[Abnormal Psychology]

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[Introduction to Abnormal Psychology]

Introduction to Abnormal Psychology

Objectives:
1. To define normality and abnormality
2. To discuss historical and contemporary views on Abnormal Psychology
At the end of this module, students are expected to:
1. Demonstrate the difference between normal and abnormal behavior
2. Understand historical perspectives that contributed to the study of
Abnormal Psychology
3. Understand the contemporary perspective of Abnormal Psychology
“The secret to getting ahead is getting started.” – Mark Twain

Defining abnormality

Fig 1. Robin Williams (Streiber/Getty Images, 2015)

Robin Williams is a well-known American actor. He was famous for his

comedy roles in blockbuster movies. Despite his happy outlook onscreen, it
was not known to the public that he has been suffering from depression for
many years. His mental illness was publicly revealed when he committed
suicide last 2014.

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What is normality?
It is the expected behavior or way of living based on what is commonly
observed in the majority of the population.

What is considered an abnormality?

There is no single determinant or a generally accepted definition of
abnormality. However, several elements may help determine the presence of
an abnormality in an individual. These are suffering, maladaptiveness,
statistical deviancy, dangerousness, violation of societal norms, irrationality,
and unpredictability.

Suffering
Individuals who suffer or experience a similar phenomenon may have an
existing abnormality. In Psychology, people who have depression and anxiety
disorders suffer from disabling symptoms of their disease. However,
suffering is not an absolute indicator of abnormality. Suffering is a normal
part of life. A father who is waiting for his wife to give birth normally suffers
from anxiety. A child who lost her toy is suffering from sadness. These kinds
of suffering normally occur in healthy individuals.

Maladaptiveness
It is human nature to adapt to its surroundings for survival. However, there
are adaptive behaviors that are abnormal. An example is a person who is
depressed after losing his job, causing him to avoid social interaction for
several months. Another example is a person who frequently goes to the
casino to relieve his stress and later on develops an addiction to gambling.
These maladaptive behaviors cause significant impairments in normal
activities of daily living. Interpersonal relationships may become strained,
sleeping patterns become altered, and a person may lose the ability to find
satisfaction in what usually makes him happy. As in the case of Robin
Williams, he committed suicide as a result of maladaptive behavior (See Fig.
1)

Statistical Deviancy
Rare and undesirable behaviors may be indicative of an abnormality. These
actions may be considered socially unacceptable or abnormal if it is
uncommonly observed in a group of individuals. An example of this would be
someone with an intellectual disability, wherein objective measures of
intelligence would indicate that his performance deviates from what is
normally seen among a majority of individuals.
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However, this is not an absolute indicator of an abnormality. There are

unusual behaviors that are still considered normal, despite their rarity. An
example of this would be someone who displays rude behavior.

Violation of Societal Standards

Every society has a cultural norm that may have evolved through history.
These social rules usually vary according to geographical location because of
variations in history, beliefs, and social background. People who violate these
behavioral standards set by society may be perceived as abnormal.

For example, wearing a red garment at a funeral is considered abnormal for

Chinese heritage people, while this is normal in other cultures. Giving tips is
socially acceptable for Westerners, while this is considered rude and
abnormal in Japanese culture. Moreover, there are certain violations of social
standards that are considered normal. An example would be a violation of
traffic rules, which is commonly observed among normal people.

Social discomfort
Aside from social norms, there are also social rules of conduct. When an
individual goes against conventional behavior, other people will feel
uncomfortable or uneasy. For example, a lady is dining alone in a restaurant
full of vacant tables. A stranger approaches her and asks to share the table.
This will make the lady uncomfortable because it is abnormal to share tables
with a stranger, especially if there are many unoccupied tables.

Irrationality and Unpredictability

In a society, there are normal outliers. Some people are still considered
normal even if they exhibit unusual behavior. For example, your seatmate in
school suddenly starts yelling profanities without any reason. Although this
is irrational behavior, it can still be considered an unconventional normal
behavior. However, this scenario is different from a person who gestures
drinking from an empty cup. This is an example of abnormal, irrational
behavior. Other examples of abnormal and irrational behaviors can be found
in psychotic disorders wherein a patient loses track of reality.

