CHAPTER 3: ELECTRICAL EARTHING SYSTEM

3.1 DEFINITIONS AND PRELIMINARIES

A. GROUND

In electrical engineering, the term ground or earth has the following meanings:

1. An electrical connection to earth. The part directly in contact with the earth
(the earth electrode) can be as simple as a metal (usually copper) rod or stake
driven into the earth, or a connection to buried metal water piping. Or it can be
a complex system of buried rods and wires. The resistance of the electrode-to-
earth connection determines its quality, and is improved by increasing the
surface area of the electrode in contact with the earth, increasing the depth to
which it is driven, using several connected ground rods, increasing the
moisture of the soil, improving the conductive mineral content of the soil, and
increasing the land area covered by the ground system. This type of ground
applies to radio antennas and to lightning protection systems.
2. In a mains (AC power) wiring installation, the grounding is the wire that
carries currents away under fault conditions. This power ground grounding
wire is (directly or indirectly) connected to one or more earth electrodes.
These may be located locally, be far away in the suppliers network or in many
cases both. This grounding wire is usually but not always connected to the
neutral wire at some point and they may even share a cable for part of the
system under some conditions. The ground wire is also usually bonded to
pipework to keep it at the same potential as the electrical ground during a
fault. Water supply pipes often used to be used as ground electrodes but this
was banned in some countries when plastic pipe such as PVC became popular.
3. In an electrical circuit operating at signal voltages (usually less than 50 V or
so), a common return path that is the zero voltage reference level for the
equipment or system. This signal ground may or may not actually be
connected to a power ground. A system where the system ground is not
actually connected to earth is often referred to as a floating ground.

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 4. An electrical connection to the inside surface of a Faraday cage. Any excess
charges deposited on the inner surface of a Faraday cage will migrate to the
outer surface of the cage, where they can produce no electric fields within the
enclosure. For this reason, the inside surface of a Faraday cage behaves like an
infinite sink for electrical charge from the perspective of objects within. Even
if the Faraday cage itself is not connected to the Earth, the inner surface of the
cage can be used in place of an earth connection.
5. A ground conductor on a lightning protection system used to dissipate the
strike into the earth.

USES

A power ground (NEC: Article 250):

Ground serves to provide a return path for fault currents and therefore
allow the fuse or breaker to disconnect the circuit.

The power ground is also often bonded to the house's incoming

pipework, and pipes and cables entering the bathroom are sometimes
cross-bonded. This is done to try to reduce the voltage between objects
that can be touched simultaneously.

Filters also connect to the power ground, but this is mainly to stop the
power ground carrying noise into the systems the filters protect, rather
than a direct use of the power ground.

In Single Wire Earth Return (SWER) electrical distribution systems, costs are saved
by using just a single high voltage conductor for the power grid, while routing the AC
return current through the earth. This system is mostly used in rural areas where large
earth currents will not otherwise cause hazards.

Signal grounds serve as return paths for signals and power at low voltages (less than
about 50 V) within equipment, and on the signal interconnections between equipment.
Many electronic designs feature a single return that acts as a reference for all signals.

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Lightning protection is a very specialised form of grounding used in an attempt to
divert the huge currents from lightning strikes.

Grounding is primarily used for safety to prevent electric shock or fires caused by a
voltage potential between the earth and a conductor such as an appliance cabinet or
chassis.

Grounding is often used to conduct lightning strikes harmlessly to earth rather than
starting fires and damaging equipment.

It is also used to control electrical noise in computer, audio and video, and
communications circuits.

This illustrates that an electrical ground should have an appropriate current-carrying

capability in order to serve as an adequate zero-voltage reference level.

HISTORY

Long-distance electromagnetic telegraph systems from 1820 onwards used two or

more wires to carry the signal and return currents. It was then discovered, probably by
the German scientist Carl August Steinheil in 1836-1837 [1], that the ground could be
used as the return path to complete the circuit, making the return wire unnecessary.
However, there were problems with this system, exemplified by the transcontinental
telegraph line constructed in 1861 by the Western Union Company between Saint
Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California. During dry weather, the ground
connection often developed a high resistance, requiring water to be poured on the
ground rod to enable the telegraph to work or phones to ring.

Later, when telephony began to replace telegraphy, it was found that the currents in
the earth induced by power systems, electrical railways, other telephone and telegraph
circuits, and natural sources including lightning caused unacceptable interference to
the audio signals, and the two-wire system was reintroduced.

B. GROUND AND NEUTRAL

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GROUND OR EARTH in a mains (AC power) electrical wiring system is a conductor
that exists primarily to help protect against faults and which in normal operation does
not carry current.

The term "ground" is used in Canada and the U.S.; the term "EARTH" is used in most
of the rest of the English-speaking world. They are used synonymously here.

NEUTRAL is a circuit conductor that carries current in normal operation, and which is
connected to earth.

• In a polyphase or three-wire AC system, the neutral conductor is intended to

have similar voltages to each of the other circuit conductors, and similar phase
spacing.
• In the electrical trade, the conductor of a 2-wire circuit that is connected to the
supply neutral point is also referred to as the "neutral". This is formally
described in the US and Canadian electrical codes as the "identified" circuit
conductor. If the entire system is only single phase then the current carrying
conductor that is tied to earth is still a neutral by this definition.

The NEC and Canadian electrical code only define neutral as the first of these. In
North American use, the second definition is used in less formal language but not in
official specifications. In the UK the IEE definition is a conductor connected to the
supply system neutral point, which includes both these uses.

C. Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is the branch of electrical sciences which

studies the unintentional generation, propagation and reception of
electromagnetical energy with reference to the unwanted effects that such an
energy may induce. In particular, the aim of EMC is the correct operation, in the
same environment, of different equipments which involve electromagnetic
phenomena in their operation.

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In order to achieve such an objective, EMC pursues different issues: emission issues,
in particular, are related to the reduction of unintentional generation of
electromagnetical energy and to the countermeasures which should be taken in order
to avoid the propagation of such an energy towards the external environment,
susceptibility issues, instead, refer to the correct operation of electrical equipments in
the presence of electromagnetic disturbances.

When the propagation of electromagnetic disturbances in guiding structures (i.e.

wires, cables, printed circuit board (PCB) traces) is taken into account, conducted
emission and susceptibility issues are considered, whereas, when the open-space
propagation of electromagnetic disturbances is taken into account, radiated emission
and suscebtibility issues are considered.

3.2 EARTHING SYSTEM

In electricity supply systems, an earthing system defines the electrical potential of the
conductors relative to that of the Earth's conductive surface. The choice of earthing
system has implications for the safety and electromagnetic compatibility of the power
supply. Note that regulations for earthing (grounding) systems differ considerably
between the UK and North America.

