Index

1. Basic Electrical.…………………………....………1 - 41
2. Network Theory….………………...……….….42 - 59
3. AC Fundamentals……………………………...60 - 100
4. DC Machine…...…………….………...….…..101 - 129
5. AC Machine…………………….……………….130 - 170
6. Power System………………………………..…171 - 222
7. Digital Electronics…………………………….223 - 292

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 Basic Electrical 2

Electric Current
▪ It is the rate of flow of electrons in a conductor.
▪ The SI Unit of electric current is the Ampere.
▪ The magnitude of electric current is measured in coulombs per second. The SI unit
of electric current is Ampere and is denoted by the letter A. Ampere is defined as
one coulomb of charge moving past a point in one second.

▪ It is the rate of flow of electrons in a conductor.

▪ The SI Unit of electric current is the Ampere.
▪ The magnitude of electric current is measured in coulombs per second.
▪ Ampere is defined as one coulomb of charge moving past a point in one second.

Electrical Energy
• Electrical energy is the energy that originates from the electric potential energy or
kinetic energy of charged particles. It is commonly referred to as the energy that is
converted from electric potential energy. Essentially, electrical energy can be
defined as the energy produced by the movement of electrons from one place to
another. The movement of charged particles through a medium (such as a wire)
constitutes an electric current.
• In an electric field, if the charges move freely across the conductor, there would
be an increase in the kinetic energy as they move.
• When the charges collide, the energy gained by them is shared between the
atoms. As a result, the vibration of the atoms increases, causing the conductor to
heat up. Hence, some amount of energy is dissipated as heat in an actual
conductor.

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 Network Theory 53

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

• Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that – A resistive load, being connected to
a DC network, receives maximum power when the load resistance is equal to the
internal resistance known as (Thevenin’s equivalent resistance) of the source network
as seen from the load terminals.
• The Maximum Power Transfer theorem is used to find the load resistance for which
there would be the maximum amount of power transfer from the source to the load.
• The maximum power transfer theorem is applied to both the DC and AC circuit. The
only difference is that in the AC circuit the resistance is substituted by the impedance.
• The maximum power transfer theorem finds their applications in communication
systems which receive low strength signal.
• It is also used in speaker for transferring the maximum power from an amplifier to the
speaker.
Step 1 – Remove the load resistance of the circuit.

𝑽𝑻𝑯
𝑰= …………………. (1)
𝑹𝑻𝑯 +𝑹𝑳
𝑷𝑳 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝑳 …………………… (2)
𝑽 𝟐
𝑷𝑳 = ( 𝑻𝑯 ) × 𝑹𝑳
𝑹 +𝑹
𝑻𝑯 𝑳

Step 2 – Find the Thevenin’s resistance (RTH) of the source network looking through the
open-circuited load terminals.
Step 3 – As per the maximum power transfer theorem, this RTH is the load resistance of
the network, i.e., RL = RTH that allows maximum power transfer.
Step 4 – Maximum Power Transfer is
𝑽𝟐
𝑻𝑯 𝑹𝑻𝑯 𝑽𝟐
𝑻𝑯
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = (𝑹𝑻𝑯 + 𝑹𝑻𝑯 )𝟐
= ……………….(3)
𝟒 𝑹𝑻𝑯
During Maximum Power Transfer the efficiency ƞ becomes:
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝜼= ( ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎%
𝑷
To achieve maximum power transfer, the source and the load resistance are matched and
with this, efficiency becomes 50% with the flow of maximum power from the source to
the load.

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 82
AC Fundamentals

Power in RLC Series Circuit

• The product of voltage and current is defined as power.
P = VI cos𝜑 = 𝐼2 𝑅
• Where cos𝜙 is the power factor of the circuit and is expressed as:
𝑉𝑅 𝑅
cos 𝜙 = =
𝑉 𝑍
The three cases of RLC Series Circuit
• When XL > XC, the phase angle ϕ is positive. The circuit behaves as RL series circuit
in which the current lags behind the applied voltage and the power factor is
lagging.
• When XL < XC, the phase angle ϕ is negative, and the circuit acts as a series RC
circuit in which the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees.
• When XL = XC, the phase angle ϕ is zero, as a result, the circuit behaves like a purely
resistive circuit. In this type of circuit, the current and voltage are in phase with
each other. The value of the power factor is unity.
Applications:
• Communication systems
• Signal Processing
• Voltage/Current magnification
• Radio wave transmitters
• RF amplifiers
• Resonant LC circuit
• Variable tunes circuits
• Oscillator circuits
• Filtering circuits