Dangerousness
An individual who becomes a threat to him or other people around him is
considered abnormal. In fact, this dangerous behavior is considered an
important indication for hospital confinement. Like all other elements that
were discussed in this section, dangerousness is not an absolute indicator of
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 abnormality. An example is someone who keeps exotic pets that may have
venoms. In addition, people who enjoy dangerous sports such as racecar
driving, ice climbing, and base-jumping are not considered abnormal (See
Fig. 2).

Fig 2. Ice climbing (Discover Outdoors, 2011)

It is important to know that the perception of abnormal behavior varies

through time and culture. Some social norms and traditions have changed
over time. For example, during the Victorian era, it is unacceptable for young
and unmarried women to be seen in public places without an escort.
Nowadays, it is socially acceptable to see young women unaccompanied in
the streets. Social tolerance to some behaviors similarly evolved. Habits that
were once considered taboo may be socially acceptable at present. An
individual's cultural background also plays a role in how he perceives normal
and abnormal behavior. For instance, in India, arranged marriages are
considered normal. However, this is unusual in Western societies.

Historical Perspective

Early Demonology
In ancient times, people once believed that supernatural causes could explain
all unusual occurrences. Natural calamities such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and thunderstorms were previously thought of as a punishment
from the gods. Unusual behavior, convulsions, and other illnesses were
regarded as a form of demonic possession or as a sign of dissatisfaction from
supernatural elements.
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The belief that an evil spirit can cause possession of the human mind and
body is called Demonology. This belief is well documented in ancient
Chinese, Egyptian, and Greek literature. Casting out evil spirits to cure a
disease is written in the bible. People believed that demonic possession could
be treated by exorcism, which is a ritual that drives out evil beings. This
elaborate ritual usually involves prayers, special rites, and at times starvation
to make the body unsuitable for demonic possession.

Fig 3. Circa 400 BC, Portrait of Hippocrates. Greek physician. Known as the
'Father of medicine', he developed the belief that four fluids of the body are
the primary seats of disease. (Montage,S./Getty Images, n.d.)

Early Biological Explanation

Hippocrates is a famous Greek physician who practiced medicine in the fifth

century (see Fig. 3). He is known as the father of modern medicine. He
believed that diseases do not arise from supernatural or religious forces. He
thought that the brain is responsible for awareness, thinking, and emotional
perception. Because of this, he attributed unusual behavior and disordered
thinking to an illness of the brain. He deviated from the Greek belief that
mental disturbances and bodily disorders were a punishment from the gods
whenever they were displeased with human behavior.

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He was the earliest to classify mental diseases into disorders of mania,
melancholia, and brain fever. He also believed that bodily fluids composed of
blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm were critical for normal thinking
and behavior. He postulated that any imbalance between these fluids would
lead to disease. For example, he believed that a person who produced too
much phlegm would become sluggish, and a person who has too much blood
within his body will have a bad temper.

Since Hippocrates believed that illnesses were because of natural rather than
spiritual causes, he mastered the art of medicine through keen observation.
He offered treatments that were different from the rituals of exorcism. For
individuals suffering from melancholia, he advised careful selection of food
and drink, avoidance of conflict, and abstinence from sexual activity.
Hippocrates recorded all his observations and wrote a book about human
disease and its presenting symptoms. Initially, this was not well received
because people preferred to consult religious leaders for healing rituals.
However, Hippocrates laid the conceptual foundation for contemporary
medicine. In the next centuries, the Greek and Roman Empires eventually
adapted their belief that human disease arises from natural instead of
spiritual causes.

The Dark Ages and Demonology

In the period between 500-1000, the Western European civilization went

through an era called the Dark Ages. During this period, barbarian tribes
learned that Rome did not have any rulers, causing them to overtake this
territory. Over time, the Greeks' and Romans' culture became less prominent,
leading to a decline in scientific and cultural advancements. Because of this,
the Church became heavily influential, and Christian missionaries engaged in
academic work. It was during this period when the Church was separated
from the state. As a result, Christian missionaries and religious groups gained
authority over physicians when it comes to the treatment of mental illnesses.
This practice was evident in ancient Greek writings, wherein monks
performed rituals for individuals with mental illnesses. During that time,
descriptions of treatment varied from prayer offerings to drinking concocted
potions depending on the phase of the moon. There was a revival in the belief
that spiritual and demonic forces caused mental illnesses.
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Fig 4. Front cover of Malleus Maleficarum, the book that the Church used as a
guide for witch-hunting. (Malleus Maleficarum, n.d.)

