UNIT 1a Data Communication Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable or wireless. The five components of data communication are: 1. Message 2. Sender 3. Receiver 4. Medium 5. Protocol Network. A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. Data flow | Sanna * Simplex sae = Half-duplex =a) = Full-duplex = TT = Image 1: Data flow in a computer network 1.2 Application of computer network Computer networks have myriad applications across various domains: 1. Communication: Facilitates email, instant messaging, video conferencing, and voice calls 2. Information Sharing: Enables file sharing, collaborative document editing, and access to shared resources. 3. Resource Sharing: Allows sharing of hardware resources like printers, scanners, and storage devices. 4. Internet Access: Provides access to the World Wide Web and online services. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC5. Business Operations: Supports enterprise applications, data management, and transaction processing. 6. Education: Facilitates e-learning, online courses, and virtual classrooms. 7. Research: Enables collaboration among researchers, access to online databases, and remote experimentation. 8. Entertainment: D /ers streaming media, online gaming, and social networking. 9. E-commerce: Supports online shopping, payment processing, and order fulfillment. 10. Telecommunications: Powers mobile networks, satellite communication, and voice over IP (VoIP) services. 13 Network Architecture Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. 1. Peer to Peer Network > Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data > Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers. > Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server. > Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down. = i=. / \ i= BE. + eee = fz. Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network: > tis less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server. > fone computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working. > It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCDisadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network: > Inthe case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations. > Ithasa security issue as the device is managed itself. 2. Client/Server Network > Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the resources from a central computer known as Server. > The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are called clients. > A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management. > Asserver is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc. > All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client. z Internet | — Clients ne’ Advantages Of Client/Server network: > A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the data easil Server > A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of the whole system. > Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server admi shared resources. ers the > Italso increases the speed of the sharing resources. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCDisadvantages Of Client/Server network: > Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory. > Aserver has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high. » It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources. 14 Types of computer networks 1, LAN (Local Area Network): A LAN is a network that connects computers and devices within a limited geographical area, such as a home, office building, or school campus. It allows for the sharing of resources like files, printers, and internet connections among connected devices. 2. WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network): A WLAN is similar to a LAN but uses wireless technology, such as Wi-Fi, to connect devices instead of physical cables. It provides flexibility and mobility within the coverage area, allowing devices to connect to the network without being physically tethered to a specific location. [Link] (Metropolitan Area Network): A MAN is a network that covers a larger geographic area than @ LAN but smaller than a WAN (typically spanning a city or large campus). It interconnects multiple LANs and other network devices to enable communication and resource sharing over a larger area. 4. WAN (Wide Area Network): A WAN is a network that spans a large geographic area, such as across cities, countries, or even continents. It connects multiple LANs and MANs using long-distance communication technologies like leased lines, fiber optics, or satellite links. The internet is the most prominent example of a WAN. [Link] (Personal Area Network): A PAN is the smallest type of network, typically connecting personal devices within the immediate vicinity of an individual, such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearable devices. Bluetooth and infrared are common technologies used for establishing PAN connections Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC15 Protocols and Standards Protocols ‘Standards Rules and conventions for data (Guidelines and specifications for lexchange, addressing, and error|hardware, software, and handling in networks. protocols. Purpose Ensure efficient communication|Ensure interoperability and between devices and systems. compatibility across platforms and technologies. Examples [TCP/IP, HTTP, SMTP, FTP Ethernet, Wi-Fi, USB, Bluetooth Development Developed by organizations and) ‘consortia such as IETF, IEEE. Established and maintained by| standards bodies like IEEE, ISO, land IETF. Implementation] Implemented by software and) mware in networking de\ Implemented by hardware and software manufacturers to adhere to specific specifications. Flexibility May vary in implementation and Generally more rigid and uniform interpretation across. different/across devices and platforms. systems. Evolution ‘Subject to updates and revisions|Updated periodically to ito accommodate changing|incorporate advancements and technology and requirements. address emerging needs in itechnology. 16 The OSI Reference model The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven distinct layers. Each layer serves a specific purpose and interacts with adjacent layers to facilitate communication between devices across @ network. Here's a detailed overview of each layer: 1. Physical Layer (Layer 1): > Responsible for the physical transmission of data between devices. > Defines characteristics of the transmission medium, such as cables, connectors, and signals. > Specifies transmission rates, voltage levels, and modulation techniques. 