 energy per unit area sequence-wise in various
Vallisneria is at second stage of hydrosere. It rising trophic levels with producers at the base
starts orginating in a pond with colonisation of and top carnivores at the apex. Pyramid of energy
some phytoplanktons which forms the pioneer is upright in all cases. It is also more accurate
plant community. The stages are than other types of ecological pyramids.
1. Bacteria, blue-green algae and algae Thus (b) is correct option.
2. Hydrilla, Potamogeton and Vallisneria 26. Mass of living matter at a trophic level in an area
3. Nelumbo, Nymphaea, Trapa, Azolla and at any time is called.
Wolffia (a) standing crop (b) detritus
4. Typha and Sagitaria (c) humus (d) standing state
5. Juncus and Cyperus

Ans : COMP 2015
6. Salix and Populus, Almus. Standing crop is the total amount of living
Thus (d) is correct option. matter in a specified population at a particular
time, expressed as biomass (standing biomass) or
23. Identify the possible link ‘A’ in the following food
its equivalent in terms of energy. The standing
chain
crop may vary at different times of the year
Plant " Insect " Frog " ‘A’ " Eagle
for example in a population of deciduous trees
(a) Rabbit (b) Wolf
between summer and winter.
(c) Cobra (d) Parrot Thus (a) is correct option.


Ans : SQP 2018
27. Of the total incident solar radiation the proportion
The given food chain should be
of PAR is
Plant " Insect " Frog " Cobra " Eagle
(a) about 70% (b) about 60%
Thus (c) is correct option.
(c) less than 50% (d) more than 80%
24. Which one of the following statements is correct

Ans : COMP 2012
for secondary succession?
The source of energy in all ecosystem is solar
(a) It occurs on a deforested site.
energy. About 50% of the solar energy incident
(b) It follows primary succession. over earth is present in PAR (Photosynthetically
(c) It is similar to primary succession except that active Radiation). About 1-5% of incident solar
it has a relatively fast pace. radiation or 2-10% of PAR is captured by the
(d) It begins on a bare rock. photosynthetic organisms in the synthesis of


Ans : FOREIGN 2017
organic matter (gross primary productivity).
Roughly 20% of it is consumed in respiration
Secondary succession of subsere is ecological
so that net capture of energy (net primary
succession that takes place in a recently denuded
productivity) is 0.8-4% of incident radiation of
area which still contains a lot of organic debris,
1.6-8% of PAR.
remains and propagules of previous living
Thus (c) is correct option.
organisms. It is more common and caused
by baring of an area due to the forest fires, 28. The biomass available for consumption by the
deforestation, excessive overgrazing, landslides, herbivores and the decomposers is called
earthquakes, repeated floods, etc. (a) net primary productivity
Thus (a) is correct option. (b) secondary productivity
25. Which one of the following statements for pyramid (c) standing crop
of energy is incorrect whereas the remaining three (d) gross primary productivity
are correct?

Ans : DELHI 2019
(a) It show energy content of different trophic
Net primary productivity is equal to the rate of
level of organisms.
organic matter created by photosynthesis minus
(b) It is inverted in shape. the rate of respiration and other losses. It is
 1.97%) occurs as frozen ice caps and glaciers and 43. An ecosystem which can be easily damaged but
0.5% fresh water occurs as ground water. can recover after some time if damaging effect
Thus (d) is correct option. stops, will be having
(a) low stability and high resilience
40. Which one of the following pair is mismatched?
(b) high stability and low resilience
(a) Biomass burning-Release of CO 2
(c) low stability and low resilience
(b) Fossil fuel burning-Release of CO 2
(d) high stability and high resilience
(c) Nuclear power-Radioactive wastes


Ans : DELHI 2008
(d) Solar energy-Green house effect
Stability is the power of a system to be in their


Ans : FOREIGN 2019
state against unfavourable factor. Resilience is
Solar energy is not responsible for green-house the capability or regaining its original shape of
effect instead it is a source of energy for the plants position after being deformed. Hence, it has low
and animals. Green plants prepare their food by stability and high resilience.
the use of this solar energy. CO 2 gas is mainly Thus (a) is correct option.
responsible for greenhouse effect. Excess of this
gas forms a thick layer around the earth and 44. The maximum biomagnification would be in which
prevents re-radiation of earth climate entering sun of the following in case of aquatic ecosystem?
rays to atmosphere. Thus, functions like the glass (a) Fishes (b) Phytoplanktons
panels of a green house (or the glass windows of a (c) Birds (d) Zooplanktons
motor car). This is thus, called greenhouse effect.


Ans : FOREIGN 2005
Thus (d) is correct option.
Non-degradable chemicals enter the food chain
41. Which of the following is expected to have and their concentration goes up as they move
the highest value (gm/m2 /yr) in a grassland up in the food chain. This phenomenon is called
ecosystem? biomagnification. Naturally in a food chain,
(a) Secondary Production (SP) Phytoplankton " Zooplankton " Fishes " Birds,
(b) Tertiary Production (TP) it would be highest in fishes.
Thus (a) is correct option.
(c) Gross Production (GP)
(d) Net Production (NP) 45. Bamboo plant is growing in a far forest then what


Ans : COMP 2015 will be the trophic level of it?
The rate of total capture of energy or rate of total (a) First trophic level (T1)
production of organic material is gross primary (b) Second trophic level (T2)
productivity while the balance or biomass (c) Third trophic level (T3)
remaining after meeting the cost of respiration (d) Fourth trophic level (T4)
of producers is net primary productivity. Hence,


Ans : OD 2008
gross productivity has highest value in grassland
ecosystem. Plants, being photosynthetic, occupy first trophic
Thus (c) is correct option. level (T1) in the food chain.

42. If by radiation all nitrogenase enzymes are

inactivated, then there will be no
(a) fixation of nitrogen in legumes
(b) fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
(c) conversion from nitrate to nitrite in legumes
(d) conversion from ammonium to nitrate in soil


Ans : OD 2016

The enzyme nitrogenase is required for the

process of biological nitrogen fixation in legumes.
Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen occur through
other route also. Neither nitrification (conversion
of ammonium to nitrate) nor conversion of nitrate A trophic level is a step in the flow of energy
to nitrite require nitrogenase. through an ecosystem, such as the step at which
Thus (a) is correct option. plants manufacture food or the at which carnivores
feed on other animals.
34. The slow rate of decomposition of fallen logs in tropical rain forest cover 300000 km2 area. They
nature is due to the contain more than 50% of total flora and fauna
(a) low moisture content of the world.
(b) poor nitrogen content Thus (a) is correct option.
(c) anaerobic environment around them 37. Which one of the following is not used for
(d) low cellulose content constructing of ecological pyramids?


Ans : FOREIGN 2015 (a) Dry weight
The slow rate of decomposition of fallen logs in (b) Number of individuals
nature is due to their low moisture content. (c) Rate of energy flow
The cellulose is in high amount in fallen logs. (d) Fresh weight
The environment arround the fallen logs is


Ans : SQP 2009
aerobic, i.e. O 2 is present.
Thus (a) is correct option. Ecological pyramids are the graphical
representation of the trophic structure and
35. A lake near is village suffered heavy mortality of function at successive trophic levels. Ecological
fishes within a few days. Consider the following pyramids are of three general types, listed as here
reasons for this under:
I. Lots of urea and phosphate fertiliser were 1. Pyramid of Numbers, showing the number of
used in the crope in the vicinity. organisms at each matter.
II. The area was sprayed with DDT by an 2. Pyramid of Biomass, showing the total dry
aircraft. weight of living matter.
III. The lake water turned green and stinky. 3. Pyramid of Energy, showing the rate of energy
IV. Phytoplankton populations in the lake flow/productivity at successive trophic levels.
declined initially thereby greatly reducing Thus, fresh weight is not used for the construction
photosynthesis. of ecological pyramids.
Which two of the above were the main causes of Thus (d) is correct option.
fish mortality in the lake?
(a) II and III (b) III and IV 38. Prolonged liberal irrigation of agricultural fields
(c) I and III (d) I and II is likely to create the problem of
(a) acidity (b) aridity


Ans : COMP 2008
(c) mental toxicity (d) salinity
A lake near a village suffered heavy mortality of
fishes within a few days. Because lots of urea and

Ans : OD 2024, 2005
phosphate fertiliser were used in the crops in the Prolonged liberal irrigation of agricultural fields
vicinity and the area was sprayed with DDT by create the problem of salinity. Since, all surface
an aircraft. ground water contains salts to varying degrees,
Inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen are responsible irrigation is the primary cause which brings
for the growth of algae. In polluted water these salinity to the field.
increase due to which algae increase greatly at Thus (d) is correct option.
the surface of water forming water bloom. Due
to death of these algae their organic matter gets 39. More than 70% of world’s fresh water is contained
decomposed due to which oxygen gets depleted in
and aquatic animal dies. (a) Antarctic
Thus (d) is correct option. (b) glaciers and mountains
(c) greenland
36. Which of the following ecosystem types has the
(d) polar ice
highest annual net primary productivity?
(a) Tropical rain forest

Ans : SQP 2013

(b) Tropical deciduous forest More than 70% of word’s fresh water is contained
(c) Temperate evergreen forest in Polar ice. Three-fourth surface of earth is
occupied by oceans which contain 97.5% of total
(d) Temperate deciduous forest
water. This is marine water with about 3.5% salt


Ans : DELHI 2020 contents. Rest water, i.e. 2.5% is fresh water which
Productivity of tropical rain forest is highest. The occurs on land. Most amount of this water (about
 and then to organisms feeding on detritivores, e.g.

ASSERTION AND REASO
insect larva, nematodes. This food chain is also
called as saprophytic food chain.
Thus (b) is correct option.


DIRECTION : Each of these questions contains as
72. Which of the following food chain is correct ? Assertion following by Reason. Read them carefully and
(a) Grass " Chameleon " Insect " Bird answer the question on the basis of following options.
(b) Grass " Fox " Rabbit " Bird You have to select the one that best describes the two
(c) Phytoplankton " Zooplankton " Fish statements.
(d) Fallen leaves " Bacteria " Insect larvae
76. Assertion : A network of food chains existing


Ans : SQP 2006
together in an ecosystem is known as food web.
The correct food chain as: Reason : An animal like kite cannot be a part of
Phytoplankton " Zooplankton " Fish a food web.
i.e. Producers " Primary consumer " Secondary (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
consumer Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
Thus (c) is correct option. (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
Reason is not the correct explanation of
73. What is true of ecosystem?
Assertion.
(a) Primary consumers are least dependent upon
producers (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is
incorrect.
(b) Primary consumers out-number producers
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
(c) Producers are more than primary consumers
(d) Secondary consumers are the largest and

Ans : OD 2011
most powerful In the food web, different food chains are
interconnected. Each chain is interconnected and


Ans : FOREIGN 2015
consists of different trophic levels i.e. producers,
In an ecosystem producers (green plants) are consumers and detrivorous. So, kite can also be a
always more than primary consumers (herbivores). part of food web.
Thus (c) is correct option. Thus (c) is correct option.
74. In an ecosystem, which one shows one-way passage 77. Assertion : Biotic community has higher position
(a) free energy (b) carbon than population in ecological hierarchy.
(c) nitrogen (d) potassium Reason : Population of similar individuals remains


Ans : DELHI 2010 isolated in the community.
The flow of energy in any ecosystem is (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
unidirectional. The only source of energy is Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
sunlight. It gets trapped by producers then it (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
flows from herbivores to carnivores or consumers Reason is not the correct explanation of
at different trophic level. Assertion.
Thus (a) is correct option. (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is
incorrect.
75. Upper part of sea/aquatic ecosystem contains (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
(a) plankton (b) nekton


Ans : COMP 2019
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) benthos
The organisms of all the species that live in a


Ans : COMP 2015 particular area and interact in various ways with one
Planktons are passively floating organisms living another form biotic community. Biotic community
in the surface layers of water due to absence of is a grouping that is higher than population in
locomotory organs, they are of two types: ecological hierarchy. It is an assemblage of all the
Phytoplankton (photosynthetic plankton) and populations of different organisms occurring in an
[Link] nektons are actively floating area. The different populations of a community
organisms and benthos are found in the bottom do not remain isolated. They show interactions
and are usually sessile. and interdependence.
Thus (a) is correct option. Thus (c) is correct option.
 Thus (a) is correct option. 50. The response of different organisms to the
environmental rhythms of light and darkness is
46. The greatest biomass of autotrophs in the world’s called
oceans is that of (a) phototaxis (b) phototropism
(a) benthic brown algae, coastal red algae and
(c) vernalisation (d) photoperiodism
dephnids.


