Module 5

Quantum Computing
1.​Moore's Law & Quantum Computing
Moore's Law, proposed by Gordon Moore in 1965, states that the number of

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transistors that can be integrated onto a single chip doubles approximately
every 18 to 24 months. This trend has driven rapid growth in computing power,

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allowed the production of smaller and faster devices, and significantly reduced
the cost per transistor. For several decades, the semiconductor industry has

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followed this prediction, leading to continuous improvements in the
performance of digital electronics.

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However, as transistor sizes have now reached the nanometer scale, the
continued scaling predicted by Moore’s Law is becoming increasingly difficult.
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When the size of a transistor approaches a few nanometers, quantum
mechanical effects begin to dominate. One major challenge is quantum
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tunneling, where electrons can pass through extremely thin barriers even when
they should ideally be blocked. This leads to leakage currents and power loss,
making the transistor unreliable. In addition to this, as more transistors are
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packed into a smaller area, heat generation increases dramatically. Dissipating

this heat becomes difficult, affecting both stability and lifespan of electronic
devices.
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At extremely small dimensions, the control of electrons inside the transistor

also weakens. This results in what are known as short channel effects, where
the gate loses proper control over the
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electron flow, causing fluctuations in

threshold voltage and improper
switching. Variability in the placement
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of atoms inside the semiconductor

material also becomes a challenge,
since even a few misplaced atoms can
alter the transistor's behavior.
Ultimately, the limit is reached when
the channel size becomes comparable
to the size of individual atoms, making

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 1

further reduction physically impossible.
Because of these limitations, researchers are exploring new approaches to
computation. One promising direction is quantum computation, which relies
on the principles of quantum mechanics. Unlike classical bits that can
represent only 0 or 1 at a time, quantum bits or qubits can exist in a
combination of both states simultaneously due to the concept of superposition.
Additionally, qubits can exhibit entanglement, where the state of one qubit
becomes strongly correlated with another regardless of the distance between
them. These properties allow quantum computers to perform many operations

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in parallel, enabling them to solve certain complex problems much faster than

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classical computers.

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Quantum computing is expected to make breakthroughs in fields such as
cryptography, optimization, artificial intelligence, and molecular simulation,

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where classical computers struggle due to exponential growth in computation.
Thus, the slowdown in Moore’s Law and the physical limitations of transistor
miniaturization have led to strong motivation for the development of quantum
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computation.
Figure: Classical vs Quantum Transistor Scaling The graph illustrates how
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classical transistor sizes have continuously decreased over the years while
approaching a physical boundary near 1 nm, beyond which quantum effects
dominate and prevent further miniaturization.
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1.2. Classical vs Quantum Computation

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In classical computation, the fundamental unit of information is the bit, which

can exist only in one of two definite states: 0 or 1. Classical processors perform
computations in a sequential or parallel manner, but each bit always
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represents a single predetermined value at any moment. This limits the

amount of information that can be processed simultaneously.
In contrast, quantum computation is based on qubits (quantum bits), which
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exploit the principles of quantum mechanics. A qubit can exist in a

superposition of states, meaning it can represent both 0 and 1 at the same
time. This dramatically increases the information density and computational
potential. Moreover, qubits can be entangled, which creates strong correlations
between their states. When qubits are entangled, the change in one qubit
instantly affects the other, regardless of distance. This enables highly

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 2

coordinated and powerful computations that classical computers cannot
efficiently replicate.
The most significant advantage of quantum computing is its inherent
parallelism. Since qubits can exist in multiple states simultaneously, a
quantum processor can perform many calculations at once, whereas a classical
computer processes each state one by one. As the number of qubits increases,
the computational power grows exponentially, enabling quantum computers to
tackle problems that are practically impossible for classical machines.

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These unique capabilities of qubits—superposition and entanglement—make
quantum computing highly promising in fields like cryptography, artificial

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intelligence, optimization, material science, and molecular simulation, where

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classical systems struggle with exponential complexity.