The Persecution of Witches

In the 13th century, the occurrence of natural disasters causing famines and
plagues were attributed to supernatural elements. During that time,
witchcraft was viewed as a demonic practice. The Church condemned it, and
it was viewed as a form of heresy, a denial of belief in God.
In the middle of this century, Pope Innocent VIII became a prominent
advocate against witchcraft. During his papacy, a witch-hunting manual
entitled Malleus Maleficarum was published (See Fig. 4). The Church used
this as a guide to search for witches.

It was during this time that public torture of accused witches was practiced.
Those who confessed to practicing witchcraft were imprisoned for the rest of
their lives, while those who remained remorseless were executed. It was also
indicated in the manual that people with disordered thinking are demonized,
and burning is a way to drive out evil forces. It was believed that thousands
of people, including women and children, were publicly tortured, imprisoned,
or were executed. Some researchers believe that a lot of those who were
accused as witches were suffering from mental illness (See Fig. 5).

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Fig 5. Picture of a painting by Pedro Berruguete from the sacristy of the Santo
Tomás church in Ávila. This depicts the medieval practice of burning people
who were suspected of being witches. (Painting by Pedro Berruguete from the
sacristy of the Santo Tomás church in Ávila, n.d.)

Lunacy Trials
During the thirteenth century, political jurisdiction over European cities
progressed. Local political leaders gained influence over the religious sector.
The secular government in some regions of England built hospitals to keep
mentally ill patients away from the public. Historical records show that they
were not released until they are perceived as normal.

This practice was considered legal in England during the mid-fourteenth

century. According to records, there are a lot of people who ascribed mental
illness as a result of demonic possession. During this period, the local
government of England instituted lunacy trials, wherein people who behaved
strangely went to court for scrutiny. This was designed to identify people
with mental illness and protect them from possible harm.

Ever wondered where the term “lunatic” came from?

Paracelsus, a Swiss physician, who practiced in the 14th century, thought
that abnormal behavior was due to a celestial misalignment of the moon and
stars. “Luna” is the Latin word for moon, hence the term “lunatic”.
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Development of Asylums
Since the 12th century, there has been a gradual increase in the number of
people with leprosy. Leprosy is a contagious disease that affects the skin
resulting in a disfiguring appearance. To prevent the spread of this disease,
hospitals were built to isolate people afflicted with this condition. These
hospitals were called Leprosariums. However, the incidence of leprosy

gradually decreased, and leprosariums were nearly emptied. Because of this,

leprosariums were turned into asylums, a place wherein people with mental
illness were confined and cared for.

Bethlehem and Other Early Asylums

Bethlehem Royal Hospital is one of the well-known psychiatric institutes in
London, United Kingdom. In the past, it was called The Priory of St. Mary of
Bethlehem, and it housed people with mental illnesses since it was founded
in 1243. This institute was also locally known as bedlam, meaning a place of
chaos or madness.

By the late 18th century, Bethlehem became one of London’s main tourist
spots. People availed of tickets to observe people who were confined in The
Priory of St. Mary of Bethlehem. It was considered a form of entertainment to
watch people with mental illness even until the 19th century. This form of
entertainment is also being practiced in other parts of Europe. For example,
the Lunatics Tower in Vienna confined people with mental disorders in a
closed space with a viewing area.

During this era, medical treatments for patients with mental disorders were
crude and tedious. For example, Benjamin Rush, an esteemed American
psychiatrist, believed that abnormal behavior was due to an excess of blood
in the brain. He treated his patients by drawing copious amounts of blood
from their brains. He also believed that one of the ways to treat mental
illness is to instill fear. Because of this, he recommended doctors to tell
patients that they are nearly dying to scare them.