Ans : DELHI 2017
(b) benthic diatoms and marine viruses.
Photoperiodism is the term to denote a biological
(c) sea grasses and slime molds.
response to changes in the ratio of light and
(d) free-floating micro-algee, cyanobaceria and darkness in a 24 hour cycle.
nanoplankton. Thus (d) is correct option.


Ans : SQP 2017

The greatest biomass of autotrophs in the 51. Warm ocean surge of the Peru current recurring
world’s ocean is that of free floating micro-algae, every 5 to 8 year or so in the East Pacific of South
cyanobacteria and nanoplankton. Phytoplanktons, America is widely known as
diatoms and dinoflagellates are the dominant (a) Magnox (b) Gull stream
producers in the world’s cceans. (c) El Nino (d) Aye Aye
Thus (d) is correct option.

Ans : SQP 2018

EL Nino is a warm ocean surge of Peru current

47. The transfer of energy from one trophic level
(flowing North from Antarctica along the West
to another is governed by the 2nd law of
coast of South America to South Equador, the
thermodynamics. The average efficiency of energy
West). It recurs every 5-8 year or so, in the East
transfer form herbivores to carnivores is
Pacific of South America.
(a) 5% (b) 10%
Thus (c) is correct option.
(c) 25% (d) 50%


Ans : FOREIGN 2016 52. In a terrestrial ecosystem such as forest, maximum
According to 10% law of Lindeman, only 10% of energy is in which trophic level?
energy is transferred from one trophic level to (a) T1 (b) T2
another, i.e. from herbivores to carnivores. (c) T3 (d) T4
Thus (b) is correct option.

Ans : OD 2005
There is 90% loss of energy at every trophic level.
48. Drawback of DDT as pesticide is
Therefore, maximum energy is at T1 level.
(a) it becomes ineffective after some time.
Thus (a) is correct option.
(b) it is less effective than others.
(c) it is not easily/rapidly degraded in nature. 53. Plants such as Prosopis, Acacia and Capparis
(d) its high cost. represent examples of tropical
(a) grasslands (b) thorn forests


Ans : OD 2007
(c) deciduous forests (d) evergreen forests
DDT is non-degradable and so accumulates in
the environment and its concentration increases

Ans : COMP 2008

as it pass from organisms of one trophic level to Flora of thorn forests include Prosopis cinearia,
another resulting into highest concentration in Acacia senagal, Capparis decidua, Salvadora
man. oleoides, Aspaagus racemosus and Ephedra foliata.
Thus (c) is correct option. Thus (b) is correct option.

49. The plant which bears clinging roots is 54. The rate at which light energy is converted
(a) Podostemon (b) orchid into chemical energy of organic molecules is the
(c) Trapa (d) Screwpine ecosystem’s
(a) net primary productivity


Ans : COMP 2008
(b) gross secondary productivity
Clinging roots are modified adventitious roots (c) net secondary productivity
meant for providing mechanical support. These (d) gross primary productivity
arise from the axils of leaves or nodes of the stem

Ans : OD 2009
and pierce the substratum plant to facilitate
Plants, found in an ecosystem are known as
fixation e.g. orchids, ivy.
producers, because they can prepare food for
Thus (b) is correct option.
 2. Double Consumers : Organisms like ants, [Link] between producers and decomposers.
bear, man. These are omnivores. They belong

Ans : SQP 2005
to more than one category e.g., man is a The difference between producers and decomposers
primary consumer when vegetarian and a are as follows :
secondary consumer when non-vegetarian.
3. Both Producers and Consumers : There are Producers Decomposers
insectivorous plants which are producers and 1. These are green These are non-green
secondary consumers. plants which microorganisms
4. Scavengers and Detritivores : These are synthesize their own feed on the dead
animals which feed on animals killed by food by the process bodies of plants and
predators or on decaying organic matter or of photosynthesis. animals.
dead organisms like earthworms, termites, They are also called
vultures etc. autotrophs.
2. They convert the They enrich the
[Link] the major kinds of ecosystem. raw materials in the earth by releasing


Ans : COMP 2019 soil, air and water raw materials
An ecosystem can be as small as an edge of pond into carbohydrates trapped in dead
or as big as ocean. Biotic communities are spread which give them bodies of the plants
everywhere except snowing highest altitudes. food. and animals.
Land, water or air shown presence of living
3. They are dependent They are dependent
organisms. The major ecosystems of the world
on decomposers for on plants and
are:
soil nutrients. animals for their
Aquatic Terrestrial Artificial food.
Ecosystem Ecosystem Man -made
Ecosystem
[Link] to uncontrolled excessive hunting, the
(1) Marine (3) Forest population of tigers in a forest becomes zero.
(a) Oceans (a) Tropical (a) Aquarium Discuss the long-term effect of this situation on
the population of deer in that forest.
(b) Sea shore (b) Temperate (b) Crop
(coastal) fields


Ans : FOREIGN 2007
In a forest ecosystem, the predator food chain
(c) Brackish (c) Taiga (c) Spaceship occurs like this:
(2) Fresh (4) Grasland (d) Garden Grass " Deer " Tiger
Water and parks
As a result of excessive hunting, the tiger
(Lotic)
population in a forest becomes zero. This will
(a) Lakes (a) Tropical (e) Small lead to an increase in the population of deer.
and fishery Consequently, the amount of grass in the forest
revers tanks decreases. In long term, if such a situation exists,
(b) Spring (b) Temperate (f) Animal it will cause a decrease in deer population due
and husbandry to intra-specific competition among dee for grass.
ponds Thus, due to excessive grazing the forest may
(c) Swamp (c) Desert (g) Dams and turn into a desert after a long time.
reservoirs
(d) Tundra [Link] soil is rich in nutrients in the tropical rain
forests?


Ans : OD 2010

Soil in tropical rain forests is rich in minerals

and humus because the high temperature and
moisture and favourable for the decomposition
of fallen leaves and dead organic matter by the
decomposers, through the process of humification.
63. If we completely remove the decomposers from (c) tropical rain forests
an ecosystem, its functioning will be adversely (d) temperature forests
affected because


Ans : COMP 2015
(a) energy flow will be blocked.
Bulk CO 2 -fixation occurs in oceans. The
(b) herbivores will not receive solar energy.
productivity of ocean ecosystem is very high, here
(c) mineral movement will be blocked. phytoplanktons, e.g. diatoms are the greatest
(d) rate of decomposition will be very high. producers.


Ans : COMP 2016 Thus (b) is correct option.
Decomposers like fungi, bacteria and 68. The pyramid which cannot be inverted in a stable
Actinomycetes are also called mineralisers as ecosystem is that of
they release minerals trapped in organic matter. (a) biomass (b) number
Thus, they help in recycling of minerals, so if
(c) energy (d) All of the above
we completely remove decomposers the mineral
movement will be blocked.

Ans : OD 2005
Thus (c) is correct option. Pyramid of energy is graphic representation of
amount of energy trapped per unit time and area
64. In grass-deer-tiger food chain, grass biogas is one in different trophic levels of a food chain with
tonne. The tiger biomass shall be producers forming the base and top carnivores or
(a) 100 kg (b) 10 kg consumers the tip. It is always upright in shape.
(c) 200 kg (d) 1 kg Thus (c) is correct option.


Ans : DELHI 2011
69. Pyramid of number in a pond ecosystem is
According to 10% law of Lindemann, if 1 tonne (a) irregular (b) inverted
(1000 kg) biomass is present in grass, only 10%
(c) upright (d) spindle-shaped
of it means 100 kg will go into deer and in tiger
the biomass will be only 10 kg, i.e. 10% of deer’s

Ans : FOREIGN 2015

biomass. Pyramid of number in a pond ecosystem is

Thus (b) is correct option. upright of erect, in which producers are maximum
in number and top consumers are least in number.
65. Second most important trophic level in a lake is Thus (c) is correct option.
(a) zooplankton (b) phytoplankton
(c) benthos (d) neuston 70. Pyramid of number deals with number of


Ans : OD 2016 (a) species in an area
(b) individuals in a community
In a lake ecosystem, the first trophic level is
occupied by phytoplankton and then in second (c) individuals in a trophic level
trophic level there are zooplanktons which are (d) sub-species in a community
primary consumers.

Ans : OD 2009
Thus (a) is correct option. Pyramid of number is a graphic representation
of the number of organisms per unit area of
66. Xeric environment is characterised by various trophic levels. It deals with the number
(a) precipitation of individuals in a trophic level. It deals with the
(b) low atmospheric humidity number of individuals in a trophic level.
(c) extreme of temperature Thus (c) is correct option.
(d) high rate of vapourisation
71. Food chain in which micro-organisms breakdown


Ans : SQP 2011 the food formed by primary producers are
Xeric environment is characterised by low (a) parasitic food chain
atmosphiric humidity. This environment is found (b) detritus food chain
in deserts. (c) consumer food chain
Thus (b) is correct option.
(d) predator food chain
67. Bulk CO 2 -fixation occurs in

Ans : SQP 2013
(a) crop plants Detritus food chain goes from dead organic
(b) oceans matter to detritivorous protozoa, bacteria, fungi
 phosphates. Small amounts of phosphates get
dissolved in soil solution. These are absorbed
by plant roots. Herbivorus obtain phosphorus
from plants. There is no release of phosphorus
into atmosphere. There is negligible exchange of
phosphorus in gaseous form between environment
and organisms. Similarly, phosphorus input in
atmosphere through rainfall is mush lesser than
inputs of carbon.

[Link] important features of carbon cycling in

an ecosystem.


Ans : FOREIGN 2014
About 70% of the total quantity of global
carbon is present dissolved in ocean water.
The atmosphere has only 1% of total global
carbon. Cycling of carbon takes place through
[Link] is it difficult to draw sharp boundaries
atmospheric ocean and the organisms. A huge
between ecosystem?
amount of CO 2 is fixed through photosynthesis


Ans : OD 2013
per year. A good amount of this CO 2 is returned
to atmosphere through respiration of producers An ecosystem is an area in which the inputs and
and consumers. Decomposes also add a good outputs can be studied across its boundaries and
amount of CO 2 into atmosphere. Burning of fuels, for convenience it is considered a separate entity.
combustion of organic matter and forest fires and However, the ecosystems are not strictly separate.
volcanoes also release CO 2 in the atmosphere. Their boundaries are indistinct and overlapping
Burning of fossil fuels for transport and energy and some movements of energy and materials,
have already increased the release rate of CO 2 always occur from one ecosystem to another.
into the atmosphere. Rapid deforestation has also Thus it is difficult to draw sharp boundaries
increased CO 2 levels in oxygen. All these human between ecosystems. e.g., Soil material may be
activities are responsible for green-house effect eroded from a forest ecosystem and washed into
and global warming. the adjoining stream or dust blown from a desert
ecosystem may deposit over another ecosystem
located miles away.
[Link] a note on Solar energy and show
diagrammatically the fate of solar radiation
incident on plant canopy.


Ans : COMP 2012
Solar Energy : Energy from sun is the ultimate
source of energy in all the living systems of earth.
Enormous energy is released at every moment
from the sun and it is spread out in the space.
Just 1% total sun’s energy reach on the earth. It [Link] is earth considered as closed system so far as
is near about of 12.3 # 1024 calorie each year. But materials are concerned?
is also true that all of this quantity does not reach

Ans : DELHI 2020

on the earth’s surface and the reason behind is the The earth is considered as a closed system so
components of atmosphere like clouds, smoke and far as materials are considered because there is
dust particles which change the nature of solar cycling of materials from non-living and again
radiations. Some of the amount of energy of the to non-living which are essential for sustainance
sun which reach on the earth go back to nature, and maintenances to life such as oxygen, carbon,
just a small quantity fall on the plants. Thus it nitrogen, water and minerals is finite, no material
is estimated that only the tenth part of 1% of comes from outside the planet earth.
energy of the sun reaching on the earth’s surface
is used by the plants in photosynthesis and this [Link] a graphic representation of trophic levels in
energy is 4 # 1014 cal per second. an ecosystem.
78. Assertion : Net primary productivity is gross Reason is not the correct explanation of
primary productivity minus respiration. Assertion.
Reason : Secondary productivity is produced by (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is
heterotrophs. incorrect.
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.


Ans : FOREIGN 2020
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
Energy flow in the ecosystem is a unidirectional
Reason is not the correct explanation of
manner. There is a decline in the amount of
Assertion.
energy passing from one trophic level to the next.
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is Thus the pyramid of energy is always upright.
incorrect. According to Lindemann, only 10% of energy goes
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect. to next trophic level.