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Feature Classical Computation Quantum Computation
Basic Unit of Bit (0 or 1) Qubit ( superimposed state)
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Information
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Nature of Logic Deterministic Probabilistic (quantum
mechanics-based)
Processing Sequential or limited Massive parallelism due to
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Capability parallelism superposition

Correlation Independent bits Entanglement allows strong
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Between Units correlations

Information Grows linearly with Grows exponentially with
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Capacity number of bits number of qubits

Error Handling Well-developed classical Quantum error correction is
error correction complex and still developing
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Major Speed & miniaturization Decoherence & qubit stability

Limitations barrier (Moore’s Law) challenges
Strength Areas General computing, Cryptography, optimization,
arithmetic, everyday simulation of molecules &
tasks materials

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 3

Examples of Classical search, Shor’s factorization, Grover’s
Algorithms arithmetic operations quantum search

2.​Properties of Qubits
Qubits possess several unique properties based on quantum mechanics that
enable their superior computational power. One of the most fundamental
properties is superposition, which allows a qubit to exist in a combination of

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both |0⟩ and |1⟩ states simultaneously. This ability to represent multiple

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states at once increases the information capacity and enables parallel
computation.

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Another essential property is entanglement, in which two or more qubits

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become correlated in such a way that the state of one qubit is directly related
to the state of another, regardless of the physical distance separating them.
Entanglement enables coordinated operations across qubits and is responsible
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for the exponential speedup in several quantum
algorithms.
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A qubit’s state is extremely delicate and cannot be
directly observed without disturbing it. During
measurement, the qubit's superposition collapses
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into a definite classical state, either |0⟩ or |1⟩.

This phenomenon is known as the collapse of the
wave function, and it limits the ability to extract
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full quantum information as shown in figure

Quantum systems also exhibit quantum
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interference, a property that arises from the

wave-like nature of qubits. By carefully controlling
quantum phases, favorable outcomes of a
computation can be amplified while canceling out
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incorrect results, making quantum algorithms

highly efficient.
Lastly, quantum computations are inherently
reversible. Unlike classical logic gates that may
lose information and generate heat, quantum gates preserve information due to
unitary operations. This reversibility reduces energy dissipation and is
essential for maintaining coherence in quantum circuits.

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 4

Summary of Qubit Properties
Qubits exhibit superposition, allowing them to exist in multiple states at once,
while entanglement creates strong correlations between qubits for powerful
joint computation. Measurement causes collapse of the quantum state, limiting
observable information, and quantum interference enables amplification of
correct outcomes. Quantum operations are reversible, preserving information
and coherence.
Tabular Comparison of Qubit Properties

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Property Classical Bit Quantum Qubit

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Possible States Either 0 or 1 Superposition of 0⟩ and 1⟩

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Correlation No special correlation Entanglement enables

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strong correlations
Behavior Under No change Collapses into definite
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Measurement
Computational Sequential logic
state
Parallel quantum
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Role processing
Gate Operation Irreversible (mostly) Unitary & reversible
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Wave Nature Not applicable Quantum interference

used
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3.​ Representation of Qubit on Bloch Sphere Representation

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The Bloch sphere is a powerful geometric

representation of the state of a single
qubit. Any pure state of a qubit can be
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expressed in the form

where θ is the polar angle (ranging from 0

to π) and ϕ is the azimuthal angle (ranging
from 0 to 2π). This form ensures the

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 5

normalization condition is automatically satisfied.

Special Cases: From equation

Case 1: Θ = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Φ = 0

𝑖0
|Ψ⟩ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠0 |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛0|1⟩ = |0⟩

It represent north pole on block sphere given by

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|Ψ⟩ = |0⟩

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Case II: Θ = π 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Φ = 0

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𝑖0
|Ψ⟩ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠π |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛π|1⟩ = |1⟩

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It represent south pole on block sphere given by

|Ψ⟩ = |1⟩

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Case III: Θ = π/2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Φ = 0
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𝑖0 |0⟩+|1⟩
|Ψ⟩ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 π/4 |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 π/4|1⟩ =
2
,B

Case IV: Θ = π/2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Φ = π

𝑖π |0⟩−|1⟩
|Ψ⟩ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 π/4 |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 π/4|1⟩ =
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Thus, the States lying on the equator represent equal superpositions of ∣0⟩ and
∣1⟩, given as
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lies on the positive X-axis. Similarly, the states

lies on the negative X-axis. Similarly the states

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 6

Similarly:

lie along the positive and negative Y-axes, respectively.

The Bloch sphere provides an intuitive picture of how quantum gates act as
rotations of the state vector. For example, the Pauli-X gate corresponds to a 180°

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rotation about the X-axis, effectively flipping ∣0⟩ to ∣1⟩ and vice versa. The

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Pauli-Z gate corresponds to a rotation about the Z-axis, introducing a relative
phase between ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩

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Thus, the Bloch sphere not only represents the full set of pure single-qubit states

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but also illustrates the effect of unitary operations in a simple geometric manner.
While mixed states (statistical mixtures of qubit states) are represented inside the
sphere, pure states always lie on the surface

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4.​Dirac Notation and Qubit Types
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In quantum mechanics, states of physical systems are represented using Dirac
Notation, also known as bra–ket notation. A quantum state is written as a
“ket” such as |ψ⟩, representing a vector in a complex Hilbert space. Its dual
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(complex conjugate transpose) is called a “bra” ⟨ψ|. The combination ⟨ψ|ψ⟩

corresponds to the probability amplitude. For a single qubit, the
computational basis states are represented as |0⟩ and |1⟩. Any arbitrary qubit
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state can exist in a superposition of these basis states, written as

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This provides the mathematical foundation to represent quantum information

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physically.
1.​ Vector Representation of Ket & Bra States: In quantum mechanics,
kets represent column vectors, and bras represent row vectors that are
complex conjugate transposes of the corresponding kets.

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 7

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G
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2.​ Dagger Notation and Dirac Formalism:
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The dagger symbol (†), also called the Hermitian conjugate, is used in quantum
mechanics to relate column vectors (kets) and row vectors (bras). For any
matrix or operator A, the dagger operation involves taking the complex
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conjugate followed by the transpose. This converts a ket into its corresponding
bra.
SA
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3.​ Inner Product

The inner product is a fundamental mathematical operation in quantum
mechanics used to calculate the overlap between two quantum states. In Dirac
notation, the inner product between a bra ⟨ϕ| and a ket |ψ⟩ is written as ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 8

For column vector representation of states: |ψ⟩ = a, b, ⟨ϕ| = c,∗d∗
Then the inner product is: ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ = c* a + d* b
A normalized quantum state satisfies: ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = 1
The inner product determines probability amplitudes, which lead to
measurable probabilities in quantum mechanics.
Example: To calculate Inner Product

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If

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G
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SA
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Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 9

 4.​ Outer Product from General Qubits
If​

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G
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5.​Superconducting Qubits
Superconducting qubits are quantum bits realized using superconducting
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electronic circuits, where current flows without resistance below a critical

temperature. These circuits are
based on Josephson junctions,
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which consist of two

superconductors separated by a
thin insulating layer, allowing
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Cooper pairs to tunnel and create

discrete quantum energy states.
The two lowest energy levels are
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used to represent qubit states ∣0⟩

and ∣1⟩, forming a controllable
two-level quantum system.
Fabrication of superconducting qubits uses standard microfabrication
techniques such as thin-film deposition, electron-beam lithography, and
etching. Materials like aluminum or niobium are patterned on a silicon or
sapphire substrate to form circuit elements such as Josephson junctions,

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 10

capacitors, and inductors. The circuits are cooled to millikelvin temperatures
using dilution refrigerators to maintain superconductivity and preserve
quantum coherence. Modern designs like transmon qubits provide improved
noise suppression and longer coherence times.
Superconducting qubits find wide applications in quantum technology,
especially in quantum computation and quantum simulation. They can be
coupled together using microwave resonators to form quantum processors
capable of performing high-speed quantum logic operations. Their fabrication
compatibility with integrated-circuit technology makes them highly scalable,

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enabling development of quantum computers with hundreds or thousands of

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qubits. Additionally, superconducting qubits are used in quantum sensing,
quantum communication interfaces, and experimental studies of

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fundamental quantum physics.

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Types of Superconducting Qubits

Type of Qubit Quantum Key Advantage Limitation

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Controlled
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Charge Qubit Number of Cooper Simple design Highly sensitive

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pairs (charge) to charge noise

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Flux Qubit Magnetic flux Strong coupling Sensitive to flux

through loop to magnetic fields noise
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Phase Qubit Phase difference Fast operation Decoherence due

across Josephson to circuitry noise
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junction

Transmon Qubit Phase/charge Reduced charge Lower

(Most widely used hybrid with large noise → long anharmonicity
today) capacitance coherence

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 11

Basic Mathematical Representation
A superconducting qubit behaves like an anharmonic oscillator.​
Qubit states are the two lowest quantized energy levels:
∣0⟩=Ground state
∣1⟩=First excited state
The Josephson junction introduces nonlinearity through its energy term:

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5.1 Harmonic Oscillator Model (Qualitative)

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The harmonic oscillator model describes a system in which a particle

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experiences a restoring force that tries to bring it back to its equilibrium
position. Classically, this is seen in simple systems like a mass attached to a

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spring. When displaced, it oscillates smoothly with a fixed natural frequency.
In quantum mechanics, the harmonic oscillator becomes especially important
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because it shows how motion at microscopic scales differs from classical
behavior. The particle can no longer have any arbitrary value of energy.
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Instead, its energy exists in discrete, equally spaced energy levels called
quantized vibrational states. Even at absolute zero temperature, the system
cannot be completely at rest; it retains a small but unavoidable zero-point
energy, which reflects inherent quantum fluctuations.
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The harmonic oscillator model

is widely applicable in physics.
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It is used to describe
molecular vibrations,
phonons in solids, and the
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quantized electromagnetic
field. In superconducting
circuits, an LC resonator
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behaves like a harmonic

oscillator, providing a
foundation for understanding
superconducting qubits. However, its equally spaced energy levels would allow
unwanted transitions, so superconducting qubits use Josephson junctions to
introduce anharmonicity, allowing only the lowest two states to function as a
reliable qubit.

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 12

5.2 Need for Anharmonicity in Superconducting Qubits
A simple LC circuit behaves like a quantum harmonic oscillator, where the
energy levels are equally spaced:

Because of this equal spacing, if we try to excite only the ∣0⟩→∣1⟩|0⟩ transition

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using a microwave signal of frequency ω, the same signal can also excite the
∣1⟩→∣2⟩transition. This makes it impossible to isolate the two lowest states to

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function as a qubit. Therefore, a superconducting qubit must not be a perfect
harmonic oscillator. To solve this, a Josephson junction is introduced in the

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circuit. It makes the system anharmonic → energy level spacing becomes

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unequal:

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Now, we can choose a drive frequency that only matches the desired qubit
transition ∣0⟩↔∣1⟩ while higher states remain off-resonant and unexcited.
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5.3 Charge Qubit in Dirac Notation: A charge qubit is formed using a
small superconducting island connected to a reservoir through a Josephson
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junction. The island can hold an integer number of Cooper pairs, and these
discrete charge states are used to encode the qubit. The basis states are
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represented using Dirac notation as:

∣0⟩=state with 0 extra Cooper pairs on the island
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∣1⟩=state with 1 extra Cooper pair on the island.

Thus, the qubit state can be written as a quantum superposition of charge
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states:​

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 13

 6.​Operators and Operations (Matrix form)
6.1. Inner Product: The inner product in quantum mechanics measures
the overlap between two state vectors. For qubits written as column vectors.
The inner product between two state vectors ∣ψ⟩| and ∣ϕ⟩| is defined as: ⟨ϕ∣ψ⟩

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Inner product:

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5.2. Orthogonal: Two quantum states are orthogonal if their inner product is

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zero, meaning they are completely distinguishable. For example, the standard
computational basis states of a qubit satisfy ⟨0∣1⟩=0

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5.3. Orthonormality: A set of vectors is orthonormal if each vector has unit
length and is orthogonal to all others
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5.4. Hermitian Operators: A Hermitian operator satisfies A†=A, and

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represents a physical observable since its eigenvalues are real.

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Another famous Hermitian operator:

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 14

5.6. Unitary Operators
A unitary operator satisfies U†U=I, which ensures that quantum evolution
preserves probabilities. A common example is the Pauli-X gate (quantum NOT):

6. Quantum gates-Single-Qubit Gates

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In quantum mechanics and quantum computation, Pauli matrices are

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fundamental single-qubit operators. These operators represent rotations and
bit operations on qubit state vectors in a two-dimensional Hilbert space. They

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are unitary and Hermitian, which means they preserve probability and
correspond to observable quantities.

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A qubit state can generally be expressed as:

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Pauli operators act on these basis vectors as transformations.
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6.1. Pauli-X Gate (Bit-Flip Gate):

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SA
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Action on Superposition

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 15

Truth Table and Circuit Representation:

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X swaps the amplitudes

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6.2. Pauli-Y Operation:
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Y flips the state and adds a phase factor ±i

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Action on Superposition
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Y swaps & applies complex phase

Truth Table and Circuit Representation:

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 16

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6.3. Pauli-Z Operation:

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AN
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Z keeps |0⟩ unchanged but flips phase of |1⟩

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Action on Superposition
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Z flips only the phase of ∣1⟩

Truth Table and Circuit Representation:

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 17

 E
R
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6.4. Phase (S,T) Gate: Phase gates apply a phase shift only to the ∣1⟩
component of a qubit without changing the probability amplitudes of basis

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states. They are unitary and important for making circuits universal for
quantum computation.

