CHAPTER 2

A REVIEW OF SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

2.1 Introduction

Safety is critically important to engineering personnel who work around powered

hardware, especially if they work under considerable time pressures. Safety is not
something to be taken lightly. Life safety systems are those designed to protect life
and property. Such systems include emergency lighting, fire alarms, smoke exhaust
and ventilating fans, and site security.

2.2 OSHA Safety Requirements

The federal government has taken a number of steps to help improve safety within
the workplace. OSHA, for example, helps industries to monitor and correct safety
practices. The agency's records show that electrical standards are among the most
frequently violated of all safety standards. Table below lists 16 of the most common
electrical violations, which include these areas:

• Protective covers
• Identification and marking
• Extension cords
• Grounding

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2.3 ELECTRICAL SAFETY

Electric shock is a major cause of fatalities at R&D and production facilities.

Surprisingly, the most likely victim of an electrical accident is an experienced person
with the equipment being used. Generally, electrical energy is well contained, so we
are protected from its effects, and may become complacent with electrical safety
measures.

Almost everyone has experienced a mild electrical shock. The result is an

unreasonable expectation that one will survive future electrical shocks. Electricity is
uniquely dangerous because it is invisible. The danger that exists is that electrical
hazards may surface in unexpected locations, and be undetected.

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ELECTRIC SHOCK

Electric Shock is defined as a passage of electrical current through some part of the
body. The current may be alternating (AC) or direct (DC) and vary from being so low
in magnitude to be detected to so high as to cause fatality.

The different current wave forms have different effects on the human body. For
example; AC causes heart fibrillation and muscle spasms. DC causes muscle
clamping, heart seizures and burns at a higher current level than AC. RF alternating

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current passes through the skin readily and causes burns at much lower voltages than
AC or DC.

Our bodies may incur damage by two mechanisms:

1) Damage to the nervous system and
2) Joule heating.

NERVOUS SYSTEM DAMAGE

External mA range current input into the body causes pain by stimulating nerves in
our skin. As applied current increases, control of muscles is lost and cramping occurs,
often preventing an individual from releasing the source of current.

Further damage may result if the electrical signals that control our involuntary
muscles such as the heart, lungs and other vital organs is scrambled so as to prevent
the proper operation of these organs. This may cause the heart to stop beating.

JOULE HEATING

In a resistive heating element, current passing through live tissue will meet with
resistance, causing heat to be generated. This heat can cause severe third degree burns
along the path of the current, which may include vital organs.

Electrical resistance through various parts of the human body is given in the table
below.

Physiological effects of electrical current passing through the body.

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What to do in the case of a severe electrical shock:

1) Call for help immediately. Call loudly to other people in the immediate area.
Have a person telephone for emergency medical services, specifying the
incident and location.

2) Rescue the victim. Locate and safely de-energize the source of electrical
power. Take extreme caution not to expose yourself to the electrical hazard. If
necessary, use an insulated implement (dry broom handle) to remove the
victim from the current source.

3) Apply CPR. Apply CPR as soon as possible if the victim is not breathing.

4) Continue to give aid. Continue CPR Until a medical rescue team arrives.
Electrical shock victims have been revived from up to an hour after the
electrical shock occurred.

5) Get the victim medical attention. Even if the victim appears to have
recovered, a professional medical examination is required to check for
invisible internal injuries.

HAZARDS RELATED WITH ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

• Fire: Many fires are initiated by electrical causes. Be familiar with appropriate
electrical fire extinguishing techniques. Fire extinguishers have information on
their labels regarding their proper use, read the label before the emergency.

• Toxic gas evolution: Electrical energy may cause the chemical breakdown of
insulating materials and the decomposition of gases (creating ozone for
example). In addition, older capacitors may contain toxic PCB's.

• X-rays: High voltage applied under vacuum will almost always result in the
generation of X-rays. Appropriate shielding is necessary to reduce radiation
exposure to an acceptable level.

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 • Bright light: Sparks and arcs can cause severe eye damage.

• Radiation: Microwave and RF radiation (radio frequency alternating current;

typically kilohertz to giga-hertz frequency ) from electronic devices can be a
health hazard, especially over a long periods of exposure.

GENERAL SAFETY CRITERIA FOR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF ELECTRICALLY

POWERED LABORATORY EQUIPMENT:

1) Use equipment suited for the application (rated for service).