Ans : COMP 2020 Thus (d) is correct option.
Net primary productivity is the rate of organic
matter build up or stored by producers in their
bodies per unit time and area. Net productivity

VERY SHORT Answer QUESTION
is equal to gross primary productivity minus loss
due to respiration and other reasons. Rate of
increase in energy containing organic matter or 81. Net primary productivity. Name the two basic
biomass by heterotrophs or consumers per unit categories of an ecosystem.
time and area is known as secondary productivity.

Ans : OD 2010

Thus (b) is correct option. Natural and artificial ecosystem.

82. ‘Ecosystem is called an interactive system’. Name

79. Assertion : In a food chain, members of successive
a functional aspect of ecosystem which justifies
higher levels are fewer in number.
the above statement.
Reason : Number of organisms at any trophic
level depends upon the availability of organisms

Ans : DELHI 2016

which serve as food at the lower level. Energy exchange and flow of nutrient cycling (any
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and one).
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. 83. How is stratification represented in forest
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but ecosystem?
Reason is not the correct explanation of

Ans : DELHI 2014
Assertion. Stratification is the way in which different species
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is in an ecosystem are placed or arranged vertically,
incorrect. occupying different levels. It is a way of minimising
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect. competition for limited resources vital for survival


Ans : OD 2006 84. Why are green algae not likely to be found in the
When food is made available, automatically the deepest strata of the ocean?
next higher level of organism in the hierarchy


Ans : OD 2013
should increase. This is because when the
Green algae are autotrophic organisms, i.e.
forest cover got depleted it led to the increase
they synthesise their own food with the help of
in the number of endangered species. If the deer
photosynthesis. At deepest layers of ocean, light
population is more, it automatically leads to an
is absent. So, photosynthesis does not take place
increase in the tiger population.
there and hence, green algae are not found in deep
Thus (d) is correct option.
strata.
80. Assertion : Pyramid of energy may be upright or 85. All primary productivity is not available for
inverted. herbivores. Give one reason.
Reason : Only 20% of energy goes to next trophic

Ans : DELHI 2009
level. Some of the gross primary productivity gets lost
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and in the form of respiration, that is why all primary
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. productivity is not available for herbivores.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
 acids to dissolve rocks, helping in weathering [Link] does phosphorus cycle differ from carbon
and soil formation. These pave way for some cycle?
small plants like bryophytes, which are able to

Ans : FOREIGN 2019
take hold in the small amount of soil. They are, Differences between carbon cycle and phosphorus
with time, succeeded by herbs stage, then shrub cycle are as follows:
stage and then bigger plants, and ultimately a
stable climax community i.e., forest is formed. Carbon Cycle Phosphorus Cycle
The climax community remains stable as long
1. Its major Its major
as the environment remains unchanged. With
component is component is non-
time, the xerophytic habitat gets converted into a
gaseous. gaseous.
mesophytic one.
Lichens (Pioneer community) " Bryophytes " 2. There is respiratory There is no
Herbaceous plants " Shrubs " Trees (Climax release of carbon as respiratory release
community). CO 2 . of phosphere.
3. Its cycling pool Its cycling pool is
[Link] the differences and the similarities
is present in lithosphere.
between hydrach and xerach succession of plants.
hydrosphere and


Ans : DELHI 2011
atmosphere.
Differences between hydrarch and xerarch
succession are as follows: 4. Its reservoir pool is Its reservoir pool is
atmosphere. lithosphere.
Xerarch Succession Hydrarch Succession 5. Atmospheric It is negligible.
1. It begins with It begins with input of carbon
lichens or blue phytoplankons. through rainfall is
green algae. appreciable.
2. Initial succession is Initial succession is 6. There is exchange There is no such
a slow process. quite fast. of carbon between exchange.
organisms and
3. Succession is seen Succession is
environment.
all over the area. observed in area
where water is not
very deep. [Link] carbon is fixed in the biosphere through
photosynthesis. Explain any two ways by which
4. The whole of the Climax community carbon is returned to the atmosphere.
area is involved develop on the edge

Ans : SQP 2008
in formation of only.
The two ways by which carbon is returned to the
climax community.
atmosphere are:
5. Succession It converts aquatic 1. By respiration of all living organisms: During
converts xeric environment into respiration, all living organisms release carbon
environment into mesic environment. dioxide which returns to atmosphere thereby
mesic environment. replenishing its amount in the atmosphere.
6. It reduces bare It fills up water body 2. By burning of fossil fuels: Fossil fuels like
land area and and changes it into coal, petroleum and natural gas are rich
converts it into forested land. source of carbon. On burning, they release
fertile forested carbon in the form of carbon dioxide back to
area. the atmosphere.
Similarities between hydrarch and xerarch
succession are as follows: [Link] a simplified model of phosphorus cycling in
1. Both start with pioneer communities and end terrestrial ecosystems.
in a climax one.

Ans : COMP 2016

2. Both end in a mesic environment. A simplified model of phosphorus cycle is as

3. Both lead from low to high diversity of life. follows:
4. Both result in gradual increase of biomass.
5. Both involve considerable niche specialisation.
[Link] any two ways of measuring the standing crop [Link] does the base tier of ecological pyramid
of a trophic level. represent?


Ans : FOREIGN 2010

Ans : FOREIGN 2013
Two ways of measuring the standing crop of Producer or first trophic level.
atrophic level are
(i) Biomass of living organisms. [Link] are series?
(ii) Number in an unit area.

Ans : COMP 2016
The entire sequence of communities that change
[Link] do you understand by the term seral stage? in a given area.


Ans : COMP 2007
An individual transitional community in ecological
succession.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTION
[Link] what conditions would a particular stage
in the process of succession revert back to an [Link] in brief about nitrogen fixation from
earlier stage? atmosphere.


Ans : SQP 2014

Ans : OD 2016
Natural or human induced disturbances like fire, The cyclic process by which nitrogen is circulated
deforestation, etc. continuously through the living and non-living
components of the biosphere is called nitrogen
[Link] a major reservoir of carbon on earth.
cycle. It has following stages.


Ans : OD 2011
Ocean. 1. Nitrogen Fixation : In it, free atmospheric
nitrogen gas is converted into compound
[Link] much of carbon is dissolved in the oceans? of nitrogen It takes place physically in


Ans : FOREIGN 2005 atmosphere during lightning while on earth
About 71%. surface it is biologically performed by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Azotobacter and
[Link] the two forms of reservoir of carbon, that Clostridium and symbiotic bacteria like
regulate the ecosystem carbon cycle. Rhizobium associated with root nodules of


Ans : SQP 2018 certain leguminous plants like pulses, pea,
Atmosphere and oceans. beans, etc. These microbes fix atmospheric
nitrogen into nitrates.
[Link] much carbon is fixed in the biosphere
through photosynthesis annually? 2. Nitrogen Assimilation : Along with water,


Ans : FOREIGN 2006
plants absorb inorganic nitrogen compounds,
4 # 1013 kg. i.e., nitrates and ammonium salts and convert
them into amino acids, nucleotides and other
[Link] the basic requirement of any ecosystem to nitrogenous compounds. These proteins and
function and sustain. other complex compounds are subsequently


Ans : COMP 2005 consumed by animals.
Biotic and abiotic factors. 3. Ammonification : In it, Complex organic
compounds like proteins and nucleic acids
[Link] are more numerous, secondary consumers
of dead and decaying organisms is converted
or tertiary consumers?
into ammonia. It is carried out by several


Ans : OD 2010
heterotrophic bacteria, actionmycetes and
Secondary consumers. fungi present in soil and water.
[Link] two major groups of organisms make up 4. Nitrification : Here, ammonia is converted
the bulk of decomposers? into nitrites and nitrates by nitrifying bacteria


Ans : DELHI 2015 in the soil.
Fungi and bacteria. 5. De Nitrification : This process involves the
conversion of nitrate salts present in the
[Link] which case, the pyramid of number is inverted? soil or water into free molecular nitrogen.


Ans : SQP 2020 Denitrifying bacteria such as Pseudomonas
In a tree ecosystem. carry out this conversion.
86. Mention any two reasons why the primary 91. Name the common detritivores in an ecosystem .
productivity varies in different types of

Ans : SQP 2020
ecosystems? Earthworms.


Ans : OD 2014
The primary productivity varies in different types 92. Define mineralisation.
of ecosystems as

Ans : FOREIGN 2010

(i) It depends upon plant species (producers) of The process of degradation of humus by microbial
a given ecosystem and their photosynthetic action and release of inorganic nutrients.
capacity. 93. Mention one similarity between hydrarch and
(ii) It is dependent on various environmental xerarch successions.
factors like availability of nutrients.

Ans : OD 2010
Both succession lead to medium water conditions
87. What does ‘R’ represent in the given equation for (mesic), neither too dry, nor too wet.
productivity in an ecosystem?
GPP - R = NPP 94. Expand PAR.


Ans : DELHI 2014

Ans : FOREIGN 2013
In the given equation for productivity in an Photosynthetically Active Radiation.
ecosystem,
95. Man can be a primary as well as secondary
GPP – R = NPP. consumer’. Justify this statement.
‘R’ represents the energy utilised by plants or

Ans : FOREIGN 2015
producers in respiration. It is also referred to as Man can be a primary as well as secondary
respiration losses. consumer because man eats plants as well as meat
88. Write the equation that helps in deriving the net of other animals.
primary productivity of an ecosystem. So, man is herbivores as well as carnivores.


Ans : COMP 2012 96. What is the starting point of a grazing food chain
Net Primary Productivity (NPP) is the weight of and of a detritus food chain?
the organic matter stored by the producers which

Ans : DELHI 2012
is available to heterotrophs for consumption. It Producers and dead organic matter, respectively.
is equal to the rate of organic matter produced
during photosynthesis GPP minus respiratory 97. Name any two organisms, which can occupy more
losses (R), i.e. NPP = GPP - R. than one trophic level in an ecosystem.


Ans : COMP 2016
89. Write a difference between net primary Human being (man) and birds (sparrow) can be
productivity and gross primary productivity. frequently seen in more than one trophic level, in


Ans : OD 2011 an ecosystem.
Difference between GPP and NPP is
98. Why is a food web formed in nature?
Gross Primary Net Primary


Ans : SQP 2008
Productivity (GPP) Productivity (NPP)
Food web is formed by interconnecting food
It is the rate of It refers to the chains.
production of biomass/organic
biomass/organic matter available for 99. Define trophic level.
matter by producers the consumption to

Ans : OD 2024, 2017
during photosynthesis heterotrophs, left Trophic level is the specific position of an organism
after some respiratory in the food chain.
losses.
[Link] what does standing crop of a trophic level
90. Mr. Galgotia eats curd/yoghurt. In this case, represent.
which trophic level will he occupy?

Ans : OD 2013


Ans : COMP 2018 Standing crop represents total amount of living
Tertiary consumer. matter or organic matter present in an ecosystem
in an unit area and at a specific time.
[Link] the components of an ecosystem.