A PROTECTIVE EARTH (PE) connection ensures that all exposed conductive surfaces
are at the same electrical potential as the surface of the Earth, to avoid the risk of
electrical shock if a person touches a device in which an insulation fault has occurred.
It also ensures that in the case of an insulation fault, a high fault current flows, which
will trigger an overcurrent protection device (fuse, MCB) that disconnects the power
supply.

B FUNCTIONAL EARTH connection serves a purpose other than providing protection

against electrical shock. In contrast to a protective earth connection, a functional earth
connection may carry a current during the normal operation of a device. Functional
earth connections may be required by devices such as surge suppression and
electromagnetic-compatibility filters, some types of antennas and various

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measurement instruments. Generally the protective earth is also used as a functional
earth though this requires care in some situations.

IEC NOMENCLATURE

International standard IEC 60364 distinguishes three families of earthing

arrangements using the two-letter codes TN, TT, and IT.

The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the power-supply
equipment (generator or transformer):

T : direct connection of a point with earth (French: terre);

I : no point is connected with earth (isolation), except perhaps via a high impedance.

The second letter indicates the connection between earth and the electrical device
being supplied:

T : direct connection with earth, independent of any other earth connection in the
supply system;
N : connection to earth via the supply network.

TN NETWORK

In a TN earthing system, one of the points in the generator or transformer is

connected with earth, usually the star point in a three-phase system. The body of the
electrical device is connected with earth via this earth connection at the transformer.

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The conductor that connects the exposed metallic parts of the consumer is called
protective earth (PE). The conductor that connects to the star point in a three-phase
system, or that carries the return current in a single-phase system is called neutral (N).
Three variants of TN systems are distinguished:

TN-S : PE and N are separate conductors that are only connected near the power
source.
TN-C : A combined PEN conductor fulfills the functions of both a PE and an N
conductor.
TN-C-S : Part of the system uses a combined PEN conductor, which is at some point
split up into separate PE and N lines. The combined PEN conductor
typically occurs between the substation and the entry point into the
building, whereas within the building separate PE and N conductors are
used. (In the UK, this system is also known as Protective Multiple
Earthing (PME), because of the practice of connecting the combined
neutral and earth to real earth at many locations to reduce the risk of
broken neutrals.)

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It is possible to have both TN-S and TN-C-S supplies from the same transformer. For
example, this can happen if the sheaths on some underground cables corrode and stop
providing a good earth, and homes where bad earths are found get converted to TN-C-
S.

TT NETWORK

In a TT earthing system, the protective earth connection of the consumer is provided

by a local connection to earth, independent of any earth connection at the generator.

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IT NETWORK

In an IT network, the distribution system has no connection to earth at all, or it has

only a high impedance connection.

3.3 PROPERTIES OF EARTHING SYSTEMS

3.3.1 COST

• TN networks save the cost of a low-impedance earth connection at the site of

each consumer. Such a connection (a buried metal structure) is required to
provide protective earth in IT and TT systems.

• TN-C networks save the cost of an additional conductor needed for separate N
and PE connections. However to mitigate the risk of broken neutrals, special
cable types and lots of connections to earth are needed.

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 • TT networks require residual current device RCD protection and often an
expensive time delay type is needed to provide discrimination with an RCD
downstream. (descriped later)

3.3.2 SAFETY

• In TN an insulation fault is very likely to lead to a high short-circuit current

that will trigger an overcurrent circuit-breaker or fuse and disconnect the L
conductors. In the majority of TT systems the earth fault loop impedance will
be too high to do this and so an RCD must be employed.

• In TN-S and TT systems (and in TN-C-S beyond the point of the split), a
residual-current device RCD can be used as an additional protection. In the
absence of any insulation fault in the consumer device, the equation
IL1+IL2+IL3+IN = 0 holds, and an RCD can disconnect the supply as soon as
this sum reaches a threshold (typically 10-500 mA). An insulation fault
between either L or N and PE will trigger an RCD with high probability.

• In IT and TN-C networks, residual current devices RCD are far less likely to
detect an insulation fault. In single-ended single-phase systems where the
Earth and neutral are combined (TN-C and the part of TN-C-S systems which
uses a combined neutral and earth core) if there is a contact problem in the
PEN conductor, then all parts of the earthing system beyond the break will
raise to the potential of the L conductor. In an unbalanced multi phase system
the potential of the earthing system will move towards that of the most loaded
live conductor. Therefore, TN-C connections must not go across plug/socket
connections or flexible cables, where there is a higher probability of contact
problems than with fixed wiring. There is also a risk if a cable is damaged
which can be mitigated by the use of concentric cable construction and/or
multiple earth electrodes. Due to the (small) risks of the lost neutral, use of
TN-C-S supplies is banned for caravans and boats in the UK and it is often
recommended to make outdoor wiring TT with a separate earth electrode

• In IT systems, a single insulation fault is unlikely to cause dangerous currents

to flow through a human body in contact with earth, because no low-

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 impedance circuit exists for such a current to flow. However, a first insulation
fault can effectively turn an IT system into a TN system, and then a second
insulation fault can lead to dangerous body currents. Worse, in a multi-phase
system if one of the lives made contact with earth it would cause the other
phase cores to rise to the phase-phase voltage relative to earth rather than the
phase-neutral voltage. IT systems also experience larger transient overvoltages
than other systems.

• In TN-C and TN-C-S systems any connection between the combined neutral
and earth core and the body of the earth could end up carrying significant
current under normal conditions and could carry even more under a broken
neutral situation. Therefore main equipotential bonding conductors must be
sized with this in mind and use of TN-C-S is inadvisable in situations like
petrol stations where there is a combination of lots of buried metalwork and
explosive gases.

• In TN-C and TN-C-S systems any break in the combined neutral and earth
core which didn't also affect the live conductor could theoretically result in
exposed metalwork rising to near "live" potential !

3.3.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY

• In TN-S and TT systems, the consumer has a low-noise connection to earth,

which does not suffer from the voltage that appears on the N conductor as a
result of the return currents and the impedance of that conductor. This is of
particular importance with some types of telecommunication and measurement
equipment.

• In TT systems, each consumer has its own high-quality connection with earth,
and will not notice any currents that may be caused by other consumers on a
shared PE line.

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3.4 REGULATIONS

• For wiring less than 1000V, the United States National Electrical Code and
Canadian electrical code forbids the use of systems that combine the
grounding conductor and neutral.

• In the U. S. and Canada, the standard system uses separated neutral and
protective earth conductors. The neutral must only be connected to earth
ground on the supply side of the customer's disconnecting switch. Additional
connections of neutral to ground within the customer's wiring are prohibited.

• In Argentina the customer must provide its own ground connection (TT).

3.5 APPLICATION EXAMPLES

• Most modern homes in Europe have a TN-C-S earthing system. The combined
neutral and earth occurs between the nearest transformer substation and the
service cut out (the fuse before the meter). After this separate earth and neutral
cores are used in all the internal wiring.