2) Provide physical barriers to prevent personnel from contacting energized
conductors; enclose equipment operating above 50 volts.
3) Enclose and install interlocks to prevent serious electrical hazards from access
while energized.
4) Identify hazardous areas with warning signs and flashing lights.
5) Design systems to fail in a safe mode.
6) Design equipment to allow adequate access for maintenance; allow for
emergency exits; maintain access to labeled breaker boxes.
7) Provide sufficient lighting and ventilation.
8) Prevent exposure of personnel or electrical components to water and provide
proper drainage to prevent water accumulation.
9) Provide adequate grounding to all metal enclosures, equipment, cabinets, and
structural components; use low impedance (resistance) conductors rated for
the maximum possible current.
10) Provide safety ground hooks in the vicinity of all high voltage equipment that
is accessed frequently.
11) Install emergency shut-down switches in the location of system operation.
12) For energy storage devices, provide convenient discharge points for contact
with a ground hook.
13) Provide power disconnection's for all electrical equipment; label disconnects.

14) Have electrical designs reviewed, document designs and reviews.

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2.4 CHEMICAL AND BATTERY SAFETY

Some of the materials (solids, liquids, and gases) you may encounter are chemical
health hazards. Examples are chlorinated and fluorinated solvents, and mercury. Care
must be taken to store, use and dispose of chemicals in a safe and environmentally
sound manner. Also, chemical hazards is a risk for people working with batteries.

Specific details for the proper handling of chemicals must be researched using
materials safety data sheets (MSDS). All chemical producers are required by federal
law to supply an MSDS for their products upon request.

ORGANIC SOLVENTS

Organic solvents should be stored in OSHA approved fire safe red metal cabinets.
Transfer the minimum amount of the appropriate solvent to a suitable container (ie:
glass beaker) for use. Do not expose flammable solvents to sparks, hot surfaces or
open flames. Use these solvents only in a well ventilated area. Prevent exposure or
contact of solvents to the skin. After use, return the unused (clean) solvent to the red
metal storage can. Allow any rags saturated with solvent to dry thoroughly then
dispose of in a fire safe container.

MERCURY

The use of mercury in vacuum technology has greatly diminished, but one should still
be aware of the hazards involved with the use of this element. The toxic effects of
mercury are cumulative, and cause irreversible damage to the brain and kidneys.
Mercury should be stored in a tightly sealed non- breakable container (polypropylene)
and handled so as to minimize contact with skin, ingestion and inhalation of its
odorless vapor.

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BATTERY SAFETY

Safety precautions cannot be ignored, since every station battery installation presents
hazards. The importance of using safety equipment, such as rubber gloves, goggles,
aprons, and of having an eyewash water bottle present, cannot be overemphasized.
The three major hazards are from the electrolyte in the battery, the gases emitted by
the battery, and the potential electrical short circuit capability available from the
battery’s stored energy.

Most persons trained to work in an electrical environment are aware that batteries are
dangerous, but need to be warned and advised again as to the extent of the hazards
posed by all station battery systems, regardless of size or type.

a. Warnings. All batteries contain an electrolyte which may be liquid and is

corrosive. Lead-acid batteries contain diluted sulfuric acid and nickel-
cadmium batteries contain potassium hydroxide. Direct contact with the
electrolyte should be avoided as contact may result in severe chemical burns.
Accidental contact must be removed immediately by washing and flushing
with baking soda (bicarbonate of soda). This solution is beneficial in
neutralizing either alkaline or acid electrolyte. Extreme care must be taken in
the use of hydrometers or syringes to avoid accidentally squirting electrolyte
at or on anyone.

(1) Warning notice. It is recommended that a warning notice be posed

near the battery installation as shown in table below. Use the first
parenthesis as applicable to the electrolyte type. Fill in the fault current
amperes.

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 (2) Warning sign. It is recommended that a warning sign be posted in
advance of the installed table above warning notice. Figure below is a
warning sign used by a manufacturer who provides small sealed, low
gassing type batteries. Note that this warning sign indicates DANGER
even for what is represented as a small sealed-battery system.
Particular attention must be given to the prevention of sparks or flames
near batteries. The hydrogen gas produced by charging batteries is
flammable in an atmosphere where the gas content exceeds 4 percent
hydrogen gas. If the mixture contains more than 8 percent hydrogen, it
can explode.

b. Electrolyte hazard. Battery rooms are required by OSHA to provide

emergency-use quick-drenching facilities for the eyes and body within 25 feet

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 of the work area. Permanent emergency eyewash and showers are
recommended. Portable emergency eyewash and showers must be brought into
the maintenance area if permanent facilities are not provided. Squeeze bottles
can substitute for eyewash fountains, and canisters that resemble fire
extinguishers can be fitted to provide an eyewash or a quick drench. Periodic
inspection and maintenance of these devices are mandatory. Be sure to change
the water as recommended to eliminate possible bacteria. Squeeze bottles are
date coded and should be replaced before the expiration date. Exercise canister
units periodically to prevent clogging of the head. Ensure that a good flow of
water is available when it’s really needed.

c. Explosive gas hazard. The NEC requires removal of possible explosive gas
buildup, since all battery types can outgas. Check that gas accumulation is
limited to less than 2 percent of the total volume of the battery room or
enclosure. For flooded lead-acid batteries, the maximum hydrogen evolution
rate is 0.000269 cubic feet (7618 cubic millimeters) per minute per charging
ampere per cell at 77 degrees F (25 degrees C), one atmosphere. The
maximum rate occurs when a fully charged battery has maximum current
forced into it.

d. Electrical hazard. Most batteries are operated ungrounded, so touching a live

part will not result in a shock. The real hazard exists when an accidental
ground is already present and a person touches a live part. In this case, the
person completes the circuit to ground and current will flow through the
person. While personnel may recognize that this

hazard exists, they may not be concerned because nominal cell voltages are only 1.2
to 2 volts per cell. Another hazard occurs when there is an accidental connection
between positive and negative points, which can cause arc or a possible battery
explosion.

(1) Possible effects. Batteries in station systems often contain individual

cells connected in series (to form a string), and may reach voltages as
high as 250 volts. Consider the amount of short-circuit current

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 batteries can deliver because of their low internal resistance. Batteries
can deliver massive short-circuit currents, measured in the thousands
of amperes. Such current can almost instantly make a wristwatch,
screwdriver, or any other conductive path red hot or vaporize the
metal. The short-circuit capability of any battery can be obtained from
the manufacturer and it is recommended that it be posted as a part of
the battery room warning notice.
(2) Accidental grounds. It is not uncommon to find that a ground exists
on a battery. This can occur when the electrolyte on top of a cell tracks
across the cover, down the plastic jar, and contacts a metallic part of
the rack. The electrolyte, being conductive, establishes a ground path.
(3) Normal safety procedures. When working around batteries, all normal
safety procedures should be followed, including the use of protective
equipment. Caution must be exercised in placing meters on top of
batteries. Under certain conditions, meters with enclosures partially
made of metal can cause a short circuit and sparks. Metal objects
should never be placed on top of batteries, and metal tools used on
batteries should be insulated to prevent accidental short circuits.
Generally, a ground detector is provided as part of the dc system, most
often in the battery charger. Be certain to check the ground detector
before starting work. If an unintentional ground exists, it should be
cleared before work begins.
(4) Two-person teams. Always have two persons assigned to perform
battery maintenance inspections. One person takes the readings and
the other records them. They should not work on different parts of the
battery at one time because they could become two points, ground.

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2.5 MECHANICAL SAFETY

Pneumatic Lines: Compressed air often provides a robust and compact energy source
for the actuation of vacuum valves and other pneumatic devices. This is often
provided at a pressure between 70 and 120 PSIG. Always wear safety glasses when
working around live pneumatic lines, as plastic tubes carrying this pressure can whip
through the air wildly if they become disconnected. Never attempt to cover the end of
a line with your finger tip, as air can be directly injected through the skin into the
body with painful or even fatal results.

Vacuum Gate valves: These often generate high actuation forces and one should
never reach through a gate valve without first disconnecting the pneumatics. Gate
valves are often actuated with a small electro-pneumatic pilot valve (frequently
referred to as a solenoid) that frequently require continuous power to remain open. A
PG&E power failure at exactly the wrong moment could crush bone or even cause
dismemberment.

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Also suitable precautions should be considered when working or dealing with rotating
machines, … etc.

2.6 THERMAL SAFETY

Some of the equipment involved in vacuum technology operates at extremely high or

extremely low temperatures and requires some attention to safety.

Equipment operating at high temperature: Diffusion pumps and evaporation

processes. Second and third degree burns may occur if skin comes into contact with
this equipment.

Equipment operating at moderately high temperature: Mechanical pumps, power

supplies and electronic components.

Equipment operating at low temperature: Cold traps(LN2), cryosorption pumps,

cryogenic pumps, liquid helium lines, and helium compressors.

2.7 PHYSICAL SAFETY

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RESPIRATORY = ‫كمامة‬

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