Three Phase AC Circuit

• The system which has three phases, i.e., the current will pass through the three
wires, and there will be one neutral wire for passing the fault current to the earth
is known as the three-phase system. In other words, the system which uses three
wires for generation, transmission and distribution is known as the three-phase
system. The three-phase system is also used as a single-phase system if one of their
phase and the neutral wire is taken out from it. The sum of the line currents in the
3-phase system is equal to zero, and their phases are differentiated at an angle of
120º.

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 DC Machine 108

• The rotating part is the armature and the Stator is their stationary part. The
armature coil is connected to the DC supply.
• The armature coil consists the commutators and brushes. The commutator
converts the AC induces in the armature into DC and brushes transfer the current
from rotating part of the motor to the stationary external load. The armature
places between the north and south pole of the permanent or electromagnet.

Working Principle of DC Motor

A DC motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy. The basic working principle of the DC motor is that whenever a current carrying
conductor places in the magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. Fleming's left-
hand rule and its magnitude decide the direction of this force.

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule:

If we stretch the first finger, second finger and thumb of our left hand to be perpendicular
to each other, and first finger represents the direction of the magnetic field, the second
finger represents the direction of the current, then the thumb represents the direction of
the force experienced by the current carrying conductor.

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 AC Machine 161

Synchronous Motor
A synchronous motor is an alternating current (AC) motor that operates at a constant
speed, known as synchronous speed, which is directly proportional to the frequency of
the supply current and inversely proportional to the number of poles of the motor. The
rotor of a synchronous motor rotates at the same speed as the rotating magnetic field
produced by the stator, hence the term "synchronous."
• Constant Speed: The motor runs at a fixed speed determined by the supply
frequency and the number of poles in the motor. It does not vary with changes in
the load.
• Excitation: Synchronous motors require a DC supply to the rotor windings, either
through an external source (separate exciter) or using the motor’s own generated
power (self-excited).
• No Slip: Unlike induction motors, there is no "slip" (i.e., the rotor speed matches
the synchronous speed exactly).
Working Principle of a Synchronous Motor
The stator and the rotor are the two main parts of the synchronous motor. The stator is
the stationary part of the motor and the rotor is their rotating part. The stator is excited
by the three-phase supply, and the rotor is excited by the DC supply.
The term excitation means the magnetic field induces in the stator and rotor of the
motor. The main aim of the excitation is to convert the stator and rotor into an
electromagnet.

• The three-phase supply induces the north and south poles on the stator. The three-
phase supply is sinusoidal. The polarity (positive and negative) of their wave
changes after every half cycle and because of this reason, the north and south pole
also varies. Thus, we can say that the rotating magnetic field develops on the
stator.

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 183
Power System

Components of wind turbine –

[Link]
2. Blades
3. Brake
4. Gear box
5. Generator
6. Controller
7. Nacelle
8. Tower
9. Yaw motor
10. Wind vane
11. Yaw Drive
12. Anemometer
13. Low speed shaft
14. High speed shaft
Operation

• When the wind strikes the rotor blades, blades start rotating. Rotor is directly
connected to high speed gear box. Gear box converts the rotor rotation into high
speed which rotates the electrical generator. An exciter is needed to give the
required excitation to the coil so that it can generate required voltage.
• The exciter current is controlled by a turbine controller which senses the wind
speed based on that it calculate the power what we can achieve at that particular
wind speed. The output voltage of electrical generator is given to a rectifier and
rectifier output is given to line converter unit to stabilize the output AC that is fed
to the grid by a high voltage transformer.