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Fig 6. Painting by Tony Robert-Fleury (1837-1911) depicted Philippe Pinel, a
psychiatrist released insane from their chains at Salpetriere asylum in Paris
in 1795. (De Agostini Picture Library, n.d.)

Pinel’s Reforms
At the height of the French Revolution, Philippe Pinel was assigned to
oversee La Bicetre, a popular asylum in Paris. Pinel was an advocate of
humane treatment of mentally ill patients. Historical records narrate that
Pinel wrongly of keeping patients chained. He believed that a more humane
form of treatment would make them better. To test if this was correct, he
asked permission from the Revolutionary Commune to remove chains of
mentally ill individuals. Fortunately, his request was granted, and he freed
them from chains (See Fig. 6).

He also advocated changing the appearance of the individual rooms in the

asylum. This transformed the appearance of the asylum from a dungeon to a
well-lit room. He was proven correct when the behavior of patients
improved. After more humane treatment, patients walked along the
corridors without troubling anybody. Some patients were cured and
eventually went home to their families.

However, some historical researchers claim that it was not Pinel who freed
the patients from their chains. Some historical documents show that it was
Jean-Baptiste Pussin, a former patient who became an orderly in the
asylum.

Moral Treatment
Mental asylums in Europe and the United States eventually adopted the
humanitarian treatment of patients that were initiated at La Bicetre. In the
early 17th century, two large asylums in the United States were established.
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These were Friends’ Asylum in Pennsylvania and the Hartford Retreat in

Connecticut.

Humanitarian treatments eventually paved the way for the practice of moral
treatment, wherein patients have a therapeutic relationship with their
attendants. Attendants interacted and read to mentally ill patients. There
were fewer restrictions on patients leading to a better quality of life.
However, patients' moral treatment was not sustained, and by the late 19th
century, mentally ill patients were again imprisoned or abandoned with poor
access to health care.

Dorothea Dix, a schoolteacher from Massachusetts, witnessed the plight of

mentally ill patients when she taught Sunday school at a local prison, which
housed people with abnormal behavior (See Fig. 7). She observed that
facilities were scarce for mentally ill patients because not all patients were
accommodated. Her contributions improved the treatment of mentally ill
patients. She led campaigns that resulted in the establishment of 32 state
psychiatric facilities.

These state hospitals made healthcare more accessible to patients who

cannot be accommodated in private asylums. Unfortunately, patients
outnumbered the hospital staff, and individualized treatment was not
possible.

Fig 7. Dorothea Lynde Dix (1802-1887), American educator, social reformer,

and humanitarian whose devotion to the welfare of the mentally ill led to
widespread reforms in the United States and abroad. (Encyclopedia
Britannica/UIG, n.d.)

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 Nevertheless, these hospitals employed physicians who took great interest in
investigating the biological basis for mental disorders. This was generally
advantageous, but less emphasis was given on patients' psychological well-
being with mental disorders.

Contemporary Perspective

Biological Approaches

Discovering Biological Origins of General Paresis and Syphilis

In the late 16th century, some of the mentally ill patients exhibited functional
decline, both mentally and physically. Aside from suffering from symptoms of
delusions and hallucinations, some became progressively paralyzed. These
patients were diagnosed to have general paresis, and unfortunately, almost
all of these patients do not recover their physical abilities.

In the 17th century, it was discovered that some of these patients also harbor
an infection called syphilis. However, the connection between paresis and
syphilis were not yet established. In the late 17th century, Louis Pasteur
discovered that human disease could be caused by infection with small
organisms. This was later on termed as the germ theory of disease, and it
became the foundation for defining the biological link between general
paresis and syphilis. In 1905, the bacterium that causes syphilis was
discovered. During this time, the biological connection between infection,
brain illness, and disease manifestation was established.