Ans : FOREIGN 2011

Ans : DELHI 2016 The process of breakdown of complex organic

The main components of the ecosystem are: matter into simple inorganic substances like
biotic and abiotic (1) Producers (2) Consumers nutrients, carbon dioxide and water is called
(3) Decomposers are biotic components. The decomposition.
abiotic components are soil, water, temperature, The important steps of decomposition are:
light etc. The producers are green plants, algae, (1) Fragmentation, (2) leaching, (3) catabolism,
phytoplankton etc. who undergo photosynthesis (4) humification and (5) mineralization.
and capture the solar energy. They produce Fragmentation is the break down of detritus into
organic food. The consumers are herbivores smaller particles by detrivores like earthworms.
and carnivores both. In aquatic eco-systems, Leaching is the perolation of water soluble salts
zooplanktons are the primary consumers, fishes into soil.
are the primary and secondary consumers, both. Catabolism is degradation of detritus into simple
Similarly in a forest ecosystem, the producers inorganic substances.
are green plants of different types. Primary Humification is accumulation of dark coloured
consumers are the grass eating animals including amorphous substance called humus. It is highly
human beings (herbivores). The secondary resistant to microbial action.
consumers are meat eaters and they eat the Mineralization is further breakdown of humus
herbivores and finally there are top consumers or by microbes to release the inorganic nutrients.
top carnivores like vultures etc. The decomposers Decomposition requires oxygen supply. Climatic
are the bacteria and fungi. They breakdown the factors and chemical nature of deteritus also
dead organic matter of dead plants and animals determine the decomposition rate. The most
to simpler inorganic forms. These are taken up important climatic factors for decomposition are
by green plants from the soil and again converted soil moisture and temperature. Warm and moist
into organic food using solar energy. conditions help in decomposition.
Thus producers are autotrophs and consumers
[Link] an account of energy flow in an ecosystem.
are heterotrophs. Decomposition leads to
mineralisation of dead matter for reuse by

Ans : SQP 2009

autotrophs. These events keep on being repeated Sun is the primary source of energy for all ecosystem
in the ecosystem. except for the deep hydrothermal ecosystem in sea.
Green plants and photosynthetic bacteria convert
[Link] is primary productivity? Give brief solar energy into organic food using minerals,
description of factors that affect primary water and carbon dioxide. Plants can take up
productivity. only 2-10 percent of PAR. Thus green plants are


Ans : SQO 2019 producers. All other organisms are dependent on
The rate of production of biomass is termed producers for their food. Solar energy captured
productivity. The Gross primary productivity is by plants flows through different organisms of the
the rate of production of organic matter of an ecosystem. There is thus a unidirectional flow of
ecosystem during photosynthesis. The net primary energy from sun to producers to consumers.
productivity is gross primary productivity minus Different organisms are placed in a community
losses due to respiration. according to their relationships of called trophic
level. Producers are placed in first trophic level,
Hence, GPP - R = NPP . herbivores in the second and carnivores in the
Thus the available biomass for the consumption third trophic level.
of heterotrophs is net primary productivity. The amount of energy transferred from one
Primary productivity of a particular area trophic level to the next is only 10%. There is thus
depends upon the plant species growing there. decrease in energy at successive higher trophic
Environmental factors also control the primary levels. Due to this 10% law of energy transfer,
productivity. Photosynthetic ability of plants there is decreased number of trophic levels in the
and available nutrients also affect the primary grazing food chains.
productivity. Therefore, it is variable in different
ecosystem. [Link] important features of a sedimentary cycle
in an ecosystem.
[Link] decomposition and describe the processes

Ans : OD 2006
and products of decomposition. Phosphorus cycle is a sedimentary cycle. The
natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, that has
 called El Nino effects which may create

LONG ANSWER QUESTION
severe environmental issues and disturb the
ecological balance.
[Link] do you understand by an ecosystem?
[Link] must be conserved as it plays an Describe the structure and components of an
important role in many ecosystem services that ecosystem.
nature provides. Explain any two services of the

O
ecosystem. Describe all the factors of an ecosystem.


Ans : FOREIGN 2010


Ans : OD 2015, SQP 2010
For best services the ecosystem must be healthy. An ecosystem can be defined as the interactions
There are several advantages for keeping of organisms with each other and with their
ecosystem healthy. Ecosystem services provided physical environment. The term ‘Ecosystem’ was
by nature are as follows: coined by AG tansley (1935). It is also called as
1. Soil formation and soil protection are the biocoenosis (Mobius, 1877), microcosm (Forbes,
major ecosystem services accounting for 1887) or biogeocoenosis.
nearly 50% of their total worth. Plant cover Types of Ecosystem : On the basis of nature and
protects the soil form drastic changes in origin, ecosystem can be divided into two main
temperature. There is little wind or water types.
erosion as soil particles are not exposed to 1. Natural Ecosystem : These are naturally
them. The soil remains spongy and fertile. developed self regulating ecosystem without
There are no landslides and no floods. any major interference by man. It can be of
2. Plant litter and humus prevent run off water, two types
hold water like sponge and allow percolation of (a) Terrestrial Ecosystem : Eg. forest,
water. A lot of water is held in the soil which grassland etc.
slowly passes towards perched water table. (b) Aquatic Ecosystem : Eg. ponds, lakes etc.
It comes out as springs. They are source of 2. Artificial Ecosystem : These are man made
perennial freshwater which is quite pure. ecosystems eg. agricultural fields, orchards,
etc.
[Link] any two limitations of ecological pyramids. Structure of Ecosystem : There are two main


Ans : COMP 2012 components of ecosystem, Abiotic (non living)
The limitations of ecological pyramids are: and biotic (living).
(a) Ecological pyramids assume that food chains 1. Abiotic Components (Non Living) : It is
are simple. Simple food chains do not occur in physical or non-living part of ecosystem. It
nature. Instead, food webs are present. can be grouped into following three categories.
(b) A single species may operate at two or more (a) Physical Factors : Sunlight, temperature,
trophic levels. Ecological pyramids have no rainfall, humidity and pressure. They
method of accomodating such cases. sustain and limit the growth of organisms
in an ecosystem.
(c) Ecological pyramids have no place for
(b) Inorganic Substances : Carbon dioxide,
detrivores and decomposers though they play
nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur,
a vital role in ecosystem. water, rock, soil and other minerals.
[Link] is the rate of secondary succession faster (c) Organic Compounds : Carbohydrates,
than that or primary succession? proteins, lipids and humic substances.
They are the building blocks of living


Ans : OD 2016
systems and therefore, make a link between
Rate of secondary succession is faster as a
the biotic and abiotic components.
secondarily barred area has a built in soil organic
matter. It is biologically fertile so succession 2. Biotic Components (Living) : It includes
is completed quickly. Underground parts, like living components of ecosystem. It can be
vegetative propagules and seeds etc., of plants grouped in three categories.
and invaders quickly give rise to a new community (a) Producers : The green plants manufacture
as soon as conditions become favourable. It has food for the entire ecosystem through the
few seral changes and quickly gives rise to climax process of photosynthesis. Green plants
community. are called autotrophs, as they absorb
water and nutrients from the soil, carbon


Ans : SQP 2011
3. Occur quickly and Occur very slowly
take less time to and take a long
complete. time to complete.
4. Are relatively Are less perfect
perfect systems systems as the
as the elements elements get locked
remain uniformly in in reservoir pool for
circulation. long periods.

[Link] between autotrophs and

Heterotrophs.


Ans : FOREIGN 2016

The difference between autotrophs and

Heterotrophs are as follows :

Autotrophs Heterotrophs
[Link] the terms (1) standing crop (2) biomass
1. Can prepare Cannot prepare
and (3) standing sate.
their own organic nutrients


Ans : DELHI 2018
organic nutrients themselves.
1. Standing Crop : Each trophic level has a themselves.
certain mass/amount of living material at a 2. Obtain energy Obtain energy from
particular time called as the standing crop. from sunlight or organic nutrients.
2. Biomass : The standing crop is measured as exergonic chemical
mass of living organisms (biomass) or the reactions.
number in a unit area. The biomass of a
3. Usually release O 2 Release CO 2 to the
species is expressed in terms of total fresh or to the environment. environment.
dry weight. Measurement of biomass in terms
of dry weight is more accurate as moisture 4. Get inorganic Get both organic
content of biomass varies greatly. materials from and inorganic
outside. materials from
3. Standing State : Organisms need a constant
outside.
supply of nutrients to grow, reproduce and
regulate various body functions. The total 5. Include plants, some Include animals,
amount of inorganic nutrients such as, carbon, protists and certain many protists and
nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium etc. present in bacteria. bacteria and fungi
the soil at any given time, is referred to as the of decay.
standing state. It varies in different kinds of 6. Two types: Two types:
ecosystems and also on a seasonal basis. photoautotrophs phagotrophs and
and saprotrophs.
[Link] between Gaseous cycles and chemoautotrophs.
Sedimentary cycles.


Ans : SQP 2016
7. They are producer They are consumer
organisms. or reducer
The difference between Gaseous cycles and organisms.
Sedimentary cycles are as follows :

Gaseous Cycles Sedimentary Cycles [Link] are special consumers? Give a brief account.


Ans : DELHI 2017
1. Refer to gases such Refer to minerals
as (CO 2, N 2, O 2). such as (Ca, P, S, Special consumers are house organisms which have
K, Mg). special mode of food intake. These may include
parasites, double consumers both producers and
2. Reservoir pool in air Reservoir pool in consumers and scavengers.
or water. rocks (lithosphere). 1. Parasites : Organisms like bacteria, protists
and animals may be considered as secondary
consumers or some higher order consumers.
 3. Azotobacter and Clostridium are the major 2. It does not add to Food webs increase
free living nitrogen fixing bacteria in the soil. adaptability and adaptability and
4. Ammonification is done by many bacteria. competitiveness of competitiveness of
5. Ammonia is converted into nitrite and then the organisms. the organisms.
nitrate by group of chemoautotrophic bacteria 3. Members of higher Members of higher
through two step process called nitrification. trophic level feed trophic level can
6. Mostly plants absorb nitrate from soil. upon a single type feed upon a number
7. Denitrifying bacteria transforms nitrates in of organisms of of alternative
to nitrous and nitric oxides ultimately to lower trophic level. organisms of the
gaseous nitrogen. lower trophic level.
4. Presence of simple Presence of food
[Link] a short note on the ecosystem structure.
food chains adds webs in creases


Ans : SQP 2017
instability of the the stability of the
Ecosystem structure is as follows: ecosystem. ecosystem.
1. Species Composition : Number and type of
species differs from one ecosystem to another [Link] are the limitations of ecological pyramids?
depending upon geography, topography

Ans : FOREIGN 2009
and climate. Maximum species composition Following are the limitations of ecological
occurs in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. pyramids:
Minimum species diversity occurs in deserts 1. Ecological pyramids assume that food chains
and arctic regions. are straight and simple. Simple food chains
2. Stratification : It is formation of well defined do not occur in nature. Instead food webs are
vertical layers of tall, medium and of small present.
trees, bushes and herbs where vegetation is 2. Ecological pyramids have no place for
dense, e.g., 5-7 strata in tropical rain forests. detrivores and decomposers though they play
Stratification is absent or rare in deserts. an important role in ecosystem.
3. Trophic Structure : Each ecosystem has 3. A simple species may operate at two or more
specific food chains and food webs, e.g., trophic levels. Ecological pyramids have no
grazing food chain in grassland. method to accomodate such cases.
4. Standing Crop : It is the total amount of living
biomass present in an ecosystem. Dry weight [Link] the rerms (1) Productivity (2) Reserve
preferred over fresh weight because the latter pool and (3) Cycling pool.
is liable to be influenced by seasonal moist

Ans : COMP 2008
differences. 1. Productivity : The rate of synthesis of energy
5. Standing State : It is the amount of inorganic containing organic matter or biomass by any
nutrients present any time in the soil/water trophic level per unit area in unit time is
of ecosystem. It tends to very from season to described as its productivity. It is measured
season and ecosystem to ecosystem. as weight (e.g., g/m2 /yr ) or energy (e.g.,
KCal/m2 /yr ).
[Link] between food chain and food web.
2. Reserve Pool : It is the reservoir of biogenetic


Ans : DELHI 2016
nutrients from which the latter are slowly
The difference between food chain and food web transferred to cycling pool, e.g., phosphates
are as follows :
in rocks. Rate of release of nutrients depends
Food Chain Food Web upon environmental factors like moisture,
pH, temperature, soil etc. The reservoir pool
1. It is a straight single It consists of meet deficient of nutrient which occurs due to
pathway for flow of interconnected differences in rate of influx and efflux.
food energy. and interrelated
3. Cycling Pool : It is the pool of biogenetic
number of pathways
through which food nutrients which is being emptied and filled
energy passes in the repeatedly by exchange between biotic and
ecosystem. abiotic component of an ecosystem.
[Link] is the significance of decomposers? Loss of energy during transformation at different


Ans : SQP 2016 levels
The decomposers are bacteria and fungi which obtain Trapped solar energy is fixed in the form of
their food from organic remains of dead producers complex organic compounds and is used by
and consumers and their waste products. The herbivorous and carnivorous animals. But the
decomposers play an important role in returning the energy flow does not stop or end here. When
chemical nutrients to the environment. They also the organisms dies, then the dead body gets
make space for the new producers by consuming mixed with the soil. Indirectly it can be said that
their dead and decaying organic matter, otherwise the complex energy rich compounds from the
all the nutrients would remain locked in the dead dead body are now utilized by decomposers or
remains of plants and animals and will not be scavengers and then ultimately energy is released
available for recycling and reuse. back into nature after decomposition, Thus, at
every level, organisms make use of energy for
[Link] a food chain. Give its important performing various life activities accompanied
characteristics. by energy losses and, therefore, for functioning


Ans : FOREIGN 2011 of an ecosystem, supply of energy is continuously
The sequential inter-linking of organisms involving required from the sun.
the transfer of food energy from the producers,
through a series of organisms is known as a food [Link] are biogeochemical cycles? Mention their
chain. two kinds, giving instances of each.
Its main characteristics are:

Ans : COMP 2020

1. In food chain, there occurs repeated eating The movement of inorganic nutrient elements
and being eaten and it involves nutritive through the living and the non-living components
interaction between the living organisms; of the biosphere or of any particular ecosystem, is
called biogeochemical cycle.
2. It is always straight;
Two types of biogeochemical cycles are :
3. It has undirectional flow of energy;
1. Gaseous cycles (e.g, oxygen cycle, carbon
4. It usually contains 4 to 5 trophic levels; cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle).
5. Mostly 80-90% of energy is lost as heat at 2. Sedimentary cycles (e.g., phosphorus cycle,
each trophic level. sulphur cycle, calcium cycle, potassium cycle).
[Link] the help of a generalised scheme show [Link] is biosphere? What are the main subdivisions
the flow of materials and flow of energy in an of the biosphere?
ecosystem.

