Signal processing
A signal is a formal description of a phenomenon evolving over time or space. Signal
processing is any manual or mechanical operation which modifies, analyzes or otherwise
manipulates the information contained in a signal.
Categories of signal processing
A. Analogue signal processing: With all analogue processing, signals enter a system, are
processed by passing them through circuits containing capacitors, resistors, inductors,
op amps, transistors etc. They are then outputted from the system with a different
shape or size. The figure below shows a very elementary example of an analogue signal
processing system, consisting of just a resistor and a capacitor. Examples of analog signal
processing are; amplification, rectification and filtering.
Analogue signal processing
Analogue signal processing systems have major shortcomings. An obvious one is that they
have to be physically modified if the processing needs to be changed. For example, if the
gain of an amplifier has to be increased, then this usually means that at least a resistor has
to be changed.
B. Digital signal processing
Digital signal processing (DSP) is the numerical manipulation of signals, usually with the
intention to measure, filter, produce or compress continuous analogue signals.
Principle of operation of DSP
The signal to be processed is first sampled at regular intervals. The sampled voltages are
then converted to equivalent binary values, using an analogue-to-digital converter. Next,
these binary numbers are fed into a digital processor, containing a particular program,
which will change the samples. The way in which the digital values are modified will
obviously depend on the type of signal processing required. The transformed samples are
then outputted, via a digital-to-analogue converter, to produce the reconstituted but
processed analogue output signal.
Sampling interval
Digital signal processing
The blocks in Digital signal processing
I. Anti aliasing filter
If the analogue input voltage is not sampled frequently enough it results in a distorted
signal. Basically, high frequency input signals will appear as low frequency signals at the
output, which will be very confusing. This phenomenon is called aliasing. In other words, the
high frequency input signals take on another identity, or 'alias', on leaving the system. To
prevent aliasing, the signal must be sampled at least twice as fast as the highest frequency
component. This very important rule is known as the Nyquist criterion, or Shannon's
sampling theorem. An anti-aliasing filter is a lowpass filter with a cut-off frequency of fs/2,
where fs is the sampling frequency. The important frequency of f s/2 is usually called the
Nyquist frequency.
II. Sample and hold device
An ADC should not be presented with a changing voltage to convert. The changing signal
should be sampled and then this sampled voltage held while the conversion is carried out.
At the heart of the sample-and-hold device is a capacitor. The electronic switch, S, is closed,
causing the capacitor to charge to the current value of the input voltage. After a brief time
interval the switch is reopened, so keeping the sampled voltage across the capacitor
constant while the ADC carries out its conversion.
III. The Analogue-to-Digital Converter
This converts the steady, sampled voltage, supplied by the sample-and-hold device, to an
equivalent digital value in preparation for processing. The more output bits the converter
has, the finer the resolution of the device.
IV. The processor
This could be a general-purpose microprocessor chip. The data processing part of a purpose-
built DSP chip is designed to be able to do a limited number of fairly simple operations, in
particular addition and multiplication, but they do these exceptionally quickly.
V. The digital-to-analogue converter
This converts the processed digital value back to an equivalent analogue voltage
VI. The reconstruction filter
As the anti-aliasing filter ensures that there are no frequency components greater than fs/2
entering the system, then it seems reasonable that the output signal will also have no
frequency components greater than fs/2. However, this is not so! The output from the DAC
will be 'steppy' because the DAC can only output certain voltage values. For example, an 8-
bit DAC will have 256 different output voltage levels going from perhaps ]’-5 V to +5 V.
When this quantized output is analysed, frequency components of fs, 2fs, 3fs, 4fs etc.
(harmonics of the sampling frequency) are found. The very action of sampling and
converting introduces these harmonics of the sampling frequency into the output signal. It is
these harmonics which give the output signal its steppy appearance. The reconstruction
filter is a lowpass filter having a cut-off frequency of fs/2, and is used to filter out these
harmonics and so smooth the output signal.
Applications of digital signal processing
Digital signal processing is used in several areas, including the following:
1. Telecommunications.
They are used for voice communication as well as data communications. So also are the
computers connected to a different network that is used for data and information
processing. Computers are used to generate, transmit, and receive an enormous amount of
information through the Internet and will be used more extensively over the same network,
in the coming years for voice communications also. This technology is known as voice over
Internet protocol (VoIP) or Internet telephony. At present we can transmit and receive a
limited amount of text, graphics, pictures, and video images from mobile phones, besides
voice, music, and other audio signals—all of which are classified as multimedia—because of
limited hardware in the mobile phones and not the software that has already been
developed. However, the computers can be used to carry out the same functions more
efficiently with greater memory and large bandwidth. We see a seamless integration of
wireless telephones and computers already developing in the market at present. The new
technologies being used in the abovementioned applications are known by such terms as
CDMA, TDMA,1 spread spectrum, echo cancellation, channel coding, adaptive equalization,
ADPCM coding, and data encryption and decryption, some of which are used in the software
to be introduced in the third-generation (G3) mobile phones.
2. Speech Processing. The quality of speech transmission in real time over
telecommunications networks from wired (landline) telephones or wireless (cellular)
telephones is very high. Speech recognition, speech synthesis, speaker verification, speech
enhancement, text-to-speech translation, and speech-to-text dictation are some of the
other applications of speech processing.
3. Consumer Electronics. We have HDTV, digital cameras, digital phones, answering
machines, fax and modems, music synthesizers, recording and mixing of music signals to
produce CD and DVDs are all examples of consumer electronics. Surround-sound
entertainment systems including
CD and DVD players, laser printers, copying machines, and scanners are found in many
homes but they operate as separate systems. However, the TV set can be used to read email
and access the Internet just like the PC; the PC can be used to tune and view TV channels,
and record and play music as well as data on CD-DVD in addition to their use to make
telephone calls on VoIP. This trend toward the development of fewer systems with multiple
applications is expected to accelerate in the near future.
4. Biomedical Systems. The variety of machines used in hospitals and biomedical
applications is staggering. Included are X-ray machines, MRI, PET scanning, bone scanning,
CT scanning, ultrasound imaging, fetal monitoring, patient monitoring, and ECG mapping.
Another example of advanced digital signal processing is found in hearing aids and cardiac
pacemakers.
5. Image Processing. Image enhancement, image restoration, image understanding,
computer vision, radar and sonar processing, geophysical and seismic data processing,
remote sensing, and weather monitoring are some of the applications of image processing.
Reconstruction of two-dimensional (2D) images from several pictures taken at different
angles and three-dimensional (3D) images from several contiguous slices has been used in
many applications.
6. Military Electronics. The applications of digital signal processing in military and defense
electronics systems use very advanced techniques. Some of the applications are GPS and
navigation, radar and sonar image processing, detection and tracking of targets, missile
guidance, secure communications, jamming and countermeasures, remote control of
surveillance aircraft, and electronic warfare.
7. Aerospace and Automotive Electronics. Applications include control of aircraft and
automotive engines, monitoring and control of flying performance of aircraft, navigation
and communications, vibration analysis and antiskid control of cars, control of brakes in
aircrafts, control of suspension, and riding comfort of cars.
8. Industrial Applications. Numerical control, robotics, control of engines and motors,
manufacturing automation, security access, and videoconferencing are a few of the
industrial applications.
Advantages of digital signal processing over analog processing
I. Digital signal processing systems are available that will do almost everything that
analogue signals can do, and much more- 'versatile'.
II. They can be easily changed- 'programmable'.
III. They can be made to process signals identically- 'repeatable'.
IV. They are not affected by temperature or ageing- 'physically stable'.