CHAPTER 3- RESEARCH DESIGNS AND METHODOLOGY

Lesson 1: Types of Research

Starting Accurately

Lesson Objectives:
1. Identify and differentiate various research designs
2. Determine the appropriate methods of gathering data for different designs;
3. Discuss the advantage and limitations of different designs; and
4. Determine appropriate design for the chosen/proposed group research.

Stimulating Learning

Many experts have different ways of classifying research methodologies, depending on

the identified basis or purpose. However, for research in language, we will adopt the
methodology common to educational research as our basic orientation or background.
Look at the illustration below. What do you think are the common types of research?

In this picture, the author identified three major

types. What are they? Under each type, what are the
kinds of research?
A. B. C.
_____________ ______________ _____________
_____________ ______________ _____________
_____________ ______________ _____________
_____________ ______________ _____________
_____________ ______________ _____________
_____________ ______________ _____________
_____________ ______________ _____________

Inculcating Concepts

Three Most Common Research Design: Descriptive, Experimental, Historical

There are three common research designs usually employed in the study: historical,
experimental and descriptive. In writing this part of the chapter, the researcher should present
which one is used in the present study and define it. He should also cite the source of such
definition.

The research design is further described by presenting the specific type. For instance, if
the study is a descriptive one, what specific type does it employ?
These types may be survey, correlational, case analysis, trend analysis, etc.

1
 If the study is experimental, there are also different types of experimental designs such
as Completely Randomized Design (CRD), Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD), Latin
squares, factorial, split plot, etc.

General and Specific Types of Research

I. Historical Research
Historical research is a qualitative technique. Historical research studies the meaning of
past events in an attempt to interpret the facts and explain the cause of events, and their effect in
the present events. In doing so, researchers rely heavily on primary historical data such as:
• direct accounts of events
• archival data - official documents, personal records, and records of eyewitnesses)
• and less frequently on secondary historical data (information from persons who didn’t
witness the event; e.g. textbooks, newspapers, encyclopedias).

Historical research data is subject to external criticism (verification of genuineness or

validity of the source) and internal criticism (exploring the meaning of the source). Historical
research has time and place dimensions. Simple chronology is not considered historical research
because it does not interpret the meaning of events.

Uses of Historical Research. Historical research is used to compare records of

historical events and the activities surrounding them. This type of research also helps to organize
historical events sequentially, and to preserve historical data so it doesn’t get lost.

Advantages. The following are advantages of historical research:

• The research is not involved in the situation that is studied
• The researchers do not interact with the subjects of study
• Analysis of historical data may help explain current and future events

Shortcomings. On the other hand, the following are advantages of historical research:
• Historical data is incomplete and vulnerable to time (documents can be destroyed by wars or
over time)
• It can also be biased and corrupt (e.g. diaries, letters, etc. are influenced by the person
writing them)
• Historical research is a complex and broad category because the topics of research (e.g. the
study of a society) are affected by numerous factors that need to be considered and
analyzed

Examples of Historical Research. One example from the textbook is the documented
expedition of Spanish explorer Hernando DeSoto who discovered the Mississippi river. Historical
research uncovered this story based on primary historical data – in this case, records from the
members of the expedition, as well as documents and letters from the Spanish archives.

Others have studied the historical progression of societies, e.g. Karl Marx observed the
historical progression of economic systems from primitive to feudal, and then to capitalism. Other
examples would include the study of historical events like wars, revolutions, etc.

II. Experimental or intervention research

Experimental research evaluates the outcomes or effects of a particular intervention or
treatment. It studies the “cause and effect” relationship between certain factors on a
certain phenomenon under controlled conditions

This is the only type of research that can, in the truest sense, test hypotheses
concerning cause-and-effect relationships, of variables, thus considered the most valid
2
approach to finding the solutions to problems. It does so ‘by setting up conditions, artificial or
controlled, in order to isolate or identify the significant factor causing the phenomena under
study. The extent of controlling situations is ruled by the researcher’s desire to observe• one
element in the study as controlled under different conditions While the others remain constant.

Characteristically, experimental research involves the manipulation of at least one

independent variable. All other independent variables, except the dependent variables, may be
held constant. Finally, the effect of the manipulation of one independent variable is observed or
measured.