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6.4.1 Phase S Gate (√Z Gate)
Matrix Representation:
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Action on Basis States

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SA
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Adds phase of (π/2) to |1⟩

Action on Superposition:

No amplitude change → only relative phase rotation

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 18

Truth Table and Circuit Representation:

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6.4.2. T Gate (π/8 Gate, 4th Root of Z)

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Matrix Representation:

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Adds phase of (π/4) to |1⟩

Action on Superposition:
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Truth Table and Circuit Representation:

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 19

 E
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Some Relationship:

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6.5. Hadamard Gate (H Gate):
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The Hadamard gate is one of the most important single-qubit gates in quantum
computing. It creates and destroys superpositions. It transforms a basis state
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into an equal superposition of ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩.
Matrix Representation:
,B
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It is unitary and Hermitian, and satisfies H2=I.

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Operation on ∣0⟩:
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Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 20

Truth Table and Circuit Representation:

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G
AN
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6.6. Introduction to Multi-Qubit Gates

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In quantum computing, computation is performed on qubits, which can exist

in superposition states. While single-qubit gates (like X, Y, Z, H, S, T) act on
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individual qubits, real computational power emerges when we allow qubits to

interact with one another. This interaction is achieved using multi-qubit gates.
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Multi-qubit gates allow:

●​ Creation of entanglement
●​ Conditional operations (quantum version of “if…then”)
●​ Quantum algorithms like Shor’s, Grover’s, and error correction
These gates operate on tensor product states of qubits.​
For two qubits:

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 21

∣ψ⟩=∣q1​⟩⊗∣q2​⟩

which expands basis states of ∣00⟩, ∣01⟩, ∣10⟩, ∣11⟩

Thus, a 2-qubit gate is represented by a 4×4 unitary matrix.

Gate Type # Qubits Matrix Dimension

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Single-qubit gate 1 (2×2)

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Two-qubit gate 2 (4×4)

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Three-qubit gate 3 (8×8)

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n-qubit gate n (2^n × 2^n)
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All matrices must be unitary: U†U=I
Comparative features of Single and Multi Qubit Gate
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Feature Single-Qubit Multi-Qubit Gates

Gates
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Superposition Yes Yes

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Entanglement ❌ ✔ Only multi-qubit gates

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Conditional Logic No Yes

Basis Expansion Fixed Grows exponentially

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 22

6.6.1: Controlled-NOT (CNOT) Gate:
Introduction
The Controlled-NOT (CNOT) gate is a
fundamental two-qubit quantum logic gate. It
performs a NOT operation (Pauli-X gate) on
the target qubit only when the control qubit
is in the state ∣1⟩. It is crucial for generating

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entanglement and performing conditional
quantum operations.

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Mathematical Definition:

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If the control qubit is ∣c⟩ and target qubit is ∣t⟩, then:

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where ⊕ denotes XOR operation.
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Basis Ordering
The standard ordering of 2-qubit basis states is:
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∣00⟩, ∣01⟩, ∣10⟩, ∣11⟩

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Matrix Representation
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Detailed Matrix Operation on Computational Basis

Case I: ∣00⟩

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 23

Case II: ∣01⟩

Case III: ∣10⟩

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O
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Case IV: ∣11⟩

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AN
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Truth Table
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SA
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1.​Quantum Entanglement
Quantum entanglement is a unique property of multi-qubit quantum systems
where the qubits exist in a correlated superposition such that the state of one
qubit cannot be described independently of the other. The information of the
system is stored collectively. Measurement of one qubit instantaneously

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 24

determines the state of the other (even when separated by large distances).
This non-local correlation has no classical explanation.
Mathematical Condition for Entanglement
A two-qubit state ∣ψ⟩ is entangled if: ∣ψ⟩≠∣a⟩⊗∣b⟩
i.e., it cannot be written as a product of two single-qubit states.
Example of entangled state:

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2. Bell States

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Bell states are a set of four maximally entangled two-qubit states. They form
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an orthonormal basis for a 4-dimensional Hilbert space.
These states show the strongest quantum correlations and are widely used in
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quantum communication.
The Four Bell States
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Generation of a Bell State Using Quantum Gates

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Consider both qubits initially in state: ∣00⟩

Step I: Apply Hadamard (H) gate on First Qubit

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 25

Thus,

Step II: Apply CNOT Gate (The first qubit is control and second is target:)

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Measurement Correlations in Bell State

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For ∣Φ+⟩:

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If the first qubit is measured as ∣0⟩,
∣Φ+⟩→∣00⟩

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If the first qubit is measured as ∣1⟩,
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∣Φ+⟩→∣11⟩

Measurement outcome of one qubit instantly determines the other

,B
TE
SA
JS

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore 26