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 240
Digital Electronics

Rules of Minimization in K-Map

1. While grouping, we can make groups of 2n number where n=0, 1, 2, 3…
2. We can either make groups of 1’s or 0’s but not both.
3. Grouping of 1’s lead to Sum of Product form and Grouping of 0’s lead to Product of
Sum form.
4. While grouping, the groups of 1’s should not contain any 0 and the group of 0’s should
not contain any 1.
5. The function output for 0’s grouping should be complemented as F’.
6. Groups can be made vertically and horizontally but not diagonally.
7. Groups made should be as large as possible even if they overlap.
8. All the like term should be in a group even if they overlap.
9. Uppermost& lowermost squares can be made into a group together as they are
adjacent (1-bit difference). Same goes for the corner squares.
10. Each group represents a term in the Boolean expression. Larger the group, smaller and
simple the term.
11. The product of those literals that remains unchanged in a single group makes the term
of the expression.
12. Don’t care “x” should also be included while grouping to make a larger possible group.
13. As the squares in K-map also differs from its adjacent square by 1-bit which is why the
variables in K-map are written in grey code. The gray code ensures that each cell of K-
map is in 1-bit difference with each other.

SOP and POS Form

Sum of Products and Product of Sums
Logical functions are generally expressed in terms of logical variables. Values taken on by
the logical functions and logical variables are in the binary form. An arbitrary logic
function can be expressed in the following forms:
i. Sum of products (SOP)
ii. Product of sums (POS)

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 Index
1. Basic Electronics…………………………...………1 - 35
2. Analog Electronics……………………………...36 - 262
3. Measuring Instruments…...……………….263 - 311

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 Basic Electronics 4

1. Linear Resistors
▪ Linear resistors are defined as resistors in which the current value is directly
proportional to the voltage applied across them.
▪ Most of the resistors are linear, and they produce voltage drops when an electric
current flow across them.
Linear resistors are further sub-divided into the following two types:
1. Fixed Resistor
2. Variable Resistor

A) Fixed Resistors
▪ The main characteristics of fixed resistors is that their value is fixed (constant
resistance value) and cannot be changed.
▪ The values in fixed resistors are determined in the designing phase of their circuits.
▪ A wide range of resistor materials is used for manufacturing fixed resistors.
▪ Resistors' material decides the resistor properties such as tolerance, cost, noise,
use, etc

(i) Thin Film Resistor

▪ Thin resistors are composed using a high grid ceramic rod and resistive materials.
▪ A thin layer of resistive material is coated onto the insulating substrate, such as an
insulating rod, tube, or plate made up of a high ceramic substance or a glass.
▪ The resistive element for thin-film resistors is about 1000 angstroms.
▪ These resistors are best known for the better temperature coefficients, low
parasitic inductance, lower capacitance, and low noise.
▪ Thin-film resistors are mostly used for microwave active/passive power elements,
including power resistors, power terminations, and power attenuators.
▪ These resistors are suitable for applications requiring higher accuracy and
stability.

Thin Film Resistor has the following types:

• Carbon Film Resistor: These are resistors with an insulating material rod and are
formed using a high-quality ceramic material called the substrate. A relatively thin
layer of resistive carbon is used around the rod. Because of very low noise and
wide operating range, carbon film resistors are mainly used in electric circuits.

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 Analog Electronics 119

FEEDBACK & ITS TYPES

Need of a Feedback Amplifier:

• The voltage gain, input impedance, output impedance, bandwidth etc are few
important characteristics of an amplifier.
• Feedback Amplifiers are designed to use feedback for better output production. A
part of the output is taken as feedback and used as input to minimise the losses.
• The feedback-amplifier can be defined as an amplifier which has feedback lane
that exists between o/p to input.
• In this type of amplifier, feedback is the limitation which calculates the sum of
feedback given in the following amplifier.
• The feedback factor is the ratio of the feedback signal and the input signal.

Types of Feedback Amplifier

1. Positive Feedback Amplifier
2. Negative Feedback Amplifier

• Signal source: This block is either a signal voltage Vs in series with resistor Rs or a
signal current Is in parallel with a resistor Rs.
• Feedback network: it is usually in the form of passive two port network and may
be formed of resistors, inductors and capacitors. Its function is to return a function
of output energy to the input of the amplifier.