The conditions predominating in experimental research are grouped as experimental group,

or control groups, basing on the treatment they receive. The experimental group receives the
treatment under investigation while the control group receives a different treatment or the usual
method the investigation has been treated before. Control, in the light of experimental research,
refers to the effort on the part of the researcher to remove the influence of any variable other
than the independent variable, which may affect performance on the dependent variable.

The validity of an experimental research depends upon the fact that the results are obtained
only from the manipulation of the independent’ variable and not from other factors. It is further
measured by its capacity to be made into a generalization towards situations outside the
experimental setting.

When the conditions allow the observation of the differences on the ‘dependent variable as a
direct result of the manipulation of the independent variable, and some other variables, the
validity is considered internal. When the conditions result to generalization, or application to
groups, settings and environments outside of the experimental setting, the validity is considered
external.

Aside from control, two other important principles of experimental research are
randomization and replication. Thes three basic principles are devices to avoid the
systematic error and to control the random error when conducting experimental
research. Through randomization, (random choice of sample from experimental group)
every experimental unit will have the same chance of receiving any treatment.
Replication means repeating the experiment in order to validate prior test results. This
makes experimental research costly and process long.

The Types of Experimental Research Design

The types of experimental research design are determined by the way the researcher
assigns subjects to different conditions and groups. They are of 3 types, namely; pre-
experimental, quasi-experimental, and true experimental research.

1. Pre-experimental Research Design - either a group or various dependent

groups are observed for the effect of the application of an independent variable which is
presumed to cause change. It is the simplest form of experimental research design and is treated
with no control group.

Although very practical, experimental research is lacking in several areas of the true-
experimental criteria. The pre-experimental research design is further divided into three types

• One-shot Case Study Research Design. In this type of experimental study, only one
dependent group or variable is considered. The study is carried out after some treatment
which was presumed to cause change, making it a posttest study.
• One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design. This research design combines both
posttest and pretest study by carrying out a test on a single group before the treatment is

3
 administered and after the treatment is administered. With the former being administered
at the beginning of treatment and later at the end.
• Static-group Comparison. In a static-group comparison study, 2 or more groups are
placed under observation, where only one of the groups is subjected to some treatment
while the other groups are held static. All the groups are post-tested, and the observed
differences between the groups are assumed to be a result of the treatment.

2. Quasi-experimental Research Design –

The word "quasi" means partial, half, or pseudo. Therefore, the quasi-experimental
research bearing a resemblance to the true experimental research, but not the same. In quasi-
experiments, the participants are not randomly assigned, and as such, they are used in settings
where randomization is difficult or impossible.

This is very common in educational research, where administrators are unwilling to allow
the random selection of students for experimental samples.

Some examples of quasi-experimental research design include; the time series, no

equivalent control group design, and the counterbalanced design.

3. True Experimental Research Design

The true experimental research design relies

on statistical analysis to approve or disprove a
hypothesis. It is the most accurate type of experimental design and may be carried out with or
without a pretest on at least 2 randomly assigned dependent subjects.

The true experimental research design must contain a control group, a variable that can be
manipulated by the researcher, and the distribution must be random. The classification of true
experimental design include:

• The posttest-only Control Group Design: In this design, subjects are randomly
selected and assigned to the 2 groups (control and experimental), and only the
experimental group is treated. After close observation, both groups are post-tested, and a
conclusion is drawn from the difference between these groups.
• The pretest-posttest Control Group Design: For this control group design, subjects are
randomly assigned to the 2 groups, both are presented, but only the experimental group
is treated. After close observation, both groups are post-tested to measure the degree of
change in each group.
• Solomon four-group Design: This is the combination of the pretest-only and the pretest-
posttest control groups. In this case, the randomly selected subjects are placed into 4
groups.

The first two of these groups are tested using the posttest-only method, while the other
two are tested using the pretest-posttest method.

Examples of Experimental Research

1. Experiments. Experimental research examples are different, depending on the
type of experimental research design that is being considered. The most basic
example of experimental research is laboratory experiments, which may differ in
nature depending on the subject of research.
2. Evaluation of Teaching Method. An academic institution wants to evaluate the
teaching method of 2 teachers to determine which is best. Imagine a case

4
 whereby the students assigned to each teacher is carefully selected probably due
to personal request by parents or due to stubbornness and smartness. This is a
no equivalent group design example because the samples are not equal. By
evaluating the effectiveness of each teacher's teaching method this way, we may
conclude after a post-test has been carried out.