• Older urban and suburban homes in the UK tend to have TN-S supplies with
the earth delivered through the lead sheath of the underground lead and paper
cable.

• Some older homes, especially those built before the invention of residual-
current circuit breakers and wired home area networks, use an in-house TN-C
arrangement. This is no longer recommended practice.

• Laboratory rooms, medical facilities, construction sites, repair workshops, and

other environments where there is an increased risk of insulation faults often
use an IT earthing arrangement supplied from an isolation transformer. To
mitigate the two fault issues with IT systems the isolation transformers should

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 only supply a small number of loads each and/or should be protected with
special monitoring gear (generally only medical IT systems are done with such
gear because of the cost).

• In remote areas, where the cost of an additional PE conductor outweighs the

cost of a local earth connection, TT networks are commonly used in some
countries especially in older properties. TT supplies to individual properties
are also seen in mostly TN-C-S systems where an individual property is
considered unsuitable for TN-C-S supply. (e.g. petrol stations).

3.6 RESIDUAL CURRENT DEVICE RCD

In electrical installations, residual current devices (RCD) (in the U.S. and Canada,
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter or GFCI); along with residual current circuit
breakers (RCCB) operate to disconnect a circuit whenever they detect that the flow
of current is not balanced between the phase ("hot") conductor and the neutral
conductor.

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The presumption is that such an imbalance may represent current leakage through the
body of a person who is 1) grounded and 2) accidentally touching the energized part
of the circuit. A shock, possibly lethal, is likely to result from these conditions; RCDs
are designed to disconnect quickly enough to prevent these shocks.

3.6.1 OPERATION

Single phase RCDs operate by measuring the current balance between two conductors
using a differential current transformer, and opening the device's contacts if there is
a balance fault (i.e. a difference in current between the phase conductor and the
neutral conductor). More generally (single phase, three phase, etc.) RCDs operate by
detecting a nonzero sum of currents, i.e. the current in the "hot" or "hots" plus that in
the "neutral" must equal zero (within some small tolerance), otherwise there is a
leakage of current to somewhere else (to ground, or to another circuit, etc.). The
National Electrical Code, which is the enforcable code in most of the United States,
requires GFCI devices for personnel to interrupt the circuit if the leakage current
exceeds a range of 4 to 6 milliamps of current (the exact trip setting can be chosen by
the manufacturer of the device and is typically 5 milliamps) within 25 milliseconds.
GFCI devices which protect equipment (not personnel) are allowed to trip as high as
30 milliamps of current.

RCDs are designed to prevent electrocution by detecting the leakage current, which
can be far smaller (typically 5- 6 milliamperes) than the trigger currents needed to
operate conventional circuit breakers, which are typically measured in amperes. RCDs
are intended to operate within 25 milliseconds, before electric shock can drive the
heart into ventricular fibrillation, the most common cause of death through electric
shock.

These values were set by tests at Underwriters Laboratories during which volunteers
holding cups of rice were subjected to shocks of known amperage and voltage.
Initially, the GFCI was developed using pigs and hogs in swimming pools, because
their skin is like that of humans.

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Residual current detection is complementary to, rather than a replacement for,
conventional over-current detection, as residual current detection cannot provide
protection for faults which do not involve an external leakage current, for example
faults that pass the current directly from one side of the circuit through the victim to
the other. Notably, RCDs do not provide protection against overloads or short circuits
between phase (live, hot, line) and neutral or phase to phase.

Two wire (ungrounded) outlets may be replaced with three wire GFCIs to protect
against electrocution, and a grounding wire does not need to be supplied to that GFCI,
BUT, it shall be so tagged (the GFCI manufacturers are providing several tags for the
approprate installation description).

3.6.2 EXAMPLE

The photograph above depicts the internal mechanism of an RCD. The device
pictured is designed to be wired in-line in an appliance flex. It is rated to carry a
maximum current of 13 amperes and is designed to trip on a leakage current of 30
mA. This is an active RCD, that is it doesn't latch mechanically and therefore trips out
on power failure, a useful feature for equipment that could be dangerous on
unexpected re-energisation.

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The incoming supply live (US: phase or hot ) and the grounded neutral conductors are
connected to the terminals at (1) and the outgoing load conductors are connected to
the terminals at (2). The earth (US: ground) conductor (not shown) is connected
through from supply to load uninterrupted.

When the reset button (3) is pressed the contacts (4 and hidden behind (5)) close,
allowing current to pass. The solenoid (5) keeps the contacts closed when the reset
button is released.

The sense coil (6) is a differential current transformer which surrounds (but is not
electrically connected to) the live and neutral conductors. In normal operation, all the
current flowing down the live conductor returns up the neutral conductor. The
currents in the two conductors are therefore equal and opposite and cancel each other
out.

Any fault to earth, for example caused by a person touching a live component in the
attached appliance, causes some of the current to take a different return path which
means there is an imbalance (difference) in the current flowing in the two conductors
(single phase case), or, more generally, a nonzero sum of currents from among
various conductors (for example, three phase conductors and one neutral conductor).

This difference causes a current to flow in the sense coil (6) which is picked up by the
sense circuitry (7). The sense circuitry then removes power from the solenoid (5) and
the contacts (4) are forced apart by a spring, cutting off the electricity supply to the
appliance.

The device is designed so that the current is interrupted in a fraction of a second,

greatly reducing the chances of a dangerous electric shock being received.

The test button (8) allows the correct operation of the device to be verified by passing
a small current through the orange test wire (9). This simulates a fault by creating an
imbalance in the sense coil. If the device does not trip when this button is pressed then
a fault has developed and the device must be replaced.

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3.6.3 USE

In most houses, only some (if any) circuits are protected by RCDs. German law, for
example, requires the installation of RCDs only for circuits leading to bathrooms (due
to the highly increased danger of leakage currents when operating electrical devices in
a wet environment: a hair dryer falling into a bathtub might otherwise be fatal). U.S.
law (the National Electrical Code) requires RCDs in bathrooms, kitchens, garages,
exterior areas, crawl spaces, unfinished basements, near wet bars, swimming pools,
and spas. Additionally, it might be a good idea to protect circuits leading to outlets in
reach of children, or outlets that are indoors but near a door (where people are likely
to plug something in while working outside) by RCDs.

Most manufacturers of utilization devices to be used in "wet" locations (for example,

hair dryers or hydrotherapy devices for use in bathtubs) now build in RCDs. In many
countries such is now required.

Sometimes a single RCD is installed covering the entire electrical installation in a

property. However this is considered bad practice by some because any fault will
cause all power to be cut to the premises including to devices such as freezers, fire
alarms etc. and injury may be caused by occupants being suddenly plunged into
darkness. Normal practice in domestic installations in the UK is to use a single RCD
for all RCD protected cuircuits but to have some circuits that are not protected at all
(sockets usually are on the RCD, lights usually aren't other circuits vary by who
installed the system). This practice is widely regarded as far from ideal but cost
considerations make it by far the most common. GFI outlets in the USA have
connections to allow further outlets to be protected by the RCD; a very common
practice is to connect the other outlets in a room "downstream" of a single GFI outlet
so that they are also protected. RCD protection is also available in combination with
an overcurrent breaker for fitting in a consumer unit/distribution board/breaker panel
(known as a GFCI breaker in the US and as a RCBO in europe). In the US, this has
become less common because RCBOs are much more expensive than RCD outlets.

More than one RCD feeding another is unnecessary, provided they have been wired
properly. One exception is the case of a TT earthing system where the earth loop
impedance may be high, meaning that a ground fault might not cause sufficient

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current to flow to trip an ordinary circuit breaker or fuse. In this case a special 100mA
(or greater) trip current time-delayed RCD is installed covering the whole installation
and then more sensitive RCDs should be installed downstream of it for sockets and
other circuits which are considered high risk.

3.6.4 TESTING

RCDs can be tested to see if they are operational and/or they have been wired
correctly.

It is a good idea to check RCDs monthly. One way to test an RCD is to press the
button labelled "Test" or "T" on the RCD unit (which will simulate a ground fault by
bypassing some current) and see if the RCD reacts by correctly opening the circuit. If
it does not trip, the RCD should be replaced. Unfortunately, the test button is a fairly
crude test and it is quite possible (though rare) for an RCD to trip on the pressing of
the test button even when it would not pass a proper test involving passing known
leakage currents and measuring the resulting trip time (and comparing those values to
the requirements given in a standards document such as BS 7671). For example, an
incorrectly wired RCD may still trip when the test button is pressed even though a
real ground fault may not cause it to trip. Use of a solenoid voltmeter from live to
earth may provide a more effective test of the RCD; such a test should be performed
at least once upon installation of the device. The test should be repeated at every
outlet "downstream" of the RCD to ensure that the downstream outlets are also wired
correctly.

3.6.5 LIMITATIONS

A residual current circuit breaker can improve the safety of an electrical system but
cannot remove all risk of electric shock or fire. In particular, an RCD will not detect
overload conditions, phase to neutral short circuits or phase-to-phase short circuits.
Some sort of over-current protection (fuse or circuit breaker) must be employed to
guard against these occurrences. Combined RCD/circuit breaker units are available,

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and these combine the functions of an RCD with those of a conventional circuit
breaker, responding appropriately to fault currents and overload conditions. These are
known as RCBOs, and are available in 1, 2, 3 and 4 pole configurations. RCBOs will
typically have separate circuits for detecting current imbalance (RCD function) and
for detecting overload current (circuit breaker function); however the device for
interrupting the flow of current will be common to both

functions.

An RCD will help to protect against electric shock where current flows through a
person from a phase (live / line / hot) to earth. It cannot protect against electric shock
where current flows through a person from phase to neutral or phase to phase, for
example where a finger touches both live and neutral contacts in a light fitting. It is
virtually impossible to provide electrical protection against such shocks as there is no
way for a device to differentiate between current flow causing an electrical shock to a
person and normal current flow through an appliance. Protection against electrical
shock of this nature must be through mechanical means (guards or covers to protect
against accidental contact) and procedure (e.g. switching off power before
undertaking maintenance).

3.6.6 HISTORY AND NOMENCLATURE

In the early 1970s most GFCI devices were of the circuit breaker type. However the
most commonly used GFCIs since the early 1980s are built into outlet receptacles.
The problem with those of the circuit breaker type was that of many false trips due to
the poor alternating current characteristics of 120 volt insulations, especially in
circuits having longer cable lengths. So much current leaked along the length of the
conductors' insulation that the breaker might trip with the slightest increase of current
unbalance.

One might more properly call the device a Balance Fault Interrupter (BFI), rather
than GFI, because it will trip if current, for example, leaks to or from another circuit
such as either the "hot" or "cold" side of a nearby 12 volt DC renewable energy
system, or a nearby ethernet jack, etc. The device will trip on any balance fault, not

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just a balance fault to ground. However, the term "Balance Fault Interrupter" is rarely
used in practice.

The term earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is also (incorrectly) used, though
strictly speaking this refers to a different type of device.

3.6.7 TYPES

A Residual Current Breaker with Overload (RCBO) is a combination of an RCD and

a miniature circuit breaker (MCB).

In Europe RCDs can fit on the same DIN rail as the MCBs, however the busbar
arrangements in consumer units and distribution boards can make it awkward to use
them in this way. If it is desired to protect an individual circuit an RCBO (Residual-
current Circuit Breaker with Overcurrent protection) can be used. This incorporates an
RCD and a miniature circuit breaker in one device.

It is common to install an RCD in a consumer unit in what is known as a split load

configuration where one group of circuits is just on the main switch (or time delay
RCD in the case of a TT) and another group is on the RCD.

Electrical plugs which incorporate an RCD are sometimes installed on appliances

which might be considered to pose a particular safety hazard, for example long
extension leads which might be used outdoors or garden equipment or hair dryers
which may be used near a tub or sink. Occasionally an in-line RCD may be used to
serve a similar function to one in a plug. By putting the RCD in the extension lead
you provide protection whatever outlet is used even if the building has old wiring.

Electrical sockets with included RCDs are becoming common. In the U.S. these are
required by law in wet areas (See National Electrical Code (US) for details.)

In North America, RCD ("GFCI") sockets are usually of the decora size (a size that
harmonizes outlets and switches, so that there is no difference in size between an
outlet cover and a switch cover). For example, using the decora size outlets, RCD
outlets can be mixed with regular outlets or with switches in a multigang box with a
standard cover plate.

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3.7 TERMS AND CODES

A facility can be defined as something that is built, installed, or established to serve a

particular purpose. A facility is usually thought of as a single building or group of
buildings.

The National Electrical Code (NEC) uses the term premises to refer to
a facility when it defines premises wiring as the interior and exterior (facility) wiring,
such as power, lighting, control, and signal systems.

Premises wiring includes the service and all permanent and temporary wiring between
the service and the load equipment.

Premises wiring does not include wiring internal to any load equipment.

3.7.1 THE NEED FOR GROUNDING

The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines grounding as a

conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, by which an electric circuit
or equipment is connected to the earth, or to some conducting body of relatively large
extent that serves in place of the earth.

It is used for establishing and maintaining the potential of the earth (or of the
conducting body) or approximately that potential, on conductors connected to it, and
for conducting ground current to and from the earth (or the conducting body).

Based on this definition, the reasons for grounding can be identified as:

• Personnel safety by limiting potentials between all non-current-carrying

metal parts of an electrical distribution system.
• Personnel safety and control of electrostatic discharge (ESD) by limiting potentials
between all non-current-carrying metal parts of an electrical distribution system and
the earth.

23
• Fault isolation and equipment safety by providing a low-impedance fault return path
to the power source to facilitate the operation of overcurrent devices during a ground
fault.

The IEEE definition makes an important distinction between ground and earth.

Earth refers to mother earth, and ground refers to the equipment grounding system,
which includes equipment grounding conductors, metallic raceways, cable armor,
enclosures, cabinets, frames, building steel, and all other non-current-carrying metal
parts of the electrical distribution system.

There are other reasons for grounding not implicit in the IEEE definition. Overvoltage
control has long been a benefit of proper power system grounding, and is described in
IEEE Standard 142, also known as the Green Book. With the increasing use of
electronic computer systems, noise control has become associated with the subject of
grounding, and is described in IEEE Standard 1100, the Emerald Book.

3.7.2 STANDARDS

The following is a list of standards and recommended practice pertaining to wiring

and grounding issues.

ƒ National Electric Code Handbook, 1996 edition.

ƒ IEEE Std. 1100-1999. IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and
Grounding Electronic Equipment.
ƒ IEEE Std. 142-1991. IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding Industrial
and Commercial Power Systems.
ƒ FIPS-94 Publication
ƒ Electrical Power Systems Quality

24
EXAMPLE: THE IEC 60364

IEC 60364 is the International Electrotechnical Commission's international standard

on electrical installations of buildings.

The standard has several parts:

• Part 1: Fundamental principles, assessment of general characteristics,

definitions
• Part 4: Protection for safety
o Section 41: Protection against electric shock
o Section 42: Protection against thermal effects
o Section 43: Protection against overcurrent
o Section 44: Protection against voltage disturbances and
electromagnetic disturbances
• Part 5: Selection and erection of electrical equipment
o Section 51: Common rules
o Section 52: Wiring systems
o Section 53: Isolation, switching and control
o Section 54: Earthing arrangements, protective conductors and
protective bonding conductors
o Section 55: Other equipment
• Part 6: Verification
• Part 7: Requirements for special installations or locations
o Section 701: Electrical installations in bathrooms
o Section 702: Swimming pools and other basins
o Section 703: Rooms and cabins containing sauna heaters
o Section 704: Construction and demolition site installations
o Section 705: Electrical installations of agricultural and horticultural
premises
o Section 706: Restrictive conductive locations
o Section 708: Electrical installations in caravan parks and caravans
o Section 709: Marinas and pleasure craft
o Section 710: Medical locations

25
 •

o Section 712: Solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems

o Section 713: Furniture
o Section 714: External lighting
o Section 715: Extra-low-voltage lighting installations
o Section 717: Mobile or transportable units
o Section 740: Temporary electrical installations for structures,
amusement devices and booths at fairgrounds, amusement parks and
circuses

3.7.3 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

Personnel safety is achieved by interconnecting all non-current-carrying metal parts of

an electrical distribution system, and then connecting the interconnected metal parts to
the earth. This process of interconnecting metal parts is called equipment grounding
and is illustrated in Figure below, where the equipment grounding conductor is used
to interconnect the metal enclosures. Equipment grounding insures that there is no
difference of potential, and thus no shock hazard between non-current-carrying metal
parts anywhere in the electrical distribution system. Connecting the equipment
grounding system to earth insures that there is no difference of potential between the
earth and the equipment grounding system. It also prevents static charge buildup.

26
3.7.4 SYSTEM GROUNDING

System grounding, which is also illustrated in figure above, is the process of

intentionally connecting one of the current-carrying conductors of the electrical
distribution system to ground. The figure shows the neutral conductor intentionally
connected to ground and the earth. This conductor is called the grounded conductor
because it is intentionally grounded. The purpose of system grounding is overvoltage
control and equipment safety through fault isolation. An ungrounded system is subject
to serious overvoltages under conditions such as intermittent ground faults, resonant
conditions, and contact with higher voltage systems. Fault isolation is achieved by
providing a low-impedance return path from the load back to the source, which will
ensure operation of overcurrent devices in the event of a ground fault. The system
ground connection makes this possible by connecting the equipment grounding
system to the low side of the voltage source. Methods of system grounding include
solidly grounded, ungrounded, and impedance-grounded.

27
Solidly grounded means that an intentional zero-impedance connection is made
between a current-carrying conductor and ground. The single-phase (1φ) system
shown in the figure above is solidly grounded.
A solidly grounded, three-phase, four-wire, wye system is illustrated in figure below.
The neutral is connected directly to ground with no impedance installed in the neutral
circuit.

The NEC permits this connection to be made at the service entrance only.

The advantages of a solidly grounded wye system include reduced magnitude of

transient overvoltages, improved fault protection, and faster location of ground faults.
There is one disadvantage of the solidly grounded wye system. For low-level arcing
ground faults, the application of sensitive, properly coordinated, ground fault
protection (GFP) devices is necessary to prevent equipment damage from arcing
ground faults. The NEC requires arcing ground fault protection at 480Y/277V
services, and a maximum sensitivity limit of 1200 amperes is permitted. Severe
damage is less frequent at the lower voltage 208V systems, where the arc may be self-
extinguishing.

Ungrounded means that there is no intentional connection between a current-carrying

conductor and ground. However, charging capacitance will create unintentional

28
capacitive coupling from each phase to ground, making the system essentially a
capacitance-grounded system. A three-phase, three-wire system from an ungrounded
delta source is illustrated in figure below.

The most important advantage of an ungrounded system is that an accidental ground

fault in one phase does not require immediate removal of power. This allows for
continuity of service, which made the ungrounded delta system popular in the past.
However, ungrounded systems have serious disadvantages. Because there is no fixed
system ground point, it is difficult to locate the first ground fault and to sense the
magnitude of fault current.

As a result, the fault is often permitted to remain on the system for an extended period
of time. If a second fault should occur before the first one is removed, and the second
fault is on a different phase, the result will be a double line-to-ground fault
causing serious arcing damage. Another problem with the ungrounded delta system is
the occurrence of high transient overvoltages from phase-to-ground. Transient
overvoltages can be caused by intermittent ground faults, with overvoltages capable
of reaching a phase-to-ground voltage of from six to eight times the phase-to-neutral
voltage. Sustained overvoltages can ultimately result in insulation failure and thus
more ground faults.

29
Impedance-grounded means that an intentional impedance connection is made
between a current-carrying conductor and ground. The high-resistance grounded wye
system, illustrated in figure below, is an alternative to solidly grounded and
ungrounded systems.

High-resistance grounding will limit ground fault current to a few amperes, thus
removing the potential for arcing damage inherent in solidly grounded systems. The
ground reference point is fixed, and relaying methods can locate first faults before
damages from second faults occur. Internally generated transient overvoltages are
reduced because the neutral to ground resistor dissipates any charge that may build up
on the system charging capacitances.

30
Table below compares the three most common methods of system grounding.

There is no one best system grounding method for all applications. In choosing among
the various options, the designer must consider the requirements for safety, continuity
of service, and cost. Generally, low-voltage systems should be operated solidly
grounded. For applications involving continuous processes in industrial plants or
where shutdown might create a hazard, a high-resistance grounded wye system, or a
solidly grounded wye system with an alternate power supply, may be used. The high-
resistance grounded wye system combines many of the advantages of the
ungrounded-delta system and the solidly-grounded wye system. IEEE Standard 142
recommends that medium-voltage systems less than 15 kV be low-resistance
grounded to limit ground fault damage yet permit sufficient current for detection and
isolation of ground faults. Standard 142 also recommends that medium-voltage
systems over 15 kV be solidly grounded. Solid grounding should include sensitive
ground fault relaying in accordance with the NEC.

3.7.5 THE GROUNDING ELECTRODE

The process of connecting the grounding system to earth is called earthing, and
consists of immersing a metal electrode or system of electrodes into the earth. The

31
conductor that connects the grounding system to earth is called the grounding
electrode conductor.

The function of the grounding electrode conductor is to keep the entire grounding
system at earth potential (i.e., voltage equalization during lightning and other
transients) rather than for conducting ground-fault current. Therefore, the NEC allows
reduced sizing requirements for the grounding electrode conductor when connected to
made electrodes.

The basic measure of effectiveness of an earth electrode system is called earth

electrode resistance. Earth electrode resistance is the resistance, in ohms, between the
point of connection and a distant point on the earth called remote earth. Remote earth,
about 25 feet from the driven electrode, is the point where earth electrode resistance
does not increase appreciably when this distance is increased. Earth electrode
resistance consists of the sum of the resistance of the metal electrode (negligible) plus
the contact resistance between the electrode and the soil (negligible) plus the soil
resistance itself. Thus, for all practical purposes, earth electrode resistance equals the
soil resistance. The soil resistance is nonlinear, with most of the earth resistance
contained within several feet of the electrode. Furthermore, current flows only
through the electrolyte portion of the soil, not the soil itself. Thus, soil resistance
varies as the electrolyte content (moisture and salts) of the soil varies. Without
electrolyte, soil resistance would be infinite.

Soil resistance is a function of soil resistivity. A one cubic meter sample of soil with a
resistivity ρ of one ohm-meter will present a resistance R of one ohm between
opposite faces. A broad variation of soil resistivity occurs as a function of soil types,
and soil resistivity can be estimated or measured directly. Soil resistivity is usually
measured by injecting a known current into a given volume of soil and measuring the
resulting voltage drop.

Earth resistance values should be as low as practicable, but are a function of the
application. The NEC approves the use of a single made electrode if the earth
resistance does not exceed 25 Ω. IEEE Standard 1100 reports that the very low earth
resistance values specified for computer systems in the past is not necessary. Methods

32
of reducing earth resistance values include the use of multiple electrodes in parallel,
the use of ground rings, increased ground rod lengths, installation of ground rods to
the permanent water level, increased area of coverage of ground rings, and the use of
concrete-encased electrodes, ground wells, and electrolytic electrodes.

3.7.6 EARTH ELECTRODE

Earth electrodes may be made electrodes, natural electrodes, or special-purpose

electrodes. Made electrodes include driven rods, buried conductors, ground mats,
buried plates, and ground rings. The electrode selected is a function of the type of soil
and the available depth. Driven electrodes are used where bedrock is 10 ft or more
below the surface.

Mats or buried conductors are used for lesser depths. Buried plates are not widely
used because of the higher cost when compared to rods.

Ground rings employ equally spaced driven electrodes interconnected with buried
conductors. Ground rings are used around large buildings, around small unit
substations, and in areas having high soil resistivity.

Natural electrodes include buried water pipe electrodes and concrete-encased

electrodes. The NEC lists underground metal water piping, available on the premises
and not less than 10 feet in length, as part of a preferred grounding electrode system.
Because the use of plastic pipe in new water systems will impair the effectiveness of
water pipe electrodes, the NEC requires that metal underground water piping be
supplemented by an additional approved electrode. Concrete below ground level is a
good electrical conductor. Thus, metal electrodes encased in such concrete will
function as excellent grounding electrodes. The application of concrete-encased
electrodes is covered in IEEE Standard 142.

3.7.7 ESTABLISHING AN EARTH GROUND

The grounding electrode is the primary element of any ground system. The electrode
can take many forms. In all cases, its purpose is to interface the electrode (a

33
conductor) with the earth (a semiconductor). Grounding principles have been refined
to a science. Still, however, many misconceptions exist regarding grounding. An
understanding of proper grounding procedures begins with the basic earth-interface
mechanism.

3.7.8 GROUNDING INTERFACE

3.7.8.A. VERTICAL GROUND ELECTRODES

The grounding electrode (or ground rod) interacts with the earth to create a
hemisphere-shaped volume, as illustrated in figure below.

The size of this volume is related to the size of the grounding electrode. The length of
the electrode has a much greater effect than the diameter.

Studies have demonstrated that the earth-to-electrode resistance from a driven ground
rod increases exponentially with the distance from that rod.

34
At a given point, the change becomes insignificant. It has been found that for
maximum effectiveness of the earth-to-electrode interface, each ground rod requires a
hemisphere-shaped volume with a diameter that is approximately 2.2 times the rod
length.

The constraints of economics and available real estate place practical limitations on
the installation of a ground system. It is important, however, to keep the 2.2 rule in
mind because it allows the facility design engineer to use the available resources to
the best advantage.

Figure below illustrates the effects of locating ground rods too close (less than 2.2
times the rod length). An overlap area is created that effectively wastes some of the
earth-to-electrode capabilities of the two ground rods. Research has shown, for
example, that two 10-ft ground rods driven only 1 ft apart provide about the same
resistivity as a single 10-ft rod.

35
There are three schools of thought with regard to ground-rod length.

THE FIRST approach states that extending ground-rod length beyond about 10 ft is of
little value for most types of soil. The reasoning behind this conclusion is presented in
Figure below, where ground resistance is plotted as a function of ground-rod length.
Beyond 10 ft in length, a point of diminishing returns is reached.

THE SECOND school of thought concludes that optimum earth-to-electrode interface is

achieved with long (40 ft or greater) rods, driven to penetrate the local water table.
When planning this type of installation, consider the difficulty that may be
encountered when attempting to drive long ground rods. The foregoing discussion
assumes that the soil around the grounding electrode is reasonably uniform in
composition. Depending upon the location, however, this assumption may not hold
true.

THE THIRD school of thought concludes that the optimum ground rod installation is
achieved by using the longest possible rod depth (length). Data to support this
conclusion is given in Figure below, which plots ground rod performance as a
function of depth in soil of uniform resistivity.

36
This curve does not take into account seasonal moisture content, changing chemical
composition at different soil layers, and frozen soil conditions.

Given these three conflicting approaches, the benefits of hiring an experienced,

licensed professional engineer to design the ground system can be readily appreciated.

3.7.8.B. HORIZONTAL GROUNDING ELECTRODES

Horizontal ground electrodes provide essentially the same resistivity as an equivalent-

length vertical electrode, given uniform soil conditions. As Figure below
demonstrates, the difference between a 10-ft vertical and a 10-ft horizontal ground rod
is negligible (275 Ω vs. 250 Ω).

37
This comparison includes the effects of the vertical connection element from the
surface of the ground to the horizontal rod. Taken by itself, the horizontal ground rod
provides an earth-interface resistivity of approximately 308 Ω when buried at a depth
of 36 in.

Ground rods come in many sizes and lengths. The more popular sizes are 1/2, 5/8,
3/4, and 1 in. The 1/2-in. size is available in steel with stainless clad, galvanized, or
copper-clad rods. All-stainless-steel rods also are available. Ground rods can be
purchased in unthreaded or threaded (sectional) lengths. The sectional sizes are
typically 9/16-in. or 1/2-in. rolled threads. Couplers are made from the same materials
as the rods. Couplers can be used to join 8- or 10-ft-length rods together. A 40-ft
ground rod, for example, is driven one 10-ft section at a time.
The type and size of ground rod used is determined by how many sections are to be
connected and how hard or rocky the soil is. Copper-clad 5/8-in. 10-ft rods are
probably the most popular. Copper cladding is designed to prevent rust. The copper is
not primarily to provide better conductivity. Although the copper certainly provides a
better conductor interface to earth, the steel that it covers is also an excellent
conductor when compared with ground conductivity. The thickness of the cladding is
important only insofar as rust protection is concerned.

38
Wide variations in soil resistivity can be found within a given geographic area, as
documented in Table below. The wide range of values shown results from differences
in moisture content, mineral content, and temperature.

Temperature is a major concern in shallow grounding systems because it has a

significant effect on soil resistivity. During winter months, the ground system
resistance can rise to unacceptable levels because of freezing of liquid water in the
soil. The same shallow grounding system can also suffer from high resistance in the
summer as moisture is evaporated from soil. It is advisable to determine the natural
frost line and moisture profile for an area before attempting design of a ground
system.

Figure below describes a four-point method for in-place measurement of soil

resistivity.

39
Four uniformly spaced probes are placed in a linear arrangement and connected to a
ground resistance test meter. An alternating current (at a frequency other than 60 Hz)
is passed between the two most distant probes, resulting in a potential difference
between the center potential probes. The meter display in ohms of resistance can then
be applied to determine the average soil resistivity in ohm-centimeters for the
hemispherical area between the C1 and P2 probes.

Soil resistivity measurements should be repeated at a number of locations to establish

a resistivity profile for the site. The depth of measurement can be controlled by
varying the spacing between the probes. In no case should the probe length exceed 20
percent of the spacing between probes.
After the soil resistivity for a site is known, calculations can be made to determine the
effectiveness of a variety of ground system configurations.

Generally, driven rod systems are appropriate where soil resistivity continues to
improve with depth or where temperature extremes indicate seasonal frozen or dry
soil conditions.

40
Figure below shows a typical soil resistivity map for the U.S.

3.7.9 GROUND ELECTRODE TESTING

Testing of all ground electrodes before they are connected to form a complex network
is a fairly simple process that is well described in the documentation included with all
ground electrode meters. This instructional process, therefore, will not be described
here. Also, the system as a whole, should be tested after all interconnections are made,
providing a benchmark for future tests.

At a new site, it is often advisable to perform ground system tests before the power
company ground/neutral conductor is attached to the system. Conduct a before-and-
after test with probes in the same position to determine the influence of the power
company attachment. It is also worthwhile to install permanent electrodes and marker
monuments at the original P2 and C2 probe positions to ensure the repeatability of
future tests.

41
3.7.10 CHEMICAL GROUND RODS

A chemically activated ground system is an alternative to the conventional ground

rod. The idea behind the chemical ground rod is to increase the earth-to-electrode
interface by conditioning the soil surrounding the rod. Experts have known for many
years that the addition of ordinary table salt (NaCl) to soil will reduce the resistivity
of the earth-to-ground electrode interface. With the proper soil moisture level (4 to 12
percent), salting can reduce soil resistivity from perhaps 10,000 Ω/m to less than 100
Ω/m. Salting the area surrounding a ground rod (or group of rods) follows a
predictable life-cycle pattern, as illustrated in Figure below. Subsequent salt
applications are rarely as effective as the initial salting.

Various approaches have been tried over the years to solve this problem.

One such product is shown in Figure below. This chemically activated grounding
electrode consists of a 2-1/2-in.-diameter copper pipe filled with rock salt. Breathing
holes are provided on the top of the assembly, and seepage holes are located at the

42
bottom. The theory of operation is simple. Moisture is absorbed from the air (when
available) and is then absorbed by the salt. This creates a solution that seeps out of the
base of the device and conditions the soil in the immediate vicinity of the rod.

Another approach is shown in Figure below.

43
This device incorporates a number of ports (holes) in the assembly. Moisture from the
soil (and rain) is absorbed through the ports. The metallic salts subsequently absorb
the moisture, forming a saturated solution that seeps out of the ports and into the
earth-to-electrode hemisphere.

Tests have shown that if the moisture content is within the required range, earth
resistivity can be reduced by as much as 100:1. Figure below shows the measured
performance of a typical chemical ground rod in three types of soil.

(diatomaceous ‫)أرض ساحلية‬

Implementations of chemical ground-rod systems vary depending on the application.

Figure below illustrates a counterpoise ground consisting of multiple leaching

apertures connected in a spoke fashion to a central hub.

44
The system is serviceable in that additional salt compound can be added to the hub at
required intervals to maintain the effectiveness of the ground.

Figure below shows a counterpoise system made up of individual chemical ground

rods interconnected with radial wires buried below the surface.

45
3.7.11 UFER GROUND SYSTEM

Driving ground rods is not the only method of achieving a good earth-to-electrode
interface. The concept of the Ufer ground has gained interest because of its simplicity
and effectiveness.

The Ufer approach (named for its developer), however, must be designed into a new
structure. It cannot be added on later. The Ufer ground takes advantage of the natural
chemical- and water-retention properties of concrete to provide an earth ground.
Concrete typically retains moisture for 15 to 30 days after a rain. The material has a
ready supply of ions to conduct current because of its moisture-retention properties,
mineral content, and inherent pH. The large mass of any concrete foundation provides
a good interface to ground.