Biological Treatments

Insulin Shot Shock Treatment

In the early twentieth century, attendants who supervised mental hospitals
were still outnumbered by patients' volume. Because of this, physicians were
encouraged to look for treatments that will control the behavior of patients.
During this time, Manfred Sakel discovered insulin shot shock treatment,
wherein patients are rendered comatose with the administration of large
insulin doses (See Fig. 8). Insulin treatment works by depriving the brain of
sugar, the brain’s only food source.
Insulin shot shock treatment improved the behavior of the majority of
patients with psychosis. However, this form of treatment was eventually
discontinued when devastating complications of irreversible coma and death
were noted.
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Fig 8. A nurse at the Horace Berk Memorial Hospital prepares an insulin

injection for the treatment of insanity, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 28 March
1938. (Underwood Archives/Getty Images, n.d.)

Electroconvulsive treatment
Ugo Cerletti and Lucino Bini discovered electroconvulsive treatment (See
Fig. 9). Initially, Cerletti investigated the use of electric shocks to reproduce
convulsions, as seen in epilepsy. He discovered that the application of electric
shocks to both sides of the head could produce convulsions. In the late 1930s,
he used this treatment for a patient with schizophrenia. Progressive
advancements in this form of treatment were made in the following decades.
Until today, electroconvulsive treatment is still being administered for
patients with schizophrenia and severe depression.

Fig 9. A patient receives electroconvulsive therapy, better known as electric

shock treatment, at Patton State Hospital in California in 1942. (The
Associated Press, n.d.)

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Prefrontal lobotomy
Egas Moniz, a brain specialist from Portugal, introduced a surgical
procedure that cures mental illness. This is referred to as prefrontal
lobotomy, wherein the frontal lobe is disconnected from other areas of the
brain. This was indicated for those who displayed aggressive and violent
behavior. Prefrontal lobotomy was proven successful in treating patients
with mental disease.

However, it was observed that after surgery, patients are unable to

communicate, causing a great impairment in their way of living. In the 1950s,
some brain specialists argued that this form of treatment silenced patients
because it destroyed their brains. Because of this, the practice of prefrontal
lobotomy was eventually abandoned.

Psychological Approaches

Mesmerism
One of the mental illnesses that were prevalent during the 18th century was
a condition called hysteria. Hysteria is diagnosed with individuals who
suffered from functional incapacities such as paralysis or blindness, without
a known biological cause.

Franz Anton Mesmer, an Austrian doctor, believed that a universal

magnetic fluid within the body causes individuals to acquire hysteria. He also
thought that this magnetic fluid could influence the behavior of other people.
To prove his belief, he conducted several experiments, which involved the
use of a wooden rod that he used to transmit magnetism. He believed that
wooden rods could cure patients of hysteria by adjusting the distribution of
the magnetic fluid. Later on, Mesmer devised a form of therapy wherein he
looks into his patients' eyes to cure them of hysteria. This technique was
later on popularized as mesmerism or hypnosis (See Fig. 10). Despite
criticism from his contemporaries, the practice of hypnosis became well
accepted for many years, and this laid the foundation for further
psychological approaches in treating mental disorders.
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Fig 10. Illustration of Friedrich Mesmer Demonstrating Mesmerism (Stefano

Bianchetti/Corbis via Getty Images, n.d.)

Catharsis
Joseph Breuer is an Austrian physician who became well-known for his
contributions to psychoanalysis. During his career, he treated a patient under
the pseudonym of Anna O.

Anna O has various symptoms of hysteria, ranging from blindness, limb

paralysis, difficulty hearing, and speaking. According to historical texts, she
exhibited a dreamlike state, wherein she would sometimes mumble
disturbing thoughts to herself. Breuer documented significant improvements
in her behavior after hypnosis. According to his observations, symptom relief
lasted longer if the length of the hypnosis session increased. Also, when Anna
O is hypnotized, she can express her emotions and describe in detail how her
symptoms start to appear. Breuer discovered that recalling traumatic
emotional experiences and disturbing behavior was therapeutic. This form of
therapy was referred to as the cathartic method.

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Fig 11. Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud.
Photography, about 1898. [Der oesterreichische Nervenarzt und Begruender
der Psychoanalyse Sigmund Freud. Photographie. Um 1898.] (Imagno/Getty
Images,n.d.)

Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud is a contemporary of Breuer (see Fig. 11). His observations
with Breuer led to his belief that unconscious conflicts are contributors to
abnormal human behavior. This is the assumption of the most popular
theories in contemporary psychiatry, called psychoanalytic theory.