Ans : COMP 2015


Ans : COMP 2006
All the regions of the world (atmosphere,
lithosphere and hydrosphere) where living
organisms occur together with their abiotic
environments from a biosphere.
Main subdivisions of biosphere are :
1. Atmosphere
2. Lithosphere and
3. Hydrosphere.

[Link] are the salient features of the ecosystem

[Link] is the meaning of the flow of energy in an
nitrogen cycling?
ecosystem? Explain with example how energy is
lost at the various energy levels?

Ans : OD 2011

Ans : DELHI 2019 Salient features of ecosystem nitrogen cycle are

as follow:
In the ecosystem, there is continuous and
unidirectional flow of energy. The energy from 1. Ultimate source of nitrogen is atmosphere
the sun pass through the various energy levels which cannot be directly absorbed and
(= trophic levels) finally reaches the tertiary metabolised by living organisms.
consumers. These various energy levels are joined 2. Atmospheric nitrogen fixation and Nitrogen
to form a food chain. Many food chains overlap fixing bacterial activities facilitate entry of
and form a food web. nitrogen in biological pathway.
 ii. Top Consumers : These organisms In a forest ecosystem, grass is eaten by a deer,
which feed upon primary, secondary which in turn is eaten by a tiger. The grass,
and tertiary consumers, e.g. waste deer and tiger from a food chain. In this food
snake, water birds etc. chain, energy flows from the grass (producer)
3. Decomposers : These include heterotrophic to the deer (primary consumer) to the tiger
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, (secondary consumer).
which break down the organic complex food
from dead producers and consumers into
simple inorganic compounds and make them
available to the producers.

[Link] is food chain? Discuss the food chain in

forest ecosystem.


Ans : OD 2011 2. Detritus Food Chain : This type of food
The transfer of food energy from the producers, chain goes from dead organic matter into
through a series of organisms (herbivores to micro-organisms and then to organisms
carnivores to decomposers) with repeated eating feeding on detritus (detrivores) and their
and being eaten, is known as food chain. predators. Such type of food chain operates
The transfer of energy that takes place in in the decomposing accumulated litter in a
a series of steps or levels. Plants and other temperate forest.
producers occupy the first level known as primary
consumers. Herbivores which feed on plants [Link] the carbon cycle in an ecosystem.
occupy the second tropic level and Carnivores

Ans : OD 2010
that eat herbivores are at third topic level. The The cyclic flow of carbon between non-living
energy is transferred continuously from lower to environment and living organisms of biosphere is
higher level. The availability of energy decreases called carbon cycle.
with successive higher tropic levels. Energy is Carbon is found in many forms on earth. In
dissipated to the environment in the form of its elemental forms, it occurs as diamond and
heat and respiration 10 to 50 per cent of stored graphite. In combined form carbon is found as
energy level is transferred and a perfect harmony carbon dioxide which is the main reservoir of
is achieved between the cycles and the inflow carbon in the atmosphere. Carbon is also found
of energy establishes a dynamic and fluctuating as carbonate and hydrogen carbonate salts in
equilibrium in the ecosystem. This is known as limestone and other hocks and fossil fuels (coal,
“ecological balance. petroleum, natural gas).
Types of Food Chain : Carbon is also an essential component of all
In nature, basically two types of food chains are the organic compounds like carbohydrates, fats,
recognised- grazing food chain and detritus food proteins, vitamins, nucleic acids, enzymes and
chain. hormones present in living organisms.
1. Grazing Food Chain : This type of food The basic outline of carbon cycle is as follows.
chain starts from the living green plants goes 1. Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon
to grazing herbivores, and on to carnivores. dioxide from respiration and combustion.
Ecosystems with such type of food chain 2. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers (life
are directly dependent on an influx of solar forms that make their own food e.g. plants)
radiation. This type of chain thus depends on to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis.
autotrophic energy capture and the movement These producers then put off oxygen.
of this captured energy to herbivores. Most of 3. Animals feed on the plants. Thus passing the
the ecosystem in nature follow this type of carbon compounds along the food chain. Most
food chain. of the carbon these animals consume however
It can be further divided into two types:
is exhaled as carbon dioxide. This is through
(a) Predator Food Chain : In it, the sequence of
the process of respiration. The animals and
organisms are generally from small to big.
plants then eventually die.
(b) Parasitic Food Chain : Here, organisms tend
to decrease in size as one goes higher up the 4. The dead organisms (dead animals and
food chain. plants) are eaten by decomposers in the
ground. The carbon that was in their bodies
[Link] what circumstances does the secondary energy is passed on through successive trophic
succession begin? Why does it proceed faster than levels in the food chain. The energy transfer in
primary succession? the food chain follows the 10 percent law where


Ans : DELHI 2020 in only 10% of the energy is transferred from
Secondary succession begins in the area, which one trophic level to the next successively. So the
become secondarily bared due to the destruction movement of energy is only in one direction from
of community completely in the past because lower to higher trophic level.
of floods, drought, landslides, over grazing,
[Link] due to biotic/abiotic factor the
forest fires etc. It proceeds faster than primary
community remains in a particular seral stage
succession because the soil is biologically fertile
(Pre climax) without reaching the climax. Do you
and has organic matter.
agree with this statement. If, yes give a suitable
[Link] a climax community. How does a sere differ example.
from a serial community.

Ans : DELHI 2010

Ans : FOREIGN 2005 It is true that any change in the abiotic/biotic

Climax community is the stable, self-perpetuating factor will arrest a particular seral stage leading
and final biotic community that develops at end to a pre-climax condition before the climax stage
of biotic succession and is in perfect harmony is achieved. This can happen in cases of forests
with physical environment. Climax community fires, landslides, changes in soil characteristics,
remains stable as long as the environmental increase in herbivore population leading to
remain unchanged. overgrazing, e.g., maintenance of grasslands, teak
Sere represent the entire sequence of developmental forest, servforest etc.
stages of biotic succession from pioneer to a climax
[Link] is an incomplete ecosystem? Explain with
community while a serial community is a biotic
the help of a suitable example.
community that develop during the progression


Ans : OD 2024, 2006
of biotic succession.
An ecosystem is a functional unit with biotic
[Link] number of trophic levels in an ecosystem are and abiotic factors interacting with one another
limited. Comment. resulting in a physical structure. Absence of any


Ans : COMP 2008 component will make an ecosystem incomplete as
In a food chain, only 10% of the total amount of it will hinder the functioning of the ecosystem.
energy is passed on to the next trophic level from Example of such an ecosystem can be a fish
the previous trophic level. So there is a decrease in tank or deep aphotic zone of the oceans where
the amount of energy available at the successive producers are absent.
trophic levels. As we more higher up in the food
[Link] are the shortcomings of ecological pyramids
chain, the amount of energy diminishes to a level
in the study of ecosystem?
at which it cannot sustain any trophic level,


Ans : SQP 2005
thereby limiting the number of trophic levels.
The ecological pyramid assumes a simple food
[Link] could be the reason for the fast rate of chain and does not accommodate food webs.
decomposition in the trophics ? Thereby, it does not take into account the fact


Ans : OD 2016 that species may belong to two or more trophic
The rate of decomposition is regulated by climatic levels at a time. Also, saprophytes despite their
factors like temperature and soil moisture as they vital role in ecosystem are given no place in the
have an effect on the activities of soil microbes. ecological pyramids.
The tropics with its hot and humid climatic
157. The rate of decomposition of detritus is affected by
condition provides an environment which is
the abiotic factors like availability of oxygen, pH
ideal for the microbes to speed up the process of
of the soil substratum, temperature etc. Discuss.
decomposition.


Ans : FOREIGN 2020

153. Flow of energy through various trophic levels in an The composition of detritus is due to activities of
ecosystem is unidirectional and non-cyclic. Explain. microorganisms. The rate of growth of microbes


Ans : SQP 2013 is affected by temperature. The pH of subtratum
The energy from the sun reaches the food chain affects the composition of microbes (acidophiles/
through the primary producers (plants). This basophiles) which degrade the dead organic
 matter. If oxygen is present, aerobic degradation 3. Ecologically they Ecologically they
occurs. In the absence of oxygen anaerobiosis sets cause pulverisation cause humification
in and there will be incomplete degradation. Also, or fragmentation of and mineralisation
the degradation is due to activity of exo enzymes detritus. of organic matter.
secreted by the microbes and the activity of E.g. Earthworm. E.g., Pseudomonas.
enzyme is affected by factors such as temperature
etc.
[Link] is detritus decomposed step-by-step by
[Link] is net primary productivity different from different agents and made available as nutrients
gross primary productivity? to the plants? Explain.


Ans : OD 2013

Ans : DELHI 2013

Different between net primary productivity and Detritus (dead remains of plants and animals) gets
gross primary productivity are as follows: decomposed and is made available as nutrients
to plants by the process of decomposition.
Net Primary Gross Primary The steps in the process of decomposition are
Productivity Productivity fragmentation, leaching, cataboslim, hunification
and mineralisation.
1. It is the amount It is the amount
of organic matter of organic matter 1. Fragmentation of Detritus : Detritivores (e.g.,
stored by producers synthesised by earthworm) breakdown detritus into small
per unit time per producers per unit particles.
unit area. time per unit area. 2. Catabolism : Bacterial and fungal enzymes
2. Net primary Gross primary degrade detritus into simpler inorganic
productivity is productivity is equal substances.
equal to organic to rate of increase 3. Leaching : Water soluble inorganic nutrients
matter synthesised in body weight of go down into the deeper layers of soil and get
by photosynthesis producers plus loss precipitated as unavailable salts.
minus utilisation suffered through 4. Humification : It is the formation of humus
in respiration and respiration and from detritus or organic remains. Humus is
other losses. damages. dark coloured amorphous substance rich in
3. It depends upon It depends upon lignin and cellulose. It is highly resistant to
gross primary photosynthetic microbial action and undergoes decomposition
productivity as efficiency of at an extremely slow rate. It is colloidal in
well as amount of producers, nature, a reservoir of nutrients and helpful in
consumption of availability of solar maintenance of soil moisture as well as aeration.
photosynthates. energy as well as 5. Mineralisation : It is the release of inorganic
organic nutrients. substances by the degradation of humus with
the help of microbes.
[Link] does a detritivore differ from a decomposer?
Explain with an example each. [Link] the events during humification and


Ans : COMP 2010 mineralisation during decomposition in the soil.
Differences between detritivores and decomposers

Ans : SQP 2011

are as follows: (a) Humification : It is the formation of humus

from detritus or organic remains. Humus is
Detritivores Decomposers dark coloured amorphous substance rich in
1. They are animals They are micro- lignin and cellulose. It is highly resistant to
which feed on organisms which microbial action and undergoes decomposition
detritus. obtain nourishment at an extremely slow rate. It is colloidal in
from organic nature, a reservoir of nutrients and helpful
remains. in maintenance of soil moisture as well as
2. Detritivores ingest They decompose the aeration.
the organic matter. organic matter be (b) Mineralisation : It is the release of inorganic
secreting digestive substances by the degradation of humus with
enzymes over it. the help of microbes.
[Link] the conditions affecting the rate of nourishment from organic remains by secreting
decomposition. digestive enzymes over it. They help in converting