Characteristics of Experimental Research

• In terms of Variables
Experimental research contains dependent, independent and extraneous variables. The
dependent variables are the variables being treated or manipulated and are sometimes called
the subject of the research.

The independent variables are the experimental treatment being exerted on the dependent
variables. Extraneous variables, on the other hand, are other factors affecting the experiment
that may also contribute to the change.

• In terms of Setting
The setting is where the experiment is carried out. Many experiments are carried out in the
laboratory, where control can be exerted on the extraneous variables, thereby eliminating
them. Other experiments are carried out in a less controllable setting. The choice of setting used
in research depends on the nature of the experiment being carried out.

• In terms of Multivariable
Experimental research may include multiple independent variables, e.g. time, skills, test
scores, etc.

Use of Experimental Research Design in Education

Experimental research design can be majorly used in physical sciences, social sciences,
education, and psychology. It is used to make predictions and draw conclusions on a subject
matter.

• Education: Asides from science subjects like Chemistry and Physics which involves
teaching students how to perform experimental research, it can also be used in improving
the standard of an academic institution. This includes testing students' knowledge on
different topics, coming up with better teaching methods, and the implementation of other
programs that will aid student learning.

• Human Behavior: Social scientists are the ones who mostly use experimental research
to test human behavior. For example, consider 2 people randomly chosen to be the
subject of the social interaction research where one person is placed in a room without
human interaction for 1 year. The other person is placed in a room with a few other
people, enjoying human interaction. There will be a difference in their behavior at the end
of the experiment.

5
 What are the Disadvantages of Experimental Research?
• It is highly prone to human error due to its dependency on variable control which may
not be properly implemented.
• Exerting control of extraneous variables may create unrealistic situations. Eliminating
real-life variables will result in inaccurate conclusions. This may also result in
researchers controlling the variables to suit his or her personal preferences.
• It is a time-consuming process. So much time is spent on testing dependent variables
and waiting for the effect of the manipulation of dependent variables to manifest.
• It is expensive.
• It is very risky and may have ethical complications that cannot be ignored. This is
common in medical research, where failed trials may lead to a patient's death or a
deteriorating health condition.
• Experimental research results are not descriptive.
• Response bias can also be supplied by the subject of the conversation.
• Human responses in experimental research can be difficult to measure.

Data Collection Methods in Experimental Research

Data collection methods in experimental research are the different ways in which data
can be collected for experimental research. They are used in different cases, depending on the
type of research being carried out.

• Observational Study: This type of study is carried out over a long period. It measures
and observes the variables of interest without changing existing conditions.
• Simulations: This procedure uses a mathematical, physical, or computer models to
replicate a real-life process or situation. It is frequently used when the actual situation is
too expensive, dangerous, or impractical to replicate in real life.
• Surveys: A survey is a tool used to gather relevant data about the characteristics of a
population, and is one of the most common data collection tools. A survey consists of a
group of questions prepared by the researcher, to be answered by the research subject.
Surveys can be shared with the respondents both physically and electronically. When
collecting data through surveys, the kind of data collected depends on the respondent,
and researchers have limited control over it.

III. Descriptive Research

Descriptive research tries to find answers to questions who, what when, where, and how. It
describes a situation or a given state of affairs in terms of a specified aspects or factors; describes
the characteristics of individuals or groups, physical environments, or conditions.
This type of research gathers information about present existing conditions. It aims
to describe the nature of conditions as they exist at the time of the study, as well as explore the
causes of particular phenomena.

Descriptive researches are advantageous since they utilize approaches advisable for
one’s use in practical situation. Their logical use in studies is aimed toward information
dissemination or in creating good public relations. Their results provide normative
standards based on what is prevalent.

Though, there is a tendency for this type of research to become a mere information
gathering activity due to its simplicity, since it provides limited information about the effect of the
variables under study.

6
 Many researches may be a combination or descriptive and correlation research thus is
identified as descriptive-correlational research (see specific type below).

Types of Descriptive Research

a. Case studies. A case study is a detailed study about one person, event, or unit, over a
considerable period of time. Undertaken through a deeper inquiry into and thorough examination
of the behaviors of a person or turn of events, it involves the determination and identification of
all the essential variables that have contributed to the existence: or development of the subject of
the study.