Structure of the Mind

According to Freud, the mind, also referred to as the psyche, can be divided
into three parts: the id, ego, and superego.

The id was thought to be responsible for basic urges for food, water, warmth,
elimination, affection, and sexual pleasure. According to psychoanalytic
theory, id has been present since birth, and its energy source is biological,
termed as the libido. This energy cannot be felt because it is part of the
unconscious.

Based on Freudian principles, the id wants immediate resolution of its urges

through gratification. This phenomenon is termed the pleasure principle.
When the urge remains ungratified, tension builds up, and the person
naturally finds a way to get rid of the tension. An example of this is a hungry
baby who eliminates his tension by moving or crying. According to Freud,
another way of obtaining gratification is through fantasizing. Although this
only provides short-term satisfaction.
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Based on Freud’s assumptions, the ego develops at 6 months of age.

Compared to id, which is part of the unconscious and allows fantasizing
about dealing with urges, the ego is conscious, and it allows the individual to
deal with reality. According to Freud, when ego facilitates the interaction
between reality and the id’s demand for pleasure gratification. This
phenomenon is called the reality principle.

Superego is analogous to an individual’s conscience. This develops from ego

during childhood. It is during this developmental period wherein children
have primitive urges that are unacceptable for adults. Some examples are
nail-biting and bed-wetting. According to Freud, parents pass on their values
to their children to seek the pleasure of approval rather than disapproval.

Psychoanalytic Therapy
This form of therapy is also known as psychoanalysis, and this is still part of
the therapeutic modalities that are being used in modern psychiatry. The
therapist performs a thorough analysis of the patient's historical background,
including childhood experiences, interpersonal relationships, and emotional
attributes. Freud developed techniques to enhance the practice of
psychoanalytic therapy.

In the free association technique, the patient can say whatever comes to
mind. The patient is usually sitting on a couch, not facing the therapist. The
term transference is used to describe when the patients reflect important
people's behaviors and attitudes in the patient's life. This is an occurrence
that the therapist must be able to recognize during psychoanalysis.

For example, when the patient unnecessarily feels that the therapist is not
listening to what she is saying. This may reflect a patient’s frustration in
childhood, when she is not being listened to, rather than what is happening
in reality. During interpretation, the psychoanalyst explains the meanings
behind the patient’s symptoms and behaviors.

Non-Freudian Psychodynamic Perspectives

Aside from Sigmund Freud, several theorists contributed to the advancement
in the field of Psychology. Among them, we will discuss the theory of Carl
Gustav Jung and Alfred Adler.

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Analytical Psychology
Carl Gustav Jung is a Swiss psychiatrist and one of Freud's previous
contemporaries (See Fig. 12). He was instrumental in establishing Analytical
Psychology. He believed that all people have a collective unconscious, a
common unconscious that consists of archetypes. These archetypes are basic
classifications that people use to form a perception about the world they live
in. He also described gender differences in terms of personality traits. He also
theorized that people have basic id urges composed of spiritual and religious
urges, which are influenced by personality traits. He also described two
different types of personality, namely extraversion and introversion,
depending on orientation to the environment.

Fig 12. Carl G. Jung (26 July 1875 - 6 June 1961), was a Swiss psychiatrist and
psychotherapist who was most famous for founding analytical psychology.
(World History Archive/UIG via Getty Images, n.d.)

Individual Psychology
Alfred Adler founded Individual Psychology (See Fig. 13). He believed that
individual fulfillment is derived from contributing to the growth of society.
He also emphasized the importance of individual productivity and goal-
oriented task achievement. He also theorized that an individual’s manner of
thinking greatly affects a person’s emotional and behavioral output.
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Fig 13. Portrait of Alfred Adler. Photography. Around 1900. [Portrait von
Alfred Adler. Photographie. Um 1900.] (Photo by Imagno/Getty Images, n.d.)