Ans : COMP 2008 complex organic substances into inorganic
Factors affecting decomposition rate are as substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrient.
follows: Sun is an endless source of energy, but the
(a) Temperature : A soil temperature of 25c C chemical materials of the environment are not
and more hastens decomposition. A low inexhaustible. The producers utilise inorganic
temperature of less than 10c C reduces rate substances (carbon dioxide, water etc.) and fix
of decomposition. solar energy into the chemical energy of organic
(b) Moisture : Moist environment favours compounds. This stored energy is then passed
decomposition. to consumers by repeated eating is then passed
(c) pH: Neutral and slightly alkaline soils are to consumers by repeated eating and being
rich in detritivores, like earthworms and eaten. Decomposers act on dead animals and
decomposer microbes. Acidity decreases the plants (organic matter) and return the chemical
number of detritivores and decomposers. nutrients to the environment. They also make
(d) Chemical Composition of Detritus : In a space available for new producers. Without this,
particular climatic condition, decomposition all life will ultimately cease to exist. Thus, the
rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin decomposers have a crucial role in the ecosystem.
and chitin, and quicker, if detritus is rich in The decomposers are found in the soil and at the
nitrogen and water soluble substances like bottom of ponds, lakes and oceans.
sugars.
(e) Aerobiosis : Aerobic conditions are essential [Link] the relationship between detritus food
for activity of decomposer organisms because chain and grazing food chain in a terrestrial
decomposition is oxygen requiring process. ecosystem.
Anaerobiosis reduces decomposition and

Ans : OD 2009

causes piling up of detritus. In a terrestrial ecosystem, producers constitute

the first trophic level or base of a food chain.
[Link] the type of food chains responsible for the Producers are autotrophic organisms which are
flow of larger fraction of energy in an aquatic and able to manufacture organic food from inorganic
a terrestial ecosystem respectively. Mention one raw materials in the process of photosynthesis.
difference between the two food chains. Part or whole of the plants enters the food chain


Ans : DELHI 2014 as food for consumers. Herbivores, the primary
Grazing food chain and detritus food chain are the consumers feed on plants or plant products.
major conduits for flow of energy in aquatic and Primary carnivores prey upon herbivorous animals
terrestrial ecosystems, respectively. Differences and are eaten up by secondary carnivores. The
between grazing food chain and detritus food top carnivores are the last order consumers or
chain are as follows: carnivores which are not preyed upon by other
animals because of their size and ferociousness.
Grazing Food Chain Detritus Food Chain Decomposers may act on any trophic level. They
1. The food chain The food chain feed on dead organic remains of plants and animal
begins with begins with and return the biological nutrients stored in them
producers as the detritivores and to the soil for reuse by autotrophs i.e., they again
first trophic level. decomposers as enter the food chain. Hence, both detritus and
their first trophic grazing food chain are interrelated.
level. [Link] with the help of two examples, how the
2. Energy for the food Energy for the food pyramid of number and the pyramid of biomass
chain comes from chain comes from can look inverted.
sun. organic remains or

Ans : SQP 2011
detritus. Pyramid of number is inverted in parasitic food
chain. Here, a single large sized producer like tree
[Link] the importance of decomposers in an provides nourishment to several herbivores (e.g.,
ecosystem. fruit-eating birds) and each herbivore in turn may


Ans : FOREIGN 2006 support a still larger population of parasities.
Decomposers are micro-organisms that obtain Thus, from the producer towards consumers, the
 themselves by the process of photosynthesis.

Ans : FOREIGN 2012

The energy fixed by the autotrophs during If the forest cover is reduced to half than it will
photosynthesis gets incorporated into organic lead to desertification (formation of desert) of
compounds. The rate at which organic molecules that area in long term.
are formed in a green plant (or a population of Thus (c) is correct option.
green plants) is called gross primary productivity.
Thus (d) is correct option. 59. In a biotic community, the primary consumers are
(a) carnivores (b) omnivores
55. Which of the following ecosystem has the highest (c) detritivores (d) herbivores
gross primary productivity?

Ans : SQP 2013
(a) Grasslands
In a biotic community, the primary consumers
(b) Coral reefs or first order consumers are herbivores, they feed
(c) Mangroves on producers. They are also called key industry
(d) Equatorial rain forest animals because they convert plant material into


Ans : OD 2016 animal material, e.g. rat, deer, rabbit, cattle,
goat, sheep, insects etc.
The Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem
Thus (d) is correct option.
is the total amount of organic matter produced
by it’s producers, i.e. autotrophs. Coral reefs have 60. Which of the following is the most stable
maximum and deserts have lowest productivity. ecosystem?
Thus (b) is correct option. (a) Forest (b) Desert
56. The nature of climax community ultimately (c) Mountain (d) Ocean
depends on

Ans : DELHI 2010
(a) climate Oceanic biome or ecosystem occupies more than
(b) bed rock two-thirds of the earth’s surface. This is the most
(c) soil organisms stable ecosystem.
(d) pool of available nutrients Thus (d) is correct option.


Ans : COMP 2017 61. The primary succession refers to the development
The climax community ultimately depends on of communities on a
the climate such as rain forest in moist tropical (a) fleshly cleared crop field
area and mixed coniferous or deciduous forest in (b) forest clearing after devastating fire
temperate area. (c) pond, freshly filled with water after a dry
Thus (a) is correct option. phase
57. In a food chain, the largest population is that of (d) newly-exposed habitat with no record of
(a) decomposers earlier vegetation
(b) producers

Ans : SQP 2020

(c) primary consumers Primary succession is the succession in a totally

(d) tertiary consumers barren area with no record of earlier vegetation. It
takes long time of 1000 year or more.


Ans : DELHI 2015 Thus (d) is correct option.
Producers are present in largest number in any
food chain. 62. Which of the following pair is a sedimentary type
Thus (b) is correct option. of biogeochemical cycle?
(a) Oxygen and nitrogen
58. If the forest cover is reduced to half, what is most (b) Phosphorous and sulphur
likely to happen on a long basis?
(c) Phosphorous and nitrogen
(a) Tribals living in these areas will starve to
death (d) Phosphorous and carbon dioxide
(b) Cattle in these and adjoining areas will die

Ans : COMP 2011

due to lack of fodder In sedimentary cycle the reservoir for the elements
(c) Large areas will become deserts is in the sediments of earth (lithosphere), e.g.
(d) Crop breeding programmes will suffer due to phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sulphur.
a reduced availability of variety of germplasm Thus (d) is correct option.
[Link] are the pyramids referred to as ‘upright’ or [Link] between primary and secondary
‘inverted’ ? Explain. succession. Provide one example of each.


Ans : SQP 2020

Ans : FOREIGN 2016
Usually producers exceed higher trophic levels in Differences between primary succession and
biomass, number and energy. Hence a structure secondary succession are as follows:
with broad base, gradually tapering body and
narrow apex is obtained which resembles an Primary Succession Secondary
upright pyramid. Succession
In some cases e.g., for biomass in pond 1. It occurs in an area It occurs in an area
ecosystem, for number of individuals in a which has been bare which has been
parasitic food chain the relationship changes. from the beginning. denuded recently.
Here producers show the least biomass or number
2. Soil is absent at the Soil is present in
and the top consumers show the highest biomass
time of beginning of the area where
or number. As a result a structure resembling an
primary succession. secondary succesion
‘inverted’ pyramid is obtained.
begins.
3. There is no humus Humus is present
in the beginning. from the very
beginning.
4. Reproductive Reproductive
structures of any structures of the
previous community previous occupants
[Link] the pioneer and the climax species in a are absent. are present in the
water body. Mention the changes observed in the area.
biomass and the biodiversity of the successive
5. Pioneer community Pioneer community
serial communities developing in the water body.
comes from outside. develops partly from


Ans : COMP 2016
previous occupants
In a hydrosere (succession in a water body) and partly from
pioneer species include phytoplanktons and climax migrants.
species include large tress. There is a gradual
increase observed in the biomass and the level of 6. In the beginning the The environment is
biodiversity in the successive seral communities. environment is very favourable from the
Sequence of communities during hydrosere is hostile. beginning.
shown below: 7. Seral communities Seral communities
are many. are a few.
8. Primary succession Secondary
takes a long time succession takes
for completion, 1000 lesser time for
years or more. completion, 50-200
years.
9. Example: Succession Example: Succession
on a newly exposed on an area
sea floor. destroyed by flood.

[Link] succession of plants in xerophytic habitat

until it reaches climax community.


Ans : OD 2005

Xerarch succession occurs on bare rocks. The

habital lacks soil, has intense light, fluctuations
of temperatures and winds. The species that
invade a bare area are called pioneer species. In
primary succession on rocks lichens are usually
the pioneer species which are able to secrete
 number of organisms gradually shows an increase,
making the pyramid inverted in shape.

[Link] between two different types of [Link] an ideal pyramid of energy when
pyramids of biomass with the help of one example 1,000,000 joules of sunlight is available. Label all
of each. its trophic levels.


Ans : OD 2012

Ans : FOREIGN 2013

Pyramid of biomass is a graphic representation An ideal pyramid of energy with primary

of biomass present sequence-wise per unit area of producers storing only 1% of solar energy as NPP
different trophic levels with producers at the base is shown below:
and top carnivores at the tip. Pyramid of biomass
may be upright or inverted.

Upright Pyramid of Inverted Pyramid of

Biomass Biomass
1. The biomass The biomass
of producers is of producers is
more than that of less than that of
consumers. consumers.
2. Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of biomass
in grassland is in aquatic ecosystem
always upright. is always inverted.
[Link] the significance of ecological pyramid
with the help of an example.


Ans : DELHI 2015

An ecological pyramid is a graphic representation

of an ecological parameter present in various
trophic levels of a food chain with producers
forming the base and top carnivores the tip. It
expresses the relationship between the organisms
at different trophic levels with reference to their
number, energy and biomass. For example,
[Link] giving reason, between the pyramid pyramid of numbers is a graphic representation of
of biomass of the above situation and the pyramid the number of individuals per unit area of various
of numbers that you have drawn. trophic levels stepwise with producers at the base


Ans : COMP 2005
and top carnivores at the tip.
Pyramid of biomass in the above situation will be Pyramid of biomass shows the total amount of
upright as tree has the maximum biomass which living matter (fresh weight or dry weight) present
reduces with successive trophic levels resulting in each level and pyramid of energy is a graphic
in an upright pyramid whereas the pyramid of representation of amount of energy trapped per
number in above case is spindle-shaped where unit time and area in different trophic levels of a
producers which are mainly large sized trees food chain with producers forming the base and
are lesser in number and form the base of the top carnivores the tip.
pyramid. The insects are more in number than
producers. Then there is gradual decrease in the
number of successive carnivores, thus making the
pyramid upright again. This results in spindle
shaped pyramid as shown here:
 air, water, fossil fuel and rocks. Carbon dioxide
is added to the cycle pool of atmosphere by
respiration, decomposition of organic waste,
burning of fossil fuels, volanic eruption, etc.
Carbon fixed by producers enters the food chain
and hence passes to herbivores, carnivores,
decomposers, etc. Natural exchange between
lithosphere and hydrosphere or atmosphere is a
very slow process. Major exchange in carbon cycle
is between organisms (absorption by producers,
released by all in respiration) and the atmosphere
or hydrosphere. This cycling is a self-regulated
feed back system but has recently been upset due
to rapid deforestation and increasing combustion
[Link] importance of such cycles in ecosystem. of fossil fuels.


Ans : OD 2007
Nutrient cycling helps to maintain stability and 181.1. (a) Name the bio-geochemical (nutrient)
enables proper functioning of an ecosystem. Such cycle shown below.
cycles help in circulation of nutrients between
abiotic and biotic components of an ecosystem
and thereby help in maintaining ecosystem and
thereby help in maintaining ecosystem balance.
Nutrient input in an ecosystem occurs through rain
and dust fall, nitrogen fixation and weathering of
rocks. Theses nutrient are taken up by plants and
are passed on to different trophic levels of a food
chain operating in an ecosystem. These nutrients
are again made available to the lithosphere by
death of living beings, followed by decomposition
(b) Name an activity of the living organisms
of the dead organic matter by microbes. The
not depicted in the cycle by which this
amount of nutrient uptake is equal to amount of
nutrient is returned to the atmosphere.
nutrients recycled in a balanced ecosystem. Hence,
nutrient cycles ensure proper and continuous 2. How would the flow of the nutrient in the cycle
supply of nutrients in an ecosystem. be affected due to large scale deforestation?
Explain giving reasons.
[Link] the carbon cycle with the help of a 3. Describe the effect of an increased level of
simplified model. this nutrient in the atmosphere on our


Ans : DELHI 2009 environment.
A simplified model of carbon cycle is as follows :

Ans : SQP 2019

1. (a) The bio-geochemical cycle shown in the

figure is carbon cycle.
(b) Decomposition by micro-organisms is not
depicted in the given cycle.
2. Due to large scale deforestation, the level
of carbon dioxide in the environment will
be disturbed because plants are the major
consumers which utilise carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis. This would disturb the balance
of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
3. Increase in the level of carbon dioxide in
atmosphere will result in greenhouse effect.
This will lead to global warning (rise in
Carbon forms the backbone for complex organic earth’s mean annual temperature). Rise in
molecules of protoplasm like carbohydrates, temperature will result in climatic changes
lipid, proteins etc. Main sources of carbon are
 the biomass available for consumption by the (c) scrub forests
herbivores and the decomposers. (d) tropical rain forests
Thus (a) is correct option.