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 Measuring Instruments 268

Torque Equation
The equation involved in the PMCC instrument is the torque equation. The deflecting
torque induces due to the coil’s movement and this can be expressed with the equation.
𝑻𝒅 = 𝑵𝑩𝑳𝒅𝒊
Where,
‘N’ is the no. of turns in the coil
‘B’ is the density of flux within the air gap
‘L’ & ’d’ are vertical as well as horizontal lengths of the surface
‘I’ is the flow of current in the coil

ADVANTAGES OF PMMC INSTRUMENT

• The scale in the instrument can be divided properly
• It generates no losses because of hysteresis.
• It uses less power
• It is not influenced by the stray magnetic field.
• High accuracy
• It is used as a voltmeter/ammeter with appropriate resistance.
• This instrument can measure the voltage & current with different ranges
• This instrument uses shelf shielding magnet so it is applicable in aerospace

DISADVANTAGES OF PMMC INSTRUMENT

• It works with only DC
• It is expensive compare with other alternative instruments
• It is delicate
• It shows an error because of the magnetism loss in permanent magnet

Applications of PMMC Instrument

• Ammeter
• Galvanometer
• Ohmmeter
• Voltmeter

Moving Iron or MI Instrument

• The instrument in which the moving iron is used for measuring the flow of current
or voltage is known as the moving iron instrument.
• Both AC and DC measurement.
• Electromagnet is used.
• Non-uniform scale is used.

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 Index
1. Signals and Systems………………….….………1 - 22
2. Applied Electromagnetic Theory………...23 - 48
3. Control Systems……………….………………...49 - 72
4. Power Electronics………………………....….73 - 134
5. Opto-Electronic Devices…….…….………135 - 151
6. Transducers and Sensors…….……….….152 - 177
7. Miscellaneous……. ………………………….178 - 219

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 18
Signals and Systems

Properties of discrete Fourier series

• Linearity
If 𝑥(𝑛) and 𝑦(𝑛) are two sequences with period𝑁, and Fourier series coefficients 𝑐𝑘
and 𝑑𝑘 , then
𝐷𝐹𝑆[𝑎1 𝑥1 (𝑛) + 𝑎2 𝑥2 (𝑛)] = 𝑎1 𝑐𝑘 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑘
Where 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are constants.
• Time shifting
𝑖𝑓 𝐷𝐹𝑆[𝑥 (𝑛)] = 𝑐𝑘 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
2𝜋
𝐷𝐹𝑆[𝑥 (𝑛 − 𝑛0 )] = 𝑐𝑘 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘( 𝑛 )𝑛0
• Frequency shifting
𝑖𝑓 𝐷𝐹𝑆[𝑥 (𝑛)] = 𝑐𝑘 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
2𝜋
𝐷𝐹𝑆 [𝑒 −𝑗𝑀( 𝑛 )𝑛 𝑥(𝑛)] = 𝑐𝑘 − 𝑀
• Conjugation
𝑖𝑓 𝐷𝐹𝑆[𝑥 (𝑛)] = 𝑐𝑘 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
∗ ∗
𝐷𝐹𝑆[𝑥 (𝑛)] = 𝑐−𝑘
• Time reversal
𝑖𝑓 𝐷𝐹𝑆[𝑥 (𝑛)] = 𝑐𝑘 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐷𝐹𝑆[𝑥(−𝑛)] = 𝑐−𝑘
• Periodic convolution
In 𝑥(𝑛) and 𝑦(𝑛) are two periodic sequences with period 𝑁 and with Fourier series
coefficients 𝑐𝑘 and𝑑𝑘 , then discrete Fourier series of periodic convolution of 𝑥(𝑛)
and 𝑦(𝑛) is

𝐷𝐹𝑆 [ ∑ 𝑥 (𝑟)𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑟)] = 𝑁𝑐𝑘 𝑑𝑘

𝑟=<𝑁>
• Multiplication
𝑖𝑓 𝐷𝐹𝑆[𝑥 (𝑛)] = 𝑐𝑘
𝐷𝐹𝑆[𝑦(𝑛)] = 𝑑𝑘
Then the discrete Fourier series of multiplication of two sequences is given by
𝐷𝐹𝑆[𝑥 (𝑛)𝑦(𝑛)] = ∑ 𝑐𝑙 𝑑𝑘−𝑙
𝑙=<𝑁>

• Parseval’s theorem
Parseval’s theorem for discrete-time periodic signal is given by
1
∑ |𝑥(𝑛)|2 = ∑ |𝑐𝑘 |2
𝑁
𝑛=<𝑁> 𝑘=<𝑁>

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 43
Applied Electromagnetic theory

Transmission line as circuit elements (L and C)

Consider a section of transmission line of length ∆𝑥 at a distance 𝑥 from the sending
end.