46
A Ufer system, in its simplest form, is made by routing a solid-copper wire (no. 4
gauge or larger) within the foundation footing forms before concrete is poured. Figure
below shows one such installation.

The length of the conductor run within the concrete is important. Typically a 20-ft run
(10 ft in each direction) provides a 5 Ω ground in 1000 Ω/m soil.

As an alternative, steel reinforcement bars (rebar) can be welded together to provide a

rigid, conductive structure. A ground lug is provided to tie equipment to the ground
system in the foundation. The rebar must be welded, not tied, together. If it is only
tied, the resulting poor connections between rods can result in arcing during a current
surge. This can lead to deterioration of the concrete in the affected areas.

The design of a Ufer ground is not to be taken lightly. Improper installation can result
in a ground system that is subject to problems. The grounding electrodes must be kept
a minimum of 3 in. from the bottom and sides of the concrete to avoid the possibility

47
of foundation damage during a large lightning surge. If an electrode is placed too near
the edge of the concrete, a surge could turn the water inside the concrete to steam and
break the foundation apart.

The Ufer approach also can be applied to guy-anchor points or a tower base, as
illustrated in Figure below.

Welded rebar or ground rods sledged in place after the rebar cage is in position can be
used. By protruding below the bottom concrete surface, the ground rods add to the
overall electrode length to help avoid thermal effects that can crack the concrete. The
maximum length necessary to avoid breaking the concrete under a lightning discharge
is determined by the following:
• Type of concrete (density, resistivity, and other factors)
• Water content of the concrete
• How much of the buried concrete surface area is in contact with the ground
• Ground water content
• Size and length of the ground rod
• Size of lightning flash

48
The last variable is a bit of a gamble. The 50 percent mean occurrence of lightning
strikes is 18 A, but super-strikes can occur that approach 100 to 200 kA.

Before implementing a Ufer ground system, consult a qualified contractor.

Because the Ufer ground system will be the primary grounding element for the
facility, it must be done correctly.

3.8 DESIGNING A BUILDING GROUND SYSTEM

After the required grounding elements have been determined, they must be connected
into a unified system. Many different approaches can be taken, but the goal is the
same: establish a low-resistance, low-inductance path to surge energy.

Figure below shows a building ground system using a combination of ground rods
and buried bare-copper radial wires.

49
This design is appropriate when the building is large or located in an urban area. This
approach also can be used when the facility is located in a high-rise building that
requires a separate ground system. Most newer office buildings have ground systems
designed into them. If a comprehensive building ground system is provided, use it.
For older structures (constructed of wood or brick), a separate ground system will be
needed.

Figure below shows another approach in which a perimeter ground strap is buried
around the building and ground rods are driven into the earth at regular intervals (2.2
times the rod length).

The ground ring consists of a one-piece copper conductor that is bonded to each
ground rod.

If a transmission or microwave tower is located at the site, connect the tower ground
system to the main ground point via a copper strap. The width of the strap must be at
least 1 percent of the length and, in any event, not less than 3 in. wide.

50
The building ground system is not a substitute for a tower ground system, no matter
what the size of the tower. The two systems are treated as independent elements,
except for the point at which they interconnect.

Connect the utility company power-system ground rod to the main facility ground
point as required by the local electrical code. Do not consider the building ground
system to be a substitute for the utility company ground rod. The utility rod is
important for safety reasons and must not be disconnected or moved. Do not remove
any existing earth ground connections to the power-line neutral connection.

To do so may violate local electrical code. Bury all elements of the ground system to
reduce the inductance of the overall network. Do not make sharp turns or bends in the
interconnecting wires. Straight, direct wiring practices will reduce the overall
inductance of the system and increase its effectiveness in shunting fast-rise-time
surges to earth.

Figure below illustrates the interconnection of a tower and building ground system.

In most areas, soil conductivity is high enough to permit rods to be connected with no.
6 bare-copper wire or larger. In areas of sandy soil, use copper strap. A wire buried in

51
low-conductivity, sandy soil tends to be inductive and less effective in dealing with
fast-rise-time current surges. As stated previously, make the width of the ground strap
at least 1 percent of its overall length.

Connect buried elements of the system as shown in Figure7.36.

For small installations with a low physical profile, a simplified grounding system can
be implemented, as shown in Figure below. A grounding plate is buried below grade
level, and a ground wire ties the plate to the microwave tower mounted on the
building.

52
3.9 LIGHTNING PROTECTORS

A variety of lightning arrestors are available for use on transmission lines, utility ac
feeds, and telephone cables. The protector chosen must be carefully matched to the
requirements of the application. Do not use air gap protectors because these types are
susceptible to air pollution, corrosion, temperature, humidity, and manufacturing
tolerances.

The turn-on speed of an air gap device is a function of all of the foregoing elements.
A simple gas-tube-type arrestor is an improvement, but neither of these devices will

53
operate reliably to protect shunt-fed cavities, isolators, or receivers that include static
drain inductors to ground (which most have). Such voltage-sensitive crowbar devices
are short-circuited by the dc path to ground found in these circuits. The inductive
change in current per unit time (∆di/dt) voltage drop is usually not enough to fire the
protector, but it can be sufficient to destroy the inductor and then the receiver front
end. Instead, select a protector that does not have dc continuity on the coaxial center
pin from input to output.

Such units have a series capacitor between the gas tube and the equipment center pin
that will allow the voltage to build up so that the arrestor can fire properly.

3.10 TYPICAL WIRING AND GROUNDING PROBLEMS

In this section, typical wiring and grounding problems, as related to power quality, are
presented. Possible solutions are given for these problems as well as the possible
causes for the problems being observed on the grounding system. (See Table below.)

Typical Wiring and Grounding Problems and Causes

WIRING CONDITION OR PROBLEM
POSSIBLE CAUSES
OBSERVED
Loose connections
Impulse, voltage drop out
Faulty breaker
Extra neutral-to-ground bond
Grounding currents
Neutral-to-ground reversal
Extreme voltage fluctuations High impedance in neutral circuit
Voltage fluctuations High impedance in neutral-to-ground bonds.
High neutral-to-ground voltage High impedance ground
Burnt smell at the panel, junction Faulted conductor, bad connections, arcing, or
box, or load overloaded wires.
Panel or junction boxes is warm to
Faulty circuit breaker or bad connections
touch
Buzzing sound Arcing

54
 Overloaded wiring, faulted conductors, or bad
Scorched insulation
connections
Scorched Bad connections, or faulted conductors
Tripped breaker, bad connection, or faulted
No voltage at load equipment
conductor
Intermittent voltage at the load
Bad connections, or arcing
equipment

55