Ans : OD 2012
29. The correct sequence of plants in a hydrosere is Temperate deciduous forests grow in continental
(a) Oak " Lantana " Scirpus " Pistia " climates with summer rainfall and severe winters.
Hydrilla " Volvox They are dominated by broad leaved deciduous
(b) Volvox " Hydrilla " Pistia " Scirpus " trees like Quercus virginiana, magnolias, bays and
Lantana " Oak hallies as well as such tropical species as Ficus
aurea and Lysiloma.
(c) Pistia " Volvox " Scirpus " Hydrilla " Oak
Thus (a) is correct option.
" Lantana
(d) Oak " Lanatan " Volvox " Hydrilla " 32. Consider the following statements concerning
Pistia " Scirpus food chains.


Ans : FOREIGN 2012 I. Removal of 80% tigers from an area resulted
The various stages in a hydrosere are well studied in greatly increased growth of vegetation.
in ponds, pools or lakes. The various stages of II. Removal of most of the carnivores resulted in
hydrosere are: an increased population of deers.
1. Phytoplankton Stage, e.g. some blue-green
III. The length of food chains is generally limited
algae, green algae (Volvox), diatoms and
to 3-4 trophic levels due to energy loss.
bacteria, etc.
2. Rooted Submerged Stage, e.g. Hydrilla, IV. The length of food chains may vary from 2 to
Vallisneria, etc. 8 trophic levels.
Which of the two above statements are correct?
3. Floating Stage, e.g. Nelumbo, Nymphaea, etc. (a) I and II (b) II and III
Some free floating species are Pistia, Azolla,
(c) III and IV (d) I and IV
Lemna, etc.


Ans : DELHI 2012
4. Red-swamp Stage, e.g. species of Scirpus,
Typha, etc. Statement II and III are correct. A simple food
chain consists of producers, herbivores and
5. Sedge-meadow Stage, e.g. species of
carnivores. The length of food chain is generally
Cyperaceae and Gramineae.
limited to 3-4 trophic levels due to the energy loss.
6. Woodland Stage, e.g. Lantana, Salix, Populus, In grazing food chain the producers (i.e. plants)
etc. are eaten by herbivores (i.e. rabbit, deer, cow,
7. Forest Stage, e.g. Tropical rain forests, etc.) and the herbivores are eaten by carnivores.
mixed forests of Almus, Acer, Quercus (oak), Therefore, the removal of most of the carnivores
tropical deciduous forests. resulted in an increased population of deers.
Thus (b) is correct option. Thus (a) is correct option.

30. Which one of the following types of organisms 33. About 70% of total global carbon is found in
occupy more than one trophic level in a pond (a) grasslands (b) agroecosystems
ecosystem? (c) oceans (d) forests
(a) Phytoplankton (b) Fish


Ans : SQP 2020
(c) Zooplankton (d) Frog
Sea water contains 50 times more CO 2 than air.


Ans : COMP 2013 i.e. about 70% of total global carbon is found
In a pond ecosystem, fishes occupy more than in oceans. This is in form of carbonates and
one trophic levels. Small fishes act as secondary bicarbonates. The atmosphere is the source of
consumer. They feed on primary consumer. Large CO 2 , which is utilised by plants in photosynthesis
fishes act as Tertiary consumer. They feed on reduced to form carbon compounds. The total mass
smaller fish. of carbon currently in the atmosphere is about
Thus (b) is correct option. 7 # 1017 g , i.e. 700000 million tonnes. Oceans
regulate the CO 2 content in the atmosphere and
31. Quercus species are the dominant component in thus, play a very important role.
(a) temperature deciduous forests Thus (c) is correct option.
(b) alpine forests
 dioxide from the air, and capture solar [Link] is pond? Describe the components of a
energy for this process. pond ecosystem.
(b) Consumers : They are called heterotrophs

Ans : OD 2013
and they consume food synthesized The pond is a small body of standing water ponds
by the autotrophs. Based on food are aquatic freshwater ecosystems that form in
preferences they can be grouped into depressions in the earth’s surface. The pond
three broad categories. Herbivores (e.g. ecosystem has complex interactions between its
cow, deer and rabbit etc.)feed directly abiotic components. The Abiotic components of
on plants, carnivores are animals which pond ecosystem are as follows:
eat other animals (eg. Lion, cat, dog etc.) 1. Environmental Factors : It includes light,
omnivores organisms feeding upon both temperature, water etc.
plants and animals e.g. human, pigs and
2. Organic Components : These are living
sparrow.
(c) Decomposers : Also called saprotrophs. components of ecosystem. It consist of
These are mostly bacteria and fungi that carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, fats,
feed on dead decomposed and the dead nucleic acids.
organic matter of plants and animals by 3. Inorganic Components : These are non living
secreting enzyme outside their body on components of ecosystem. It includes O 2 ,
the decaying matter. They play a very CO 2 , N 2 , nitrates, phosphates, carbonates,
important role in recycling of nutrients. etc.
They are also called detrivores or detritus Biotic components of pond ecosystem are:
feeders. 1. Producers : The producers are the aquatic
green plants, which may be divided into two
[Link] is food web? Explain it with the help of
groups.
suitable examples.
(a) Microphytes (Phytoplanktons) : They are


Ans : OD 2017
microscopic autotrophs, which fix solar
The network of several interconnected food energy, e.g. spirogyra, Zygnema, Volvox,
chains is called a food web. Various food chains Oedogonium.
in an ecosystem do not operate in isolation. They (b) Macrophytes : They are larger plant,
operate in the form of network of food chains. which manufacture complex food. They
One organism may obtain its food from different are following types:
sources and in turn may be eaten up by different i. Sumberged Plants : These plants
types of organisms. remain sink in water. e.g. Hydrilla
This means, a food web has various alternative and Utricularia.
pathways for the flow of energy. The complexity ii. Floating Plants : These plants float
of food web can be expressed by a measure called freely on water surface e.g. Pistia,
the connectance of the food web. Nymphea and Azolla.
Connectance iii. Immerged Plants : These are
Actual number of interspecific interactions rooted plants that float over water.
=
Potential number of interspecific interactions Ranunculus, Sagittaria and Typha.
2. Consumers : These are heterotrophic
organisms, which consume producers as food.
They are of following types.
(a) Primary Consumers : These are
herbivorous animals that eat autotrophic
organisms.
(b) Secondary Consumers : These are
primary carnivores, which consume
herbivorous animals for food, e.g. insects,
fishes, frogs, crab, etc.
i. Tertiary Consumers : These feed
upon plants or animals (secondary
consumer) therefore are called
omnivores, e.g. large fishes and frogs.
 4. Keystone Species : A keystone species is Decomposition : It is the process of
that whose activities determine the structure degrading the dead complex organic matter
of a community. Although such species are into the simple, soluble diffusible inorganic
relatively rare yet their significance is high. substances by the secretion of digestive
5. Edge Effect : The increased density and enzymes by decomposer. These substances
variety of some species at the border of are subsequently absorbed by them.
community is called edge effect. The species 3. Upright and Inverted Pyramids :
present in this area i.e. junction between the Upright Pyramid : In a terrestrial habitat,
communities are known as edge species. when the number of organisms or their
6. Stability : Stability may be (a) local or (b) biomass is maximum at the level of producers
global. It is a dynamic concept. Although and there is a progressive decrease in the
diversity of species decrease the stability of number or biomass from lower to the higher
a community. Yet diversity and stability are trophic levels in a food chain we get an
related in natural communities as they both upright pyramid, e.g. Pyramid of number in a
are the results of evolution. Pollution created grassland ecosystem.
by human populations have disturbed many Inverted Pyramid : When the number of
natural communities. individuals or their biomass at the producer
7. Physiognomy : It is the external appearance level is minimum and it increases progressively
of a community. This appearance is based at each trophic level in a food chain, we get
on many qualitative characteristics such as inverted pyramid, e.g., small standing crop
dominant species, density, life form cover of phytoplankton supports large standing
stratification and species dissociation. crop of zooplankton. A single large sized tree
Appearance of a community can be identified provides nourishment to several herbivores
on the basis of its physiognomy. However some (birds), which may support a still larger
communities may have similar physiognomy. number of ectoparasites.
4. Food Chain and Food Web :
[Link] between
Food Chain is the sequence of populations
1. Grazing food chain and detritus food chain
or organisms of an ecosystem through which
2. Production and decomposition the food and its contained energy passes with
3. Upright and inverted pyramid each member becoming the food of a later
4. Food chain and food web member of the sequence. Food chain is always
5. Litter and detritus straight and proceeds in a progressive straight
6. Primary and secondary productivity line.


Ans : FOREIGN 2016 Food-Web is a network of food chains which
1. Grazing Food Chain (GFC) is the food become interconnected at various trophic
chain which start with the producers or levels so as to form a number of feeding
autotrophsthe organisms which can prepare connections amongst the different organisms
their own with the process of photosynthesis of a biotic community. It increases the
while the detritus food chain (GFC) begins stability of an ecosystem.
with the dead organic matter. It is made- 5. Litter and Detritus :
up of decomposers which are heterotroph Litter is the fallen above ground detritus
organisms mainly fungi and bacteria. As composed of dead organic remains of plants-
they meet their nutrient requirements by leaves, bark, twigs flowers etc. and the dead
degrading dead organic matter or detritus, remains of animals their faecal matter that fall
they are termed as saprotrophs. on surface of earth in terrestrial ecosystem.
2. Prodcution and Decomposition : Detritus is the decaying, broken down organic
Production : It is the synthesis of organic matter from the activities by decomposers.
matter/food from inorganic matter i.e., CO 2 Detritus is the source of food for detrivores
and H 2 O in the presence of sunlight by the which can themselves be eaten by carnivores
chlorophyll containing green cells of the in a detritus food chain. Detritus may be (a)
plants. dead organic remains above the ground (b)
dead organic remains below the ground.
 is then returned to the atmosphere as carbon Commensalism : It is a relationship between two
dioxide. In some circumstances the process of different species in which one is benefited while
decomposition is prevented. The decomposed the other may or may not. But at the same time
plants and animals may then be available as it is not affected adversely too. This type of
fossil fuel in the future for combustion. relationship is available both in plants as well as
animals e.g. Epiphytic growth of an orchid on the
tree. Various types of climbers that do not harm
the trees.
Parasitism : It is a negative association in which
one species is benefited and the other is harmed.
The benefited one is parasite that lives on the host
that is harmed. Parasites may also be obligate
or facultative. Obligate ones are host specific
whereas facultative ones are not host specific.
Plants and animals both have parasites. Cuscuta
is a parasitic plant host plant. Human louse is
ectoparasite on human body. Many bacteria and
fungi are parasitic on plants and animals including
human beings.

[Link] community, give its major characteristics.

Ans : DELHI 2012

Individuals of different species together at a

particular time in a specific area constitute a
community. There are so many communities in
nature.
Characteristics of Communities : Some specific
ecological characteristics of a community
determine their composition and differentiate
one community from another. Some major
characteristics of a community are as under.
1. Species Composition : Different type of
organisms that is plants, animals and micro-
organisms are the members of a community.
[Link] are inter-specific interactions? Explain They show the species composition of a
important ones with suitable examples. community. The species composition is


Ans : OD 2016 variable in different communities. There may
Interactions among the different species of a be even seasonal variations of species in the
community or ecosystem are known as inter- same community.
specific interactions. These interactions may be 2. Dominance : Some species are more in
(1) negative (2) positive or (3) neutral. Negative number in the community. Their abundance
interactions are not useful for both interacting influences and diminates the other species.
species. Positive, however are useful to interacting The animal distribution of a community is
species and neutral ones are neither harmful also dependent upon dominant species.
nor useful. There is no effect on the growth of 3. Species Diversity : Different types of species
populations in neutral interactions. present in the community makes its basic
Mutualism : In this type of interaction both characteristic. However it is difficult to know
species are benefited from one another. They
the number of all species e.g. species of
cannot live without one another. It is a functional
insects etc. in the community. Many species
association and not merely living together.
are quite rare but cannot be ignored. Species
Mutualism may be obligate or facultative. In
density is measured with the help of common
obligate type their is complete interdependence.
One species cannot live without the other, but index proposed by Shannon, Coral reef and
in facultative one species can survive without the tropical rain forests communities have very
other. For example Mycorrhizae, Lichens. high species diversity.
 ponds of fresh water are lentic ecosystems. Rivers

Ans : OD 2011
and streams are lotic ecosystems. The physical Green plants in an ecosystem are regarded as
conditions of lakes and ponds depend upon the size producers as they are autotrophic i.e. Synthesize
and depth, latitude, altiude and the surrounding their own fool by the process of photosynthesis.
biome. Consumers and decomposers are heterotrophic
organisms.
Thus (a) is correct option.