Equivalent circuit of a transmission line for a small length

1. The transmission line consists of conductors. So there exists resistance (𝑅)
throughout its length. The resistance 𝑅 is defined as loop resistance per unit length
of the line.
2. When a current passes through a conductor it creates magnetic flux. The flux linkage
gives effect of inductance. Therefore there exists a distributed inductance (𝐿)
throughout the line. The inductance is defined as loop inductance per unit length of
the line.
3. In case of transmission line, the dielectric material of insulator is not perfect. As a
result, there is a flow of leakage current, 𝑖. 𝑒 some leakage current passes through
the dielectric material. This produces a leakage conductance (𝐺). It is defined as
shunt conductance between two conductors.
4. In a transmission line, two conductors are separated by a dielectric medium. So there
exixts a capacitance (𝑐) throughout the line. The capacitance is defined as shunt
capacitance between two conductors per unit length of the line.
→ The above parameters 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑅, 𝐿, 𝐺 and 𝐶 are known as primary line constants. As
these parameters are distributed along the entire length of transmission line, the line
is known as uniform transmission line.
→ Let 𝑉(𝑧, 𝑡) and 𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡) be the voltage and current at the sending end respectively.
Similarly 𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡) and 𝐼(𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 ) be the voltage and current respectively at
receiving end.
→ The transmission line can be represented in terms of four distributed parameters;
resistance, inductance, capacitance and conductance.
Let 𝑅, 𝐿, 𝐶 and 𝐺 be resistance, inductance, capacitance and conductance per unit
length of the conductor respectively. The values of these parameters for length ∆𝑧
of the transmission line will be 𝑅∆𝑧, 𝐿∆𝑧, 𝐶∆𝑧 and 𝐺∆𝑧 respectively.

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 57
Control Systems

Rule-9: Combining summing points

Rule-10: Elimination of (negative) feedback loop

Proof:
𝐶 = (𝑅 − 𝐶𝐻 )𝐺 𝐶 (1 + 𝐻𝐺 ) = 𝑅𝐺
𝐶 𝐺
𝐶 = 𝑅𝐺 − 𝐶𝐻𝐺 =
𝑅 1 + 𝐺𝐻
𝐶 + 𝐶𝐻𝐺 = 𝑅𝐺
Rule-11: Elimination of (positive) feedback loop

Signal Flow graph

Signal flow graph algebra
Rule-1: Incoming signal to a node through a branch is given by the product of a signal
at previous node and the gain of the branch.
Examples:

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 Power Electronics 112

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

• IGBT is the short form of Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor. It is a three-terminal
semiconductor switching device that can be used for fast switching with high
efficiency in many types of electronic devices. These devices are mostly used in
amplifiers for switching/processing complex wave patters with pulse width
modulation (PWM).

Structure of IGBT
• The structure of IGBT is very much similar to that of PMOSFET, except one layer
known as injection layer which is p+ unlike n+ substrate in PMOSFET. This injection
layer is the key to the superior characteristics of IGBT. Other layers are called the
drift and the body region. The two junctions are labeled J1 and J2.

Operation of IGBT as a Circuit

• Since IGBT is a combination of BJT and MOSFET lets look into their operations as a
circuit diagram here.
• The collector of the PNP transistor is connected to the NPN transistor through
a JFET, the JFET connects the collector of the PNP transistor and the base of the
PNP transistor.
• These transistors are arranged in a way to form a parasitic thyristor set up to create
a negative feedback loop. The Resistor RB is placed to short the base and emitter
terminals of the NPN transistor to ensure that the thyristor doesn’t latch-up which
leads to the latch-up of the IGBT.

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 Opto-Electronic Devices 139

IR LED
• An Infrared light-emitting diode (IR LED) is a special-purpose LED that emits
infrared rays ranging from 700 nm to 1 mm wavelength. Different IR LEDs may
produce infrared light of differing wavelengths, just like other LEDs produce light
of different colors.
• IR sensor is a device that uses infrared technology to detect objects or changes in
the environment. IR sensors can detect a wide range of physical properties such as
temperature, motion, and proximity.

• IR LEDs are usually made of gallium arsenide or aluminum gallium arsenide. In

complement with IR receivers, these are commonly used as sensors.
• The appearance of an IR LED is the same as a common LED. Since the human eye
cannot see infrared radiation, it is not possible for a person to identify if an IR LED
is working. A camera on a cell phone camera solves this problem.
• An IR LED is a type of diode or simple semiconductor. Electric current is allowed to
flow in only one direction in diodes. As the current flows, electrons fall from one
part of the diode into holes on another part.
• In order to fall into these holes, the electrons must shed energy in the form of
photons, which produce light.
• It is necessary to modulate the emission from the IR diode to use it in the electronic
application to prevent spurious triggering. Modulation makes the signal from IR
LED stand out above the noise.
• Infrared diodes have a package that is opaque to visible light but transparent to
infrared. The massive use of IR LEDs in remote controls and safety alarm systems
has drastically reduced the pricing of IR diodes in the market.
Working:
• An IR LED works by emitting electromagnetic radiation in the form of infrared light.
When an electric current is passed through the LED, the electrons in the
semiconductor material are excited, releasing energy in the form of photons. The
wavelength of the emitted radiation is determined by the energy bandgap of the
semiconductor material.

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 Transducers and Sensors 163

Thermocouple
• A thermocouple is a device that converts temperature differences into an electric
voltage, based on the principle of the thermoelectric effect. It is a type of sensor
that can measure temperature at a specific point or location. Thermocouples are
widely used in various fields, such as industrial, domestic, commercial, and
scientific applications, because of their simplicity, durability, low cost, and wide
temperature range.

Thermoelectric Effect
• The thermoelectric effect is the phenomenon of generating an electric voltage due
to a temperature difference between two different metals or metal alloys.
• If there is a temperature difference between the hot junction and the open ends,
a thermal electromotive force (a thermal voltage) is created in the thermocouple.
This is also called the Seebeck effect.
• The thermoelectric effect can be explained by the movement of free electrons in
the metals. When one junction is heated, the electrons gain kinetic energy and
move faster toward the colder junction.
• This creates a potential difference between the two junctions, which can be
measured by a voltmeter or an ammeter. The magnitude of the voltage depends
on the type of metals used and the temperature difference between the junctions.
Working:
• A thermocouple consists of two wires made of different metals or metal alloys,
joined together at both ends to form two junctions. One junction called the hot or
measuring junction, is placed at the location where the temperature is to be
measured. The other junction called the cold or reference junction, is kept at a
constant and known temperature, usually at room temperature or in an ice bath.
• When there is a temperature difference between the two junctions, an electric
voltage is generated across the thermocouple circuit due to the thermoelectric
effect. This voltage can be measured by a voltmeter or an ammeter connected to
the circuit. By using a calibration table or a formula that relates the voltage to the
temperature for a given type of thermocouple, the temperature of the hot junction
can be calculated.

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 Miscellaneous 196

CONSTRUCTION OF RELAY
A basic electromechanical relay consists of an electromagnet, armature, and set of
contacts. The electromagnet is made up of a coil that receives input signals and a soft iron
core. When voltage is applied to the coil, it gets magnetized due to electric current flowing
through the coil windings. The armature is a movable piece of soft iron attracted by the
magnetic field created by the electromagnet. A set of normally open (NO) and normally
closed (NC) contacts are attached to the armature which opens or closes depending on
the armature's position.
Component Description
Electromagnet Generates magnetic field upon
energization
Armature Movable piece that responds to the
magnetic field
Contacts Conductors that open/close the
electrical circuit
Spring Returns the armature to its original
position

How Does a Relay Work?

When voltage is applied to the relay coil, the magnetic field developed by the coil
magnetizes the soft iron core and armature. This magnetic attraction pulls the armature
towards the electromagnet. The movement of the armature physically opens or closes
the associated set of contacts. In the relaxed state, the NO contacts are open and NC
contacts are closed. When power is supplied, the contacts reverse their state. Thus, low
power input from one circuit controls and switches a different higher power circuit using
the relay contacts.
RELAY CONTACT TYPES
Relays can have different contact arrangements depending on the circuit requirements.
Commonly used contact types include normally open (NO), normally closed (NC) and
changeover (CO) contacts. NO contacts are open under no power and close when
powered. NC contacts are closed with no power and open when powered. CO contacts
switch between open and closed states with each operation.
Relays come with various contact configurations to suit different applications:
• SPST (Single Pole Single Throw): One contact that can either be open or closed.

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