2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2): > Provides error-free transmission of data frames between directly connected nodes. Divided into two sublayers: LLC (Logical Link Control) and MAC (Media Access Control) LUC establishes and maintains logical links between devices, while MAC controls, access to the transmission medium. Ss Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC3. Network Layer (Layer 3) > Handles routing of data packets between different networks. » Determines the best path for data transmission based on network conditions and addresses. > Examples of protocols include IP (Internet Protocol) and ICMP (internet Control Message Protocol). 4, Transport Layer (Layer 4): > Ensures reliable end-to-end delivery of data. Splits large data streams into smaller segments for transmission. Manages flow control, error recovery, and congestion control TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are common transport layer protocols. vvv 5. Session Layer (Layer 5): > Establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions between applications on different devices. > Manages dialogues and synchronization between applications. > Handles authentication, authorization, and session checkpointing. 6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6): > Translates data between the application layer and the network. > Responsible for data encryption, compression, and formatting. > Ensures that data from the application layer is presented in a standardized format for transmission. 7. Application Layer (Layer 7): > Provides network services directly to end-users and applications. > Supports a wide range of communication services and protocols, such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS > Handles user authentication, data exchange, and application-specific functions. The OSI model provides a structured approach to networking, allowing developers to design and implement network protocols and services independently at each layer. It promotes interoperability and facilitates communication between devices from different manufacturers and operating systems. Though not always strictly followed in practice, the OS! model remains a fundamental reference for understanding network architecture and protocols. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCCritiques of OSI reference model: 1, Complexity: The OSI model consists of seven layers, each with its own set of functions and protocols. Critics argue that this complexity can make it challenging to understand and implement, especially for those new to networking concepts. 2. Lack of Direct Implementation: Unlike the TCP/IP protocol suite, which is widely implemented in practice, the OSI model is more of a conceptual framework than a practical guide. Many networking protocols and technologies do not neatly fit into ‘the OSI model's layered structure, making it less relevant for real-world implementations. 3. Overlap and Redundancy: Some critics argue that the OSI model's layer definitions overlap or duplicate functionality. For example, both the transport and network layers handle packet routing and error control, leading to redundancy and confusion about responsibilities. 4. Rigidity: The OSI model's strict layering can be seen as overly rigid, as it may not adequately accommodate new networking technologies and paradigms that deviate from the traditional layered approach. This rigidity can hinder innovation and adaptation to evolving networking requirements. [Link] Adoption: While the OSI model remains a fundamental concept in networking education and theory, it has not seen widespread adoption in real-world networking implementations. The TCP/IP protocol suite, with its simpler and more practical approach, has become the de facto standard for internet communication. 6. Difficulty in Mapping to Real-world Protocols: Some real-world protocols and technologies do not neatly fit into the OSI model's layered structure. This can make it challenging to map existing protocols and technologies to the OS! model, leading to confusion and ambiguity. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC17 The TCP/IP Protocol Suite TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/internet Protocol and is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP is also used as a communications protocol in a private computer network {an intranet or extranet). The TCP/IP protocol suite functions as an abstraction layer between internet applications and the routing and switching fabric. TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each of which includes specific protocols: 1. Application Layer The application layer provides applications with standardized data exchange. Its protocols include HTTP, FTP, Post Office Protocol 3, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and Simple Network Management Protocol. At the application layer, the payload is the actual application data. 2. Transport Layer The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications across the network. TCP handles communications between hosts and provides flow control, multiplexing and reliability. The transport protocols include TCP and User Datagram Protocol, which is sometimes used instead of TCP for special purposes. 3. Network Layer The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects independent networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network layer protocols are IP and Internet Control Message Protocol, which is used for error reporting. 