Classical Conditioning
This is one of the learning theories that were discovered by Ivan Pavlov.
Conditioning is a learning process wherein an individual eventually gives a
different response due to repeated stimuli. In this theory, an event that elicits
an expected response is combined with another event that does not. After
repeated exposure to the event, the event that normally does not elicit a
response will eventually do so.
This can be exemplified by how Ivan Pavlov discovered this behavior.
Pavlov's experiments on the digestive system showed dog meat powder to
the test animal to trigger it to salivate, which is a normal response when an
animal sees food. As he continued his experiment, he noticed that with
repeated testing, the dog salivates earlier, and just hearing the footsteps of
the feeder can trigger salivation.

Operant Conditioning
Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner is the proponent of operant conditioning,
which is a type of learning wherein the learned behavior is an effect of a
stimulus. This is also known as the principle of reinforcement, in which
reinforcement is the stimuli. Skinner described a positive and negative form
of reinforcement, which consequently leads to positive and negative
behavioral responses.
Positive reinforcement is the phenomenon wherein a pleasant stimulus,
called a positive reinforcer, is used to strengthen a good behavioral outcome.
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 An example is when a child is allowed to play longer when behaves well in
class. Allowing the child to play longer is a positive reinforcer. As a result,
this strengthens the likelihood of the child to behave in class continually.

On the other hand, negative reinforcement removes the presence of a

pleasant stimulus to strengthen a certain behavioral outcome. An example is
when a child refuses to eat, and the mother takes her toy. As a result, the
child will eat because a pleasant stimulus was taken away from her.

Behavior therapy
In the 1950s, one of the therapies that emerged to cure mental illness is
behavioral therapy or behavioral modification therapy, which applies
classical and operant conditioning principles. The principle of operant
conditioning that was described by Skinner is used to cause a desired
behavioral change. An example of behavioral therapy is systematic
desensitization therapy for the treatment of phobias. This form of
treatment alters the abnormal behavior through gradual exposure to what
triggers unusual fear or anxiety.

Cognitive therapy
Contemporary psychologists believe that thinking and perception influence
behavior. For example, a person who loses his job and thinks that he is
worthless will likely fall into depression. On the other hand, one who
maintains a positive outlook in life is likely to look for work. In this form of
therapy, psychologists identify unpleasant thoughts that need to be modified.
Patients are made aware of their maladaptive perceptions to change how
they feel and behave.

Activities and Exercises

Create a reviewer for this module that includes the following:

▪ Define normality
▪ How is abnormality defined?
▪ Enumerate the elements that help distinguish abnormal behavior
▪ Make an outline that differentiates historical and contemporary
perspectives of Psychology.
Take your short quiz and submit it before the deadline.
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Glossary
abnormal psychology - is a scientific discipline that studies unusual patterns
of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors associated with mental illness.

Behaviorism - is a therapeutic principle in psychology that focuses on

observed behavior.

Behavioral therapy - a form of therapy used in psychology that applies the

principles of classical and operant conditioning to alter behavior.

Cathartic method- a form of therapy that is used to relieve emotional

suffering, wherein patients recall and re-experiences their emotional trauma.

Classical conditioning - also known as Pavlovia conditioning, wherein an

event that elicits an expected response is combined with another event that
does not. After repeated exposure to the event, the event that normally does
not elicit a response will eventually do so.

demonology- the belief that an evil spirit can cause possession of the human
mind and body

Ego is a concept used in psychoanalysis; it is the conscious portion of

personality that develops from the id.

Id - a concept that is used in psychoanalysis; it is an unconscious portion of

personality that has been present since birth.

operant conditioning - a manner of learning to obtain or remove a response

through reinforcement.

Pleasure principle - in psychoanalysis, this is the principle by which id seeks

immediate gratification of primitive urges.

Psychoanalytic theory - described by Sigmund Freud, wherein abnormal

behavior is postulated to come from unconscious conflicts of a person.

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 Reality principle - in psychoanalysis, this is the principle by which ego is able
to delay gratification and deal with the consequences in a rational manner.

Superego - in psychoanalysis, this is analogous to the mind's conscience

based on perceived societal norms and acquired personal values.

Transference - the event wherein the patient treats the psychoanalyst as a

significant figure in an individual’s past.

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[Introduction to Abnormal Psychology]

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Course Module