OBJECTIVE QUESTION 6. Which one of the following is the correct food

chain?
(a) Grass, Wheat and Mango
1. Which one is hydrophytic plant (b) Grass, Goat and Lion
(a) Trapa (b) Opuntia
(c) Goat, Cow and Grass
(c) Dulbergia (d) Acacia
(d) Grass Fish and Goat


Ans : OD 2024, 2017


Ans : OD 2011
Out of the given option trapa is a hydrophytic
Grass, Goat and Lion correct food chain. In it,
plant, while others are xerophytic plants.
grass is producer, goat is primary consumer and
Thus (a) is correct option.
lion is secondary consumer. Grass " Goat "
2. Flow of energy in food chain of an Ecosystem is: Lion.
(a) Unidirectional (b) Bidirectional Thus (b) is correct option.
(c) Multi-directional (d) None
7. Which ecosystem has the maximum biomass?


Ans : OD 2017 (a) Forest ecosystem
Flow of energy in food chain in ecosystem is
(b) Grassland ecosystem
always unidirectional. In it, energy is passed from
one level to another unidirectionally. (c) Pond ecosystem
Thus (a) is correct option. (d) Lake ecosystem


Ans : COMP 2015
3. The term ‘Ecosystem’ was proposed by:
(a) Gardener (b) Odum Biomass refers to the amount of living organic
matter. Forest ecosystem have the maximum
(c) Tansley (d) Warming
biomass, because it includes organisms of all


Ans : OD 2013 trophic levels as compared to pond, lake or
The term ecosystem was first proposed by Arthur grassland ecosystem. In forest ecosystems
Tansley. productivity is also high that contributes to
Thus (c) is correct option. maximum biomass.
Thus (a) is correct option.
4. Secondary productivity is related to:
(a) Producers (b) Herbivores 8. Presence of plants arranged into well defined
(c) Carnivores (d) None of these vertical layers depending on their height can best


Ans : OD 2013 seen best in
Secondary productivity is the rate of biomass (a) tropical savannah
formation or energy fixation by heterophic (b) tropical rain forest
organisms, such as grazers and decomposers. (c) grassland
These derive all their energy from photosynthetic (d) temperate forest
plants and other autotrophs, either directly or


Ans : DELHI 2016
indirectly and their productivity determines the
number of trophic levels and the lengths of the Tropical rain forests show stratification. It can be
food chains within an ecosystem-both of which defined as the grouping of plants into two or more
are likely to be increased by greater secondary well defined layers depending upon their height.
productivity. These layers as called strata or storeys. There
Thus (b) is correct option. storeys consist of respectively very tall emergent
trees, tall trees, small trees, a shrub layer and a
5. Green plants in an ecosystem are: ground layer of ferns mosses and herbs.
(a) producers (b) consumers Thus (b) is correct option.
(c) decomposer (d) none of these
 6. Primary and Secondary Productivity :

Ans : SQP 2009

Primary Productivity is the rate of production Hydrarch succession refers to series of biotic
of biomass or organic matter per unit area communities that develop one after the other in
over a time period by the producers in an a newly formed pond or lake. Various successive
stages of hydrosere are:
ecosystem while Secondary Productivity
(a) Plankton Stage : It is the pioneer stage of
refers to the rate of production of biomass or
hydrosere. The autotrophic organisms called
organic matter (flesh) over a time period by
phytoplanktons, (e.g., diatoms), zooplanktons
the consumer.
(which feed on phytoplankton) and
[Link] suitable examples, explain the energy flow decomposers constitute this stage. Death and
through different trophic levels. What does each decomposition of plankton produce organic
bar in this pyramid represent? matter which mixes up with clay and settles


Ans : FOREIGN 2008
at the bottom to form soft mud favourable for
growth of next seral stage.
Ecosystem requires a constant input of energy. (b) Submerged Stage : The bottom lined by soft
Energy flow in the ecosystem is very important mud having organic mater is favourable for
as it is the basis of life. Food provides both growth of submerged plants like Hydrilla,
matter and energy. Flow of energy determines Potamogeton and Najas. They are rooted in
the diversity of organisms. It also determines the mud and form dense growth. On decaying
the developmental and functional status of the the older plants and buried parts of other
ecosystem. Energy flow in an ecosystem is always plants form humus which enriches the newly
unidirectional or one way, i.e., solar radiations " built up bottom and makes it favourable for
producers " herbivores " carnivores. It cannot growth of next stage.
pass in the reverse direction as there is always (c) Floating Stage : Floating leaved anchored
decrease in the content and flow of energy with plants (e.g., Nymphaea, Nelumbo, etc.) appear
the rise in trophic level. A part of energy captured when water becomes shallow. The plants
by producers (gross primary productivity) is used make the water rich in mineral and organic
for maintenance (lost in respiration) and as food matter. It becomes suitable for growth of
to herbivores. free floating plants like Lemna, Spifodela etc.
Only 10% of the gross productivity of Rapid growth of floating stage further builds
producers is entrapped by herbivores for up bottom so that water becomes shallow.
their body building. Herbivores are eaten (d) Reed Swamp Stage : Amphibious plants e.g.,
by primary carnivores. Herbivores not Phragmites, Typha etc. grow when the water
preyed by carnivores die a natural death and body becomes shallow. Their tangled growth
energy trapped in their body is transferred accumulates slit.
to decomposers. Only 10% of the herbivores (e) Sedge or Marsh Meadow Stage : Reed swamp
productivity is utilised for raising productivity stage are invaded by Carex (Sedge), grasses
of primary carnivores. The rest is consumed like Themeda and Dichanthium and herbs
in ingestion, respiration, maintenance of body like Campanula etc. The plants transpire
heat and other activities. Higher carnivores rapidly and add abundant humus. Therefore,
similarly are able to retain only 10% of energy soil is build up for the next stage.
present in primary carnivores. (f) Woodland Stage : Sedge meadow stage is
invaded by some rhizome bearing plants which
Producer " Herbivore " CarnivoreI " CarnivoreII
biomass biomass biomass biomass can tolerate bright sunlight as well as water
1000 K cal 100 K cal 10 K cal 1 Kcal
logged conditions, e.g., Cornus (Bogwood)
Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always etc. They invite invasion by trees capable of
upright with base representing the producers bearing bright sunlight and water logging,
and apex occupied by top carnivores. Each e.g., Populus (Cottonwood), Alnus (Alder).
bar of the pyramid represents one trophic They built up more soil.
level. (g) Climax Forest : New tress invade the area.
These tress grow to greater heights with
[Link] how a hydrarch succession progresses time a hydrophytic habital gets converted to
from hydric to mesic condition and forms a stable mesophytic one and forms a stable community.
climax community.
[Link] how xerarch succession progresses from them. The soil remains porous and fertile.
xeric to mesic condition and forms stable climax There are no landslides and floods.
community. 2. Perennial Water : Plant litter and humus


Ans : COMP 2017 prevent run off of water, hold water like
Xerarch succession is the sequence of successional sponge and allow percolation of water. A lot
stages that occur on bare rocks. The various stages of water is held in the soil which slowly passes
and their component plant species appearing on a towards perched water table and comes out
rock are as follows: as springs. They are a source of perennial
1. Pioneer Stage : The first vegetation to occupy fresh water which is quite pure.
the rocky habitat is of crustose lichens, e.g., 3. Air : Plant cover of natural ecosystem absorb
species of Rhizocarpon, Rhinodina and polluting gases, cause settling of suspended
Lecanora. They produce some acids which particulate matter, removes CO 2 and releases
bring about weathering of rocks which invites O 2 . A purified air becomes available.
foliose lichen. The CO 2 released during the 4. Wetlands : They protect the land from floods,
respiration of these lichens react with water remove sediments and other pollutants and
and forms acid. Thus, the process of breaking recharge ground water.
up of rock becomes more rapid.
5. Climate : There is increase in atmospheric
2. Moss Stage : The bryophytes and particularly humidity, good rainfall and moderating effect
the mosses develop and spread very rapidly on climate.
on the rocks. They accumulate more soil
6. Maintenance of biodiversity.
and organic matter which makes the surface
7. Nutrient Cycling : There is no depletion
suitable for next stage.
of nutrients but the same are repeatedly
3. Herb Stage : This stage is constituted by
circulated and recirculated. It keeps the
shallow rooted grasses as Eleusine, Poa,
fertility of soil intact.
Aristida, etc. These accumulate more soil and
8. Wildlife Habital : They are habital of wildlife.
more minerals.
9. Pollination : Bees and other insects of natural
4. Shrub Stage : Du to much accumulation of
ecosystems visit nearby farmlands and
soil, the habitat becomes suitable for shrub
pollinate the crop plants.
vegetation. This habitat includes the species
of Zizyphus, Caparis, etc. These, in turn, 10. Home to Tribals : A large number of tribals
are finally replaced by tress, the climax live in forests.
community. 11. Grazing Grounds: They are grazing areas for
5. Forest Stage : Some xerophytic tree species numerous cattle.
invade the area. Further weathering of 12. Other Values : Natural ecosystems are a source
rocks and increasing humus content of the of spiritual, cultural and aesthetic values.
soil favour the arrival of more trees, and
[Link] about three ecological pyramids with
vegetation finally becomes mesophytic. Thus,
examples.
there develops finally a forest community.


Ans : OD 2016
[Link] the role of healthy ecosystem services Ecological Pyramids are the diagrammatic
as a pre-requisite for a wide range of economic, illustrations of connection between different
environmental and aesthetic goods and services. trophic levels in terms of energy, biomass and


Ans : COMP 2016 number of an organism.
The products of healthy ecosystem processes The concept of ecological pyramids was developed
which have environmental, aesthetic and indirect by Chales Elton (1927) therefore, they are also
economic value are named as ecosystem services. called as Eltonian pyramids.
It includes: There are three main types of ecological pyramids.
These are as follows.
1. Soil : Soil formation and soil protection are
1. Pyramid of Number : This type of pyramid
the major ecosystem services accounting
deals with the number of organisms in each
for nearly 50% of their total worth, Plant
trophic level. e.g. grassland and aquatic
cover protects the soil from drastic changes
ecosystem. The pyramid of number is inverted
in temperature. There is little wind or water
in case of tree ecosystem. It is also called
erosion as soil particles are not exposed to
 parasitic ecosystem. There one single bee 3. Pyramid of Energy : It represents the total
(primary producer) has got large number of amount of energy utilized by different trophic
birds on it (primary consumers) which have level organisms in unit area over a period
large number of insects outside their body of time. It is always upright because there
(secondary consumer). is always a gradual decrease in energy at
successive trophic levels.

Case Based Question

[Link] is the process of breaking down

of complex organic inerganc substances such as
water, CO2, nutrients by decomposer set.
Another exception of pyramid of number is (i) How decries is known as the raw material for
spindle shaped pyramid, where the number decomposition ?
of producers is lesser but support a greater (ii) List any steps of decomposition.
number of herbivores which in turn support
(iii) Which factors affects decomposition. Name
a fiever number of carnivores eg. forest
any.
ecosystem, ecosystem.


Ans : COMP 2015
(i) Detritus is the raw material for decomposition.
It includes dead remains of plants (leaves,
bark and flowers) and animals, including fecal
matter.
(ii) (a) Fragmentation
(b) Leaching
(c) Catabolism
(d) Humification
(iii) (a) Chemical composition of detritus
(b) Climatic factors.

[Link] pyramid is the graphical representation

of an ecological parameter (number, biomass,
energy) sequence wise in various trophic levels of
a food chain.
2. Pyramid of Biomass : Biomass is the amount (i) At what level of ecological pyramid produces
of living matter present in an ecosystem. The are present ?
pyramid of biomass is upright in case of a
(ii) List the different types of pyramids known to
tree, which supports a large number of birds
us.
and inverted in aquatic ecosystem (pond)
(iii) A pyramid of number in case of a big tree is
because in it, producers are microorganisms
generally inverted. Why ?
and their biomass is very less


Ans : OD 2007
(i) producers are always found at the base of the
ecological pyramid.
(ii) Pyramids can be either upright, inverted, or
spindle shaped.
(iii) This is because the number of insect feeding
on that tree generally exceeds in number.

Fish occupy more than one tropic level in a



pond ecosystem.