Case studies are advantageous because they offer the researcher the depth of the
subjects or events being studied, most especially the insights into the basic behaviors,
characteristics, or events. On the other hand, they are disadvantageous because they may not
offer the researcher the breadth or extent of the object under study because the information is
gathered from single sources or events, which do not credibly characterize the entire population
or phenomenon.

b. Surveys. A survey allows a researcher to gather relatively limited data from a

relatively large number of sources. Information about variables is gathered rather than about the
sources themselves. This type of research is conducted in order to ascertain the prevalence and
existence of phenomena or events without inquiring into why such exist. In surveys, the
researcher does not intend to establish relationships of variables, for the data gathering process
is purposely for problem solving rather than hypothesis testing.

Surveys may either be census survey, or sample survey. The former covers the entire
population of the interest while the latter covers only portion of the population.
c. Correlational Study. A correlational study is intended to estimate the extent by which
different variables of the study are related to each other. A study on the relationship between
academic achievement and study habits of Teacher Education students an example of this type
of descriptive study.

Correlation research explains the possible factors related to a problem; answers why and
how. Certain factors are “assumed” to explain or contribute to the existence of a problem or a
certain condition or the variation of a given situation

Correlational research is a type of non-experimental research method, in which a

researcher measures two variables, understands and assess the statistical relationship between
them with no influence from any extraneous variable.

Correlational research is looking for variables that seem to interact with each other so that
when one variable is changing, you have an idea how the other variable will change.

d. Longitudinal Surveys. This type of descriptive study involves a series of surveys

made periodically with the same test group.

Longitudinal studies often use surveys to collect data that is

either qualitative or quantitative. Additionally, in a longitudinal study, a survey creator does not
interfere with survey participants. Instead, the survey creator distributes questionnaires over time
to observe changes in participants, their behaviors, or their attitudes.
The purpose of using the same individuals or samples in the longitudinal study is to
observe any measurable change over time. This ensures that you can account for the same
variables of interest in the duration of your study.

7
 e. Developmental studies. A developmental study intends to gather data about the
psychological, intellectual, or emotional growth of the subjects of concern and relate such data
on the different dimensions of learning and policy implementation. It may also involve a thorough
study about the progressive stages that events undergo in order to provide critical analysis of the
factors involved in each stage.

f. Follow-up studies. A follow-up study investigates the resulting developmental

advancement and progress the subjects have achieved after a specified treatment or condition.
Its main purpose is to evaluate the results of particular treatments, programs, projects, etc. using
these subjects.

An evaluation of the success of a given guidance service program of the different teacher
education schools in the city of Iloilo as measured through the behavioral stability and spiritual
maturity of their respective alumni who are now in their final year in college is an example of this
type of descriptive study.

g. Documentary analysis. A documentary analysis gathers information by looking into

records and documents and criticizing the veracity of such sources. It may also be a form of
content criticism as one deter- mines the extent of coverage of a particular idea or knowledge
contained in the source. Literature research may make use of documentary analysis.

An analysis of the business records among the major shipping companies showing the
extent of the use of computers in the shipping world is an example of documentary analysis,

h. Trend analysis. Trend analysis projects the future status in terms of demands or
needs by gathering data that are probable causes of such status.

An overall analysis of money market investments in the country from the time of inception
of the Marketing Law up to year 2000 and onto the next decade is a trend analysis.

Gathering Descriptive Information

a. Personal Interview, Mail or E-mail Survey, Telephone Survey. A gathering data

regarding social profile, attitudes, as well as opinion of a group of people, the information may be
provided through personal interview, or surveys.
A survey may either employ questionnaires, or opinionnaires. Studies
employing these data gathering tools are considered self-reporting.

b. Observation. Another direct means of gathering data for descriptive studies is

observation. This means employs communication skills in information gathering.
• Observations that center on the actual behaviors of the respondents are
considered activity analysis, job analysis, or process analysis.
• Observations that center on the respondents’ behavior over a certain product are
considered product analysis.
• Observations that are centered on the conditions that affect the behavior of the
respondents are termed situation analysis.

c. Use of Device. Obtaining descriptive information may also involve’ the use of devices
or descriptive survey instruments. These instruments in the form of checklist or survey form, aim
to conduct - measurements from the respondents or participants that may not be measured by
mere observation or surveys. The data from these measurements can best establish standards
of what is prevalent, especially when a researcher is conducting a normative survey. In some
instances, data are ‘gathered from the measurements taken from cross-sectional studies or
cases, as in a developmental study.’

