INTERNSHIP REPORT ON

“INVESTIGATING THE INFLUENCE OF

PALEOCHANNELS ON GROUNDWATER
RESOURCES IN THE LUCKNOW URBAN AND PERI-
URBAN AREA”

SUBMITTED FOR THE FULFULLMENT OF THE

SUMMER INTERNSHIP AT
U.P REMOTE SESNING APPLICATION CENTER,
LUCKNOW, UTTAR PRADESH-226 021

SUBMITTED BY
PULKIT BHARDWAJ
[Link]. (2ND SEM) ALIGARH
MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
DR. SUDHAKAR SHUKLA
Scientist –SE Head of School of Geo- Informatics Division
Remote Sensing Applications Center, U.P Lucknow-226 021
AND
DR. RIZWAN AHMAD
Guest faculty,IDRS&GISA(A.M.U)

Page 1
 DECLARATION

PULKIT BHARDWAJ, hereby declare that the research entitled:

“INVESTIGATING THE INFLUENCE OF PALEOCHANNELS ON
GROUNDWATER RESOURCES IN THE LUCKNOW URBAN AND PERI-
URBAN AREA” is the result of my original research work, carried out under the
Supervision of [Link] SHUKLA(Scientist-SE),
RSAC, LUCKNOW .This report has been submitted in partial fulfilment of the
completion of the Internship. I further affirm that, to the best of my knowledge, all
the data, analysis, and information presented in this report are accurate, authentic,
and collected through my own efforts. All the original authors and sources referred
during this work have been properly acknowledged.

(PULKIT BHARDWAJ)
Remote Sensing & GIS Applications
[Link]. (2ndsemester)
Aligarh Muslim University

Page 2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to everyone who supported, guided, and
encouraged me throughout the journey of this dissertation.

I am especially grateful to Dr. Rizwan ahmed for his continuous support, insightful
suggestions, and valuable guidance, which have been a constant source of motivation
during this work.

It was a great privilege to carry out my dissertation at the Remote Sensing Applications
Centre (RSAC), U.P., Lucknow. The experience has significantly enriched my academic and
practical understanding of the subject.

My sincere appreciation goes to Dr. Sudhakar Shukla (Scientist-SE), School of Geo-

Informatics Division, RSAC-UP, Lucknow, for his belief in