4. Physical Layer The physical layer, also known as the network interface layer or data link layer, consists of protocols that operate only on a link -- the network component that interconnects nodes or hosts in the network. The protocols in this lowest layer include Ethernet for local area networks and Address Resolution Protocol. iques of TCP/IP protocol si complicated to set up and manage; transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets; not easy to replace protocols in TCP/IP; does not clearly separate the concepts of services, interfaces and protocols, so it is not suitable for describing new technologies in new networks vvVY Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC18 Comparison between OSI reference model and TCP/IP protocol ‘Aspect [TCP/IP Protocol Suite (OSI Reference Model Number Layers Four main layers: Application, Transport, Internet, Link Seven layers: Physical, Data Link Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, Application (Development Developed by the US. Department of —_Defense| (DoD) Developed by the International Organization for Standardization] (iSO) Practicality [Widely implemented and lused in real-world networks More of a theoretical model, less} commonly implemented Protocol Suite Includes protocols like TCP,| IP, UDP, ICMP, and others Framework — for —_ understanding) networking, not a specific set of protocols ‘Scope arly focuses —_on|Provides a comprehensive model for| internetworking and internet] understanding network lprotocols ‘communication Flexibility Flexible and adaptable tolLess flexible due to its rigid layer| different networking] structure lenvironments ‘Adoption _|Dominant protocol suite for|Not widely adopted in practice, used internet communication primarily for educational purposes Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCUNIT2 24 Functions of physi The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is responsible for the actual transmission of raw data bits over a physical medium. It deals with the electrical, mechanical, and procedural aspects of transmitting data signals between devices. Here are the main functions of the physical layer: 1, Physical Media Interface: It defines the characteristics of the physical medium used for communication, such as cables (e.g., copper, fiber-optic), connectors, and wireless transmission methods (e.g., radio waves, infrared). 2. Data Encoding and Signaling: The physical layer encodes digital data into signals suitable for transmission over the physical medium. This includes converting digital bits into analog waveforms, modulation techniques, and encoding schemes. 3. Transmission Rate: It specifies the data transmission rate or bandwidth supported by the physical medium. This determines how fast data can be transmitted over the network. 4. Transmission Mode: Determines how data is transmitted between devices, including simplex (one-way transmission), half-duplex (both directions, but not simultaneously), and full-duplex (simultaneous transmission in both directions). 5. Synchronization: Ensures that the sender and receiver are synchronized in terms of timing and signal levels, allowing for accurate data transmission and reception. 6. Physical Topology: Defines the physical layout or arrangement of devices and cables in the network, such as bus, star, ring, or mesh topologies. 7. Error Detection and Correction: The physical layer may include mechanisms for detecting and correcting errors that occur during data transmission, such as parity bits, checksums, and error-correcting codes. 8. Bit Ordering: Determines the order in which bits are transmitted over the medium, such as least significant bit (LSB) first or most significant bit (MSB) first. 2.2 Signals A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic current that is used for carrying data from one device or network to another. It is the key component behind data communication and networking. Signals can be periodic and no periodic. A periodic signal repeats the pattern over identical periods. A no periodic signal changes without repeating a pattern or cycle over time. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCA signal can be either analog or digital. ‘Aspect ‘Analog Signals Digital Signals Representation |Continuous — waveform| Discrete waveform representing data representing data Nature Continuous in nature [Discrete in nature Variation (can take on any value|Limited to distinct values (0 or 1) within a range Noise (More susceptible _tollLess susceptible to noise interference susceptibility __|noise interference Transmission |More prone —to|Can be transmitted over _longer| \degradation overidistances without —_significant| distance degradation Processing (Generally more complex|Easier to process and manipulate to process Examples ‘Audio signals, analog|Digital audio, binary data video signals Data Data refers to raw facts, figures, or symbols that represent information. It can be in various forms, including numbers, text, images, audio, or video, and may be stored, processed, and transmitted electronically. Data by itself lacks context and meaning but becomes meaningful when interpreted and analyzed within a particular context. In the context of computing and information technology, data is the foundation for generating insights, making decisions, and creating knowledge. It serves as the building blocks for information, which is organized, structured, and meaningful data that can be used to support decision-making and problem-solving processes. Transmission Impairment Transmission impairment refers to any degradation, distortion, or disruption that affects the quality of a signal as it travels through a communication channel. It can occur due to various factors such as attenuation, noise, distortion, etc. 1, Attenuation: Attenuation refers to the weakening of a signal as it travels over a ‘transmission medium, leading to a reduction in signal strength. 2. Noise: Noise includes unwanted signals or disturbances that interfere with the transmission of the desired signal. Common sources of noise include electromagnetic interference (EMI), radio frequency interference (RFI), and crosstalk 3. Distortion: Distortion occurs when the shape or characteristics of the signal are altered during transmission, resulting in errors or inaccuracies in the received signal. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCData Rate Limits The data rate limit, also known as the bandwidth limit or data transfer rate limit, refers to the maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a communication channel or network. It represents the upper bound on the amount of data that can be transferred within a given period of time, typically measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second (kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps). The data rate limit is determined by various factors, including the capacity of the transmission medium, the bandwidth allocated to the channel, and the limitations of the networking equipment and protocols used. It represents the theoretical maximum throughput achievable under ideal conditions and may vary depending on factors such as signal attenuation, noise, and interference. Exceeding the data rate limit can result in signal degradation, packet loss, or transmission errors, leading to reduced performance and reliability of the communication system. Therefore, it is essential to consider the data rate limit when designing and configuring communication networks to ensure optimal performance and efficiency. Performance Performance in a network refers to the efficiency and effectiveness with which data is transmitted, received, and processed across the network infrastructure. It encompasses various aspects such as speed, reliability, throughput, latency, and responsiveness. Factors affecting network performance: 1. Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be transmitted in a given time affects network speed and responsiveness, 2. Jitter: Variation in packet delay affects the consistency and quality of real-time communication, such as voice and video calls. [Link]: The delay between sending and receiving data impacts real-time communication and responsiveness. 4. Throughput: Throughput in networking refers to the rate at which data is successfully transmitted from one location to another over a network within a given period of time. A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a source to a destination. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCGuided Media Guided transmission media are physical pathways or cables that carry data signals from one device to another within a network. These cables provide a controlled environment for the transmission of electromagnetic signals, ensuring that data is reliably transported over the network. 1. Twisted Pair Cable: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce electromagnetic interference. Twisted pair cables are widely used in Ethernet networks for connecting devices within buildings and homes. 2. Coaxial Cable: Features a central conductor surrounded by an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating jacket. Coaxial cables are commonly used in cable television (CATV) networks and broadband internet connections. 3. Fiber Optic Cable: Utilizes thin strands of glass or plastic fibers to transmit data using light signals. Fiber optic cables offer high bandwidth, low attenuation, and immunity to electromagnetic interference, making them ideal for long-distance and high-speed data transmission in telecommunications networks. Unguided Media Unguided transmission media, also known as wireless communication channels, facilitate the transmission of data signals through the air or free space without the use of physical cables or pathways. These media rely on electromagnetic waves to carry data between devices. 1. Radio Waves: Radio waves are used for wireless communication over long distances, such as in broadcast radio, cellular networks, and satellite communication systems. They operate at various frequencies and can penetrate obstacles, making ‘them suitable for both indoor and outdoor applications. 2. Microwaves: Microwaves are higher-frequency radio waves used for point-to- point communication links over relatively short distances, such as in microwave backhaul links for cellular networks and satellite communication ground stations. 3. Infrared Waves: Infrared waves are used for short-range wireless communication within confined spaces, such as in infrared remote controls, wireless keyboards, and computer mice. They operate at shorter wavelengths than radio waves and require a direct line of sight between the transmitter and receiver. > VSAT A very small aperture terminal (VSAT) is a small telecommunication earth station that receives and transmits real-time data via satellite. VSAT is a satellite communications system that serves home and business users. The satellite sends and receives signals from an earth station computer that acts as a hub for the system. For one end user to communicate with another, each transmission has to first go to the hub station which retransmits it via the satellite to the other end user's VSAT. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCSatellite A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio ‘telecommunications signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth. Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications. The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated geographical points. 24 Bandwidth Utilization There are two broad categories of bandwidth utilization: multiplexing and spreading. Multiplexing Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data [Link] a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link. MUX combines the streams into a single stream at the sender side whereas the DEMUX separates the streams back into its component transmissions. There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, and time-division multiplexing. The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals. 1. Frequency-Division Multiplexing Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted in FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link. ifferent carrier 2, Wavelength-Division Multiplexing Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic [Link] allows us to combine several lines into one. WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. 3. Time-Division Multiplexing TDM is a digital process that allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a line. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link. Note that the same link is used as in FOM; here, however, the link is shown sectioned by time rather than by frequency. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC“Spread Spectrum In spread spectrum, we also combine signals from different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but our goals are somewhat [Link] spectrum is designed to be used in wireless applications (LANs and WANs). The expanded bandwidth allows the source to wrap its message in a protective envelope for a more secure transmission. 25 Switching Switching is a networking technique that enables the routing of data packets from a source device to a destination device within a network. It involves the process of forwarding data packets based on their destination addresses, ensuring efficient and reliable communication between devices. Here are the main types of switching: 1. Circuit Switching: > In circuit switching, a dedicated communication path, or circuit, is established between the source and destination devices for the duration of the communication session. > The entire bandwidth of the communication path is reserved and allocated to the session, regardless of whether data is being transmitted. > Circuit switching is commonly used in traditional telephone networks for voice communication. 