8
 Audio recorders, video recorder, or designed or programmed materials are also devices
used for data gathering.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is one approach advisable when a researcher wishes to apply the
result of the study in practical situation. It can be a good tool in disseminating information, as
well as in establishing public relations. By studying and analyzing present conditions, it can
create normative standards based on what is prevalent and acceptable.

On the other hand, a descriptive research, because of its simplicity; may tend to become a
mere information-gathering endeavor. Since it cannot measure the cause-and-effect
relationship of variables being studied, the information it can provide is limited. Furthermore, it
cart be a subject of inconsistency as to the actuation, behavior and response of the
participants of the study.

Other Classifications of Research

1. In terms of application:
Pure vs. applied research
2. In terms of application:
Quantitative vs. Qualitative research
3. In terms of objectives:
Exploratory vs. explanatory research

Quantitative research – quantifies/reflects in numbers the observation on

characteristics of the population being studied. It emphasize precise measurement and often
time requires statistical analysis of data or the testing of hypothesis based on a sample of
observation

Qualitative research – emphasizes verbal descriptions and explanations of human

behavior and practices in an attempt to understand how the units or members of the study
population experience or explain their own world. To gather information, the researcher
makes use of one or a combination of the following techniques: participant observation, key
informant interview, focus group discussion, direct observation, and in-depth analysis of a
single case.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Basis of Quantitative Qualitative

Comparison
Other terms or Positivist Naturalistic, Field Research
phrases associated Experimental Ethnographic, Phenomenological
with the approach Hard Data Anthropological, Ecological
Statistical Case Study, Interpretive, Constructivist
Key Concepts Variable, Operationalized Meaning
Controlled, Reliable Understanding
Valid, Statistically Significant Social construction
Replicated, Hypothesized Context
Academic Affiliation Agriculture, Psychology Anthropology
Political science History
Economics, Basic sciences Sociology
Goals Test theory, Predict Grounded theory
Establish facts Develop understanding
9
 Show relationships Describe multiple realities
Statistically describe Capture naturally occurring behavior
Design Structured, Predetermined Evolving, Flexible
Formal, specific General
Sample Large, Representative Small
Random selection Non-representative
Control group, Stratified Purposeful
Data Quantities, Counts Verbal descriptions, Field notes,
Measures/instruments Observations, Documents, Photographs
Numbers, Statistics People’s own words, Narrative
Techniques or Experiments Observations
Methods Quasi-experiments Participant observation
Structured observations Open-ended interviewing
Structured interviews, Surveys Review of documents and artifacts
Role of Researcher Distant, Short-term, Detached Close, Long-term, Involved
Uninvolved Trusting, Intense
Data Analysis Deductive Inductive, Ongoing
Statistical Stress models, themes, and concepts

Pure vs Applied Research

Exploratory vs. explanatory research

Basic (Fundamental) vs Applied Research

• Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, a
group or an organization, whereas basic (fundamental) research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
o Applied research is considered to be non-systematic inquiry and it is usually launched
by an agency, institution or an individual in order to address a specific problem.

10
• Fundamental or basic research is straightforward and are used to explore certain issues and
elements, whereas findings of applied research can be applied to resolve issues.
• The differences between applied and basic research can be summarized into three points:
o Differences in purpose. Purpose of applied studies is closely associated with the
solution of specific problems, while the purpose of fundamental studies relate to
creation of new knowledge or expansion of the current knowledge without any
concerns to applicability.
o Differences in context. In applied studies, research objectives are set by clients or
sponsors as a solution to specific problems they are facing.
▪ Fundamental studies, on the other hand, are usually self-initiated in order to
expand the levels of knowledge in certain areas.
o Differences in methods. Research validity represents an important point to be
addressed in all types of studies.
▪ Applied studies are usually more concerned with external validity, whereas
internal validity can be specified as the main point of concern for fundamental
researchers.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Applied Research

• The advantages and disadvantages of applied and fundamental research mirror and
contrast each other.
o On the positive side, applied research can be helpful in solving specific problems.
o On the negative side, findings of applied research cannot be usually generalized.
In other words, applicability of the new knowledge generated as a result of applied
research is limited to the research problem. Moreover, applied studies usually
have tight deadlines which are not flexible.

Types of Applied Research

• There are 3 types of applied research. These are evaluation research, research and
development, and action research.
o Evaluation Research
o Evaluation research analyzes existing information about a subject to arrive at
objective research outcomes or reach informed decisions.
▪ This type of applied research is mostly applied in business contexts, for
example, an organization may adopt evaluation research to determine how
to cut down overhead costs.
o Research and Development
o Research and development focuses on developing new products and services
based on the needs of target markets.
▪ It focuses on gathering information about marketing needs and finding
ways to improve on an existing product or create new products that satisfy
the identified needs.
o Action Research
o Action research is a type of applied research that is set on providing practical
solutions to specific problems by pointing into the right directions. Typically, action
research is a process of reflective inquiry that is limited to specific contexts and
situational in nature.

❑ Learn more about the types of research thru these links:

[Link] and
[Link]
research#:~:text=There%20are%203%20types%20of,and%20development%2C%20a
nd%20action%20research.&text=Evaluation%20research%20is%20a%20type,outco
mes%20or%20reach%20informed%20decisions

11
…let’s move on with our lesson…

Lesson 2: Methodology: Research Locale, Sampling, and Research Procedures

Starting Accurately

Learning objectives:
1. Identify the elements of research included in methodology;
2. Identify the different sampling techniques;
3. Compute sample size,
4. Make a frequency distribution table of respondents; and
5. Write Chapter 3 of the proposed research.

Stimulating Learning

Your research is taking shape. But you still have to answer a lot of questions that will
determine the success of getting the right answers for your research problems such as:
• Where are you going to conduct your research?
• Who will provide you with data? How will you choose those who will participate?
• How many are they?
• How will you gather data from them? What will you use?
• Are your tools effective in gathering the necessary data?

Inculcating Concepts

The above questions may be answered by determining the following elements in

research included under Methodology:
1. Research Locale
2. Participants of the Study: Respondents/Subjects
3. Population and Sample

4. Sampling Procedure and Sampling Techniques

5. Instrumentation: Formulation and Validation (Establishing Validity and Reliability)
6. Data-Gathering Procedure

Research locale
Research locale refers to the place where the study is conducted.

Respondents, Subjects, Participants of the Study:

Determining Population and Sample

Participants of the study are people involved in the study whether as a whole group
(population) or a portion of the whole population (sample).

The participants of the study may be its respondents or its subjects; thus, it may be
alternatively labeled as Subjects or Respondents. In cases where the subject is different from
the respondents and both are presented then the label Participants is used and discusses
separately those involve in the study in their specific capacity.

The subjects of the study may not exactly be the respondents but in most cases, they
function as both. For instance, the study on student teachers’ skills may be administered to the
student teachers themselves to answer, thus they are both the subjects and the respondents.
However, it their skills will be evaluated by their students or their critic teachers, then the latter
two serve as respondents.
12
 Mention whether a sample or a population was used in the study. A discussion on
sampling procedure may be integrated in the discussion of participants especially if such may be
mentioned in a few lines. A separate heading may be added if the sampling procedure should be
discussed in detail.

The information may be presented in detail by identifying the different variables

considered, the specific frequencies, and percentages. Usually, a table on distribution of
respondents follows the discussion on participants.

To make one, determine the total number of respondents and the probable distribution by
variable. Compute the number and corresponding percentage per group.

Can you still remember how you compute the percentage? What’s the formula?

Table 1. Frequency Distribution of Respondents (Sample)

Variables f %
As entire group 86 100

As to Sex
Male 32 37
Female 54 63
86
As to Curricular Program
BSED 45 57
BEED 31 43

Sampling Procedure

At times it is impossible for the researcher to study the whole population thus, he may
only consider a sample. A sample is any group on which information is obtained. The larger
group on which the researchers apply the result is the population.
Some important considerations in sampling are (1) homogeneity of the population – that
is if members are characteristically alike, a small sample is needed but if they are heterogeneous
in character, a larger sample is necessary; and (2) size of the population- if the population is
large, the percentage of the sample should be smaller. A common practice is to consider 5% up
to 10% of the population but in no case should the sample be less than 30.

Another way of determining the sample size is by using Slovin’s formula shown below:
N
n=
(1+N(e)2)
where: n = sample size
N= population size
E= desired margin or error (.05 or .01)
Other suggestions in determining sample size:
a. for correlational, causal-comparative and experimental research, a minimum sample
size of 30.
b. for descriptive research – 20% of population
c. another option:
100 or less – survey entire population around 500 – 50%
around 1,500 – 20% 5000 or more – 400

Common Type of Sampling Techniques

A. Probability or Random sampling

1. simple random sampling - each member of the population has an equal and independent
chance of being selected for the sample
13
 a. Identify population and sample size
b. List all members of population
c. Assign a consecutive number in the table of random number
d. Look at the digit assigned to each population member, e.g. you have 95 members
and the first random number you picked is 1183, get number 83, the last two digit
of your random number as a sample.

- Sample may also be selected by fish bowl lottery where each of the names are written
in pieces of paper, placed in a bowl or box and withdrawn from it the number of names
needed for sample.

2. stratified random sampling – certain subgroups or substrata are selected in the same
proportion as they exist on the population
a. Identify population (e.g. 500) and sample size (e.g. 50% or 250)
b. Classify the sample into subgroups c. determine proportional
representation
e.g. year level N
1st 200 - 40% 40% of 200 = 100
2nd 175 – 35% 35% of 175 = 88
3rd 125 – 25% 25% of 125 = 62
Total 500 – 100% 100 250

3. cluster sampling – selects a group, called clusters, or subjects rather than individuals
based on similar characteristics (figures inside the parenthesis are examples)
a. Identify population (500) and sample size (250)
b. Identify logical cluster (sections) = (14 sections)
c. Estimate the average number of members per cluster (38 per section)
d. Determine the number of cluster needed by dividing the sample size by the
estimated size of cluster (250/38= 6.57 or 7 clusters)
e. Randomly select 7 sections out of 14 class sections. Your samples will be all
members of the selected 7 sections
4. two-stage random sampling – combines cluster with individual random sampling
a. Identify population (500) and sample size (250)
b. Identify logical cluster (sections) = (14 sections)
c. Estimate the average number of members per cluster (38 per section)
d. Determine the number of cluster needed by dividing the sample size by the
estimated size of cluster (250/38= 6.57 or 7 clusters)
e. Randomly select 7 sections out of 14 class sections. Instead of taking all
members of the clusters, randomly select participants from each cluster.

B. Non-Probability or Non-Random sampling

1. Systematic sampling – taking the nth member in the population list for inclusion in
the sample. Example, to get 100 from a population of 500, every 5 th name in the list
(number 5, 10, 15...500)
2. Convenience sampling – also called as accidental sampling.
- employs a group of individuals who are available for study, e.g. taking the
opinions of the first 50 customers that may enter in a store about the palatability
(tastiness) of a certain brand or noodles.
3. purposive sampling – also called judgment sampling and deliberate sampling.
- involves selecting members based on predetermined criteria, example, smokers thus
non-smokers are automatically disqualified

14
Instrumentation – questionnaire, interview, observation

Data-gathering instruments or tools are also called the research instrument. These may
be in a form of questionnaires, checklists, rating scales, survey form, interview schedules, or
tests. It may also include other sources of data such as existing forms or records, grade sheets,
evaluation forms or others.

The data-gathering instrument is described in detail by identifying the different parts and
the different components/dimensions if necessary or present in such material. Scoring details
and response categories are also presented here.

If applicable, it may also describe the materials and equipment used in the study.

Reliability and validity of instruments

The validity of an instrument may be determined through face and content validity
determined by validation of the instruments by a group of experts.

Validation is done for face and content validity. In validating, the number of validators is
usually odd (3, 5, 7, 9, or 11). Options as to whether the item should be included, excluded, or
revised are indicated by the validators. Agreement ratio is usually set at 80%. This is the
percentage representing the number of those who decided to include the item in the final draft
over the questionnaire.

Data-Gathering Procedure
- Presents the general procedure of the conduct of the study such as how the data are
arrived at like as securing permission, making the research instrument, the validation
process undergone especially if the instrument is not a standardized tool but one made
by the researchers themselves. It discusses how the instrument was administered,
whether translations were used, etc. If an experiment is conducted, it outlines the steps
of the experiment.

…let’s move on with our lesson…

Lesson 3. STATISTICS IN RESEARCH: Data-Analysis Procedure

Starting Accurately

Lesson objectives:
1. Identify the level of measurement of variables;
2. Determine what appropriate statistical tools to use to derive statistical
data to answer descriptive and inferential questions;

➢ Stimulating Learning

What do you think is the role of statistics in research? What have you read about
this? Try to search the web…

15
 In a qualitative research, numbers or numerical data are used to answer the
research questions, thus they are very important evidence of status, characteristics, and
conditions being investigated and the relationships of these phenomena with each other.

Inculcating Concepts

Statistical analysis or Data-Analysis Procedure

- includes the statistical tools or tests used in order to answer the problems of the study.
- requires understanding of measurement scales as well as type of variables based on
these scales. (nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio)

Measurement scales

-these are levels of measurement for the numerical values or each variable in the study
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
• Used as measure of identity, • Numbers reflect rank • Provides • Highest
e.g. 1-pink, 2-red, etc. order, e.g. 1st, 2nd 3rd numbers that type of scale,
reflect e.g. height,
• Classifies individuals into
• Categorizes: more than differences weight, etc.
categories, e.g. on the among items
(>) or less than (<)
basis of height- tall, short
• Has a true
• Permits
• Enumeration or counting • Ranked/ordered data zero value
statements of
data (how many) equality of interval,
• Does not show magnitude
• Frequency count (how of difference, e.g.
has no true zero
many), e.g. female – 10, point, e.g. most
Contestant Rank
male – 8 psychological
A 1st measures like IQ,
• Numbers are merely B 2nd attitudes, etc.
symbols, e. g. 10 – perfect; C 3rd
13 – unlucky • Equivalent data • Appropriate
• Appropriate for non-
• Appropriate for non- • Appropriate for for para-
parametric tests
parametric tests parametric tests metric tests

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Descriptive statistics. This type of statistical tools gathers, orders, classifies, and
presents data to summarize values that are characteristics of the group under study.
- there is no attempt to infer beyond data
- The commonly used statistics used as:
o measures of central tendency - frequency counts, percentages, ranks
o measures of variability or dispersion of scores

Inferential statistics. This provides information about populations from a sample drawn
from the population.
- from a small but adequate portion of a population, conclusions or judgment (statistical
inference) may be inferred.

- May be of two types: parametric and non-parametric. Comparisons are shown below:

16
 Parametric Non-parametric
• Requires measurement on interval or ratio • Require measurement on ordinal and
scale of the dependent variable. The sometimes nominal data
dependent variable is a parameter/quantity
characteristic of a population.
• Parametric tests are more valid when • Nonparametric tests are distribution-free;
performed on data with normal distribution. no assumptions are made.
• Data are randomly chosen. • Data are arbitrarily chosen and not
subject to random sampling.
• Values in parametric tests are easier to • Nonparametric tests do not require equal
compare when variance between groups are group variance.
homogeneous.
• Parametric tests are more powerful than • Nonparametric tests are easier and
nonparametric tests in rejecting the null quicker and only slightly less efficient
hypothesis when it is false. than parametric tests when < 10, and
are useful for large samples in which
parametric assumptions are not met.

Frequently used statistical tests and applications. Below is a table showing different
statistical tools and for which type of statistical problems they are applicable:

Descriptive Inferential (examples)

ScaleMeasure Measure of Test of difference Test or association/
of central variability (G- grouping in the variable) Relationship
Tendency
Nominal Mode Range •Chi-square test goodness •Chi-square test of
of fit (1G) independence (2IG)
•Sign test (2DG) •McNemar’s Test (2DG)
Ordinal Median/ Semi- •Kolmogorov-Smirnov(1G) •Spearman rho rank
midscore interquartile
•Wilcoxon Signed Rank correlation (2DG)
range or quartile
deviation
Test (2DG) •Mann-Whitney U test
(2IG)
Interval Mean Standard •t-test for dependent •Pearson product
and Mean deviation samples (2DG) moment correlation
ratio
•t-test for dependent
samples (2IG)
•ANOVA (2IG)

Post Hoc Test or a posteriori test. When using a test of difference between two variables,
and a significant difference is noted, the variable with the higher value is interpreted to have a
better/higher level of the construct/concept, e.g. better academic achievement, higher level of
reading comprehension, etc. However, if there are three or more groups in the variable, the
significant difference is not specified right away. One needs another test after such test to
determine in which group such significance is evident. Thus, a need for a Post hoc (a test after
a test) or an posteriori test is done. Although there are many more, the most common ones are
the following:

1. Scheffe Test
2. Tukey Honestly Significant Difference (HSD)
3. Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT)
4. Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD)

Note: Statistical data may be process using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences to
derive statistical data for interpretation.

17