2. Packet Switching: > Packet switching breaks data into small packets that are individually routed across the network to their destination. > Each packet contains information about its source and destination addresses, allowing routers and switches to make routing decisions. > Packet switching is more efficient than circuit switching as it dynamically allocates network resources and optimizes bandwidth utilization > Two main types of packet switching are: 1. Connectionless Packet Switching (Datagram Switching): Each packet is treated independently and routed based on its destination address without establishing a dedicated connection. Il, Connection-Oriented Packet Switching (Virtual Circuit Switching): Before data transmission, a virtual circuit is established between the source and destination devices, ensuring ordered and reliable packet delivery. 3. Message Switching > Message switching involves the transmission of entire messages between devices, where each message is stored and forwarded to its destination. > Unlike packet switching, message switching does not break data into smaller packets and is less efficient in terms of bandwidth utilization. > Message switching was used in early computer networks but has largely been replaced by packet switching due to its inefficiency. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC2.6 Telephone Network Telephone Network is used to provide voice communication which uses Circuit [Link] telephone network is made of three major components: local loops, trunks, and switching offices. i, Local Loops > One component of the telephone network is the local loop, a twisted-pair cable that connects the subscriber telephone to the nearest end office or local central office. li. Trunks > Trunks are transmission media that handle the communication between offices. > A trunk normally handles hundreds or thousands of connections through multiplexing. li, Switching Offices > To avoid having a permanent physical link between any two subscribers, the telephone company has switches located in a switching office. > Aswitch connects several local loops or trunks and allows a connection between different subscribers. Mobile Network Mobile Networks or Cellular networks are high-speed, high-capacity voice and data communication networks with enhanced multimedia and seamless roaming capabilities for supporting cellular devices (wireless end devices).With the increase in popularity of cellular devices, these networks are used for more than just entertainment and phone calls. Cellular telephony is designed to provide communications between two moving units, called mobile stations (MSs), or between one mobile unit and one stationary unit, often called a land unit. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCUNIT3 3a Functions of Data k layer The Data Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI model and plays a crucial role in facilitating reliable communication between adjacent network nodes over a shared communication channel. Its primary functions include: 1. Frame Delimiting: Divides the data received from the Network Layer into frames and adds frame headers and trailers to each frame. These headers and trailers contain control information, such as source and destination addresses, error detection codes, and sequence numbers. 2. Addressing: Assigns physical addresses (MAC addresses) to network devices to uniquely identify them on the network. MAC addresses are used by the Data Link Layer to determine the source and destination of data frames. [Link] Access Control (MAC): Handles the physical transmission of data frames over the network medium. The MAC sublayer controls access to the medium, resolves contention issues, and manages data transmission and reception. 4. Flow Control: Regulates the flow of data between devices to prevent the receiver from being overwhelmed by the sender's transmission speed. Flow control mechanisms ensure that data is transmitted at a rate that the receiver can handle, minimizing the risk of data loss or buffer overflow. [Link] Detection and Correction: Implements error detection and correction techniques to ensure data integrity during transmission. Common error detection methods include parity checking, checksums, and cyclic redundancy checks (CRC). 3.2 Data Link Control Framing > In the physical layer, data transmission involves synchronized transmission of bits from the source to the destination. The data link layer packs these bits into frames. > Data-link layer takes the packets from the Network Layer and encapsulates them into frames. If the frame size becomes too large, then the packet may be divided into small sized frames » Smaller sized frames make flow control and error control more efficient. Then, it sends each frame bit-by-bit on the hardware. > At receiver's end, data link layer picks up signals from hardware and assembles ‘them into frames. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCParts of Frame: Sending Machine Receiving Machine ‘A frame has the following parts: » Frame Header: It contains the source and the desti > Payload field: It contains the message to be delivered > Trailer: It contains the error detection and error correction bits. ion addresses of the frame. Types of Framing: 1. Fixed-Sized Framing > Size of the frame is fixed. > It does not require additional boundary bits t frame. jentify the start and end of the 2. Variable-Sized Framing > The size of each frame to be transmitted may be different. > Additional mechanisms are kept to mark the end of one frame and the beginning of the next frame. “Flow Control Flow control is basically technique that gives permission to work and process at different speeds to communicate with one another. It is a set of procedures that explains sender about how much data or frames it can transfer or transmit before data over receiver. Two types of mechanisms can be deployed to control the flow based on the feedback: 1. Simplex stop and wait > This flow control mechanism forces the sender after transmitting a data frame to stop and wait until the acknowledgement of the data-frame sent is received. > The sender sends the next frame only when it has received a positive acknowledgement from the receiver that it is available for further data processing. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCStop-&-Wait Protocol 2. Sliding Window > This protocol improves the efficiency of stop and wait protocol by allowing multiple frames to be transmitted before receiving an acknowledgment. > Both the sender and the receiver have finite sized buffers called windows. The sender and the receiver agree upon the number of frames to be sent based upon the buffer size. > The sender sends multiple frames in a sequence, without waiting for acknowledgment. When its sending window is filled, it waits for acknowledgment. On receiving acknowledgment, it advances the window and transmits the next frames, according to the number of acknowledgments received Sliding Window Protocol ad poe Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCFlow control Problems: i, Lost data ii, Lost acknowledgement Delayed data/acknowledgement Solution: i, Stop and Wait for ARQ Stop-and-Wait ARQ ensures reliable data transmission by providing a simple mechanism for error detection and recovery. However, it may lead to inefficiencies in networks with high latency or low bandwidth, as the sender must wait for the round-trip time (RTT) before sending the next packet. Despite its simplicity, Stop- and-Wait ARQ serves as a fundamental building block for more advanced ARQ protocols. ii, Go-Back-N ARQ Go-Back-N ARQ is a protocol ensuring reliable data transmission in networks. The sender maintains a window of size N, sending packets sequentially with sequence numbers. Upon receiving acknowledgments (ACKs) from the receiver, it advances the window. If an ACK isn't received within a timeout or if errors accur, it retransmits all unacknowledged packets. The receiver sends cumulative ACKs, requesting retransmission only if necessary. ili, Selective Repeat ARQ In Selective-Repeat, the receiver while keeping track of sequence numbers, buffers ‘the frames in memory and sends NACK for only frame which is missing or [Link] sender in this case, sends only data for which NACK is received “Error Control > Error control in data link layer is the process of detecting and correcting data frames that have been corrupted or lost during transmission. > In case of lost or corrupted frames, the receiver does not receive the correct data-frame and sender is ignorant about the loss. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCTypes of errors: Single-Bit Error: * The term single-bit error means that only 1 bit of a given data unit (such as a byte, character, or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from Oto1. Single-bit error Burst Error: + The term burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. ‘Burst error oflengh § ton + ChPPEL pen Peppy) a OP Te TT Tel Tor T Tele) + Aburst error is more likely to occur than a single-bit error. 3.3 Error Detection Error detection in networks is a critical process aimed at identifying errors that may occur during the transmission of data packets over a network. Error Detection Techniques: 1. Parity Check * > The most common and least expensive mechanism for error-detection is the parity check. > The parity check is done by adding an extra bit, called parity bit to the data to make a number of 1s either even in case of even parity or odd in case of odd parity. While creating a frame, the sender counts the number of 1s in it and adds the parity bit in the following way: + In case of even parity: If a number of 1s is even then parity bit value is 0. If the number of 1s is odd then parity bit value is 1. + In case of odd parity: If a number of 1s is odd then parity bit value is 0. If a number of 1s is even then parity bit value is 1. > On receiving a frame, the receiver counts the number of 1s in it. In case of even parity check, if the count of 1s is even, the frame is accepted, otherwise, it is rejected. A similar rule is adopted for odd parity check. > The parity check is suitable for single bit error detection only. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC2. Checksum * In this error detection scheme, the following procedure is applied: > Data is divided into fixed sized frames. (k segments each of m bits) > The sender adds the segments using 1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum. It then complements the sum to get the checksum and sends it along with the data frames. > The receiver adds the incoming segments along with the checksum using 1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum and then complements it. > If the result is zero, the received frames are accepted; otherwise, they are discarded. 3. Cyclic redundancy check * > CRC is a more robust error detection technique commonly used in network protocols such as Ethernet and Wi-Fi. > It involves generating a polyno appending it to the data frame. > The receiver performs the same CRC calculation and compares the result with the received CRC code. > If the codes do not match, an error is detected. code based on the transmitted data and 3.3 High Level Data Link Control High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a synchronous data link layer protocol used in packet-switched networks. It defines frame structures for data transmission, including headers, payloads, and trailers for error detection. Operating in modes like Normal Response Mode (NRM) and Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM), HDLC manages flow control to prevent congestion. With error detection techniques like CRC, it ensures data integrity, serving as a foundational protocol in network communication. Ch byte byte byte 2ordbytes byte (ox111110) (01112110) Point to Point protocol Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a widely used data link layer protocol for establishing direct connections between two network nodes, typically over serial connections. It facilitates the transmission of IP packets over dial-up connections, DSL, and dedicated lines. PPP supports authentication, compression, and multilink functionality, enabling secure and efficient communication between remote devices in both synchronous and asynchronous environments. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC35 Channel Allocation Problem The channel allocation problem refers to the task of efficiently allocating communication channels within a network to ensure optimal performance and resource utilization. It arises in various communication systems, including wireless networks, cellular networks, and satellite communication systems. The primary goal is to allocate available channels to users or devices while minimizing interference, congestion, and resource contention. ‘Aspect Static Channel Allocation [Dynamic Channel Allocation Allocation [Channels are pre-assigned and|Channels are assigned dynamically) Method xed. las needed. Flexibility Limited flexibility for channellHighly flexible, allows for real-time| reassignment or adaptation toladaptation to varying network Ichanging conditions. [conditions and traffic loads. Resource —_|[May lead to underutilization ofl[Generally leads to more efficient Utilization resources due to _fixedllresource utilization as channels are| allocations. lallocated based on demand. Complexity Typically less complex to|More complex due to dynamic! implement and manage. lallocation algorithms and protocols. ‘Adaptability |Less adaptable to changes in|More adaptable and responsive to} Inetwork traffic or|changes in network conditions, lenvironmental conditions. traffic patterns, and interference. Examples [Traditional __circuit-switched|[Cellular networks, Wi-Fi networks, Inetworks, land dynamic spectrum allocation. 36 Multiple Access Protocol Multiple Access Protocol (MAP) is a set of rules and procedures used to coordinate access to a shared communication channel among multiple users or devices in a network. It enables efficient and fair distribution of the channel's bandwidth, allowing multiple users to transmit and receive data simultaneously without excessive collisions or interference. Multiple access protocols are fundamental in various networking technologies, including Ethernet, Wi-Fi, cellular networks, and satellite communication systems. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCTypes of multiple access protocols: 1. Random Access: > Inrandom access or contention methods, no station is superior to another station and none is assigned the control over another. > There is no fixed time for sending data. > There is no fixed sequence of stations sending data Types of random access protocols: + ALOHA The multiple access protocol ALOHA (Advocates of Linux Open-source Hawaii Association) is used to transmit data over a public network channel. ALOHA is the earliest random-access method developed for wireless LAN but can be used on any shared medium. In ALOHA, any station can transmit data to a channel at any [Link] does not require any carrier sensing. + CSMA/CA Cartier sense multiple access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is a protocol for carrier transmission in 802.11 networks. It was developed to minimize the potential of a collision occurring when two or more stations send their signals, over a data link layer. In this scenario, CSMA requires each station to first check the state of the medium before initiating a transmission. This helps to avert potential collisions by listening to the broadcasting nodes and then informing devices to transmit when the channel is free. + CSMA The chance of collision can be reduced if a station senses the medium before trying to use [Link] Sense Multiple Access ensures fewer collisions as the station is require to first sense the medium (for idle or busy) before transmitting data. If it is idle then it sends data, otherwise it waits till the channel becomes idle. (Listen before talk). However, there is still chance of collision in CSMA due to propagation delay. + csma/cD In Cartier sense multiple access with collision detection method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to see if the transmission was successful. If so, the transmission is completed. However, if there is a collision, the frame is sent again. The basic idea behind CSMA/CD is that a station needs to be able to receive while transmitting, to detect a collision. When there is no collision, the station receives one signal; its own signal. When there is a collision, the station receives two signals: its own signal and the signal transmitted by a second station. To distinguish between these two cases, the received signals in these two cases must be significantly different. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC2. Controlled Access > They are a class of multiple access protocols used in networks to manage and regulate access to the communication channel. > They use predetermined methods for fairness and efficiency. > These protocols offer predictable performance and quality of service guarantees. Types of controlled access protocols: 4 Reservation Based Protocols In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending data. Time is divided into intervals. In each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data frames sent in that interval. If there are N stations in the system, there are exactly N reservation minislots in the reservation frame. Each minislot belongs to a station. When a station needs to send a data frame, it makes a reservation in its own minislot. + Polling Based Protocols Polling-based protocols operate by having a central controller or master node poll each node in the network sequentially to determine if they have data to transmit. The master node polls each node in turn, and only the node being polled can transmit data during its designated time slot. Polling-based protocols are often used in networks where the master node can efficiently manage the communication process and minimize collisions. 4 Token Passing In the token-passing method, the stations in a network are organized in a logical ring. In other words, for each station, there is a predecessor and a successor. The current station is the one that is accessing the channel now. The right to this access has been passed from the predecessor to the current station. But how is the right to access the channel passed from one station to another? In this method, a special packet called a token circulates through the ring. 3. Channelization > A channelization protocol is a method used in networking to divide a communication channel into smaller, distinct channels or frequency bands. > This division allows multiple users or devices to share the same physical medium without interfering with each other's transmissions. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCTypes of channelization: + FDMA In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band to send its data. In other words, each band is reserved for a specific station, and it belongs to the station all the time. FDMA specifies a predetermined frequency band for the entire period of communication. This means that stream data (a continuous flow of data that may not be packetized) can easily be used with FDMA. + TDMA In time-division multiple access (TOMA), the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time. Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data. Each station transmits its data in is assigned time slot. Synchronization is normally accomplished by having some synchronization bits (normally referred to as preamble bits) at the beginning of each slot. + CDMA CDMA assigns @ unique spreading code to each user, which spreads the data over a wider frequency band. Users transmit data simultaneously over the same frequency band, with each user's data encoded using their unique spreading code. CDMA allows multiple users to share the channel without interference, as long as their spreading codes are orthogonal. 37 Wired LAN(IEEE) In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) started a project, called Project 802, to set standards to enable intercommunication among equipment from a variety of manufacturers. IEEE 802 is comprised of standards with separate working groups that regulate different communication networks, including IEEE 802.1 for bridging , 802.2 for Logical link 802.3 for Ethernet, 802.5 for token ring, 802.11 for Wi-Fi, 802.15 for Wireless Personal area networks, 802.15.1 for Bluetooth, 802.16 for Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks etc. Ethernet > Ethernet is most widely used LAN Technology, which is defined under IEEE standards 802.3. > The reason behind its wide usability is Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, maintain and allows low-cost network implementation. > Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of topologies which are allowed. Ethernet generally uses Bus Topology. > Ethernet operates in two layers of the OSI model, Physical Layer, and Data Link Layer. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCFDDI > Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a standard for transmission of data in local area network (LAN) over fiber optic cables. Its applicable in large LANs that can extend up to 200 kilometers in diameter. > FDI uses optical fiber as its physical medium. > It provides high data rate and can support thousands of users. 38 Wireless LAN IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11, which covers the physical and data link layers. IEEE 802.11, commonly known as Wi-Fi, specifies an over-the-air interface between a wireless client and a base station or between two wireless clients. Bluetooth > Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication technology that allows devices such as mobile phones, computers, and peripherals to transmit data over a short distance. > The purpose of Bluetooth is to replace the cables that normally connect devices, while still keeping the communications between them secure. > Itcreates a 10-meter radius wireless network. > Bluetooth uses less power and costs less to implement than Wii. Its lower power also makes it far less prone to suffering from or causing interference with other wireless devices 3.9 Token Ring > Token Ring is a networking protocol where devices pass a special token around a logical ring. > Only the device holding the token can transmit data, ensuring orderly access and preventing collisions. > Token Ring networks are reliable and use a priority scheme, but they've been largely replaced by Ethernet due to higher speeds and simplicity. Token Bus Token Bus is a networking protocol where devices share data along a common bus. > They pass a token to access the bus for transmission, ensuring orderly data flow and minimizing collisions. > Token Bus networks are fault-tolerant and reliable but have been largely replaced by Ethernet due to its higher speeds and simplicity. Virtual LAN A Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a method of creating separate, isolated networks within a physical network infrastructure. It allows devices to communicate as if they were on the same network, regardless of their physical location. VLANs enhance security, reduce broadcast traffic, and offer flexibility in network management. They're implemented using VLAN-aware switches that assign devices to specific VLANs based on configuration. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMCUNIT4 4a Functions of Network Layer The Network Layer is the third layer of the OSI model. it handles the service requests from the transport layer and further forwards the service request to the data link layer. The main functions of network layer are: > Routing: Determines the best path for packet delivery. Logical Addressing: Assigns logical addresses (e.g., IP addresses) to devices. Packet Forwarding: Moves packets between different networks via routers. Fragmentation and Reassembly: Breaks and reassembles large packets as needed. Quality of Service (QoS): Prioritizes certain types of traffic for better performance. > Tunneling: Encapsulates packets for secure communication across networks. vvv v 42 Virtual Circuits > Virtual Circuit is the computer network providing connection-oriented service. > In virtual circuit resource are reserve for the time interval of data transmission between two nodes. Advantages: > This network is a highly reliable medium of transfer. +> Packets are delivered to the receiver in the same order sent by the sender. + There is no need for overhead in each packet. Disadvantages: + Virtual circuits are costly to implement. 4 Always a new connection set up is required for transmission. Datagram Subnets > Datagram subnets, also known as connectionless networks, are networks that use the datagram approach for packet switching > In a datagram subnet, each packet, also known as a datagram, is treated independently and routed separately through the network. > This is in contrast to virtual circuit networks, where a predetermined path is established before data transmission begins. > While datagram subnets offer flexibility and scalability, they also introduce challenges such as packet loss, out-of-order delivery, and increased overhead due to the need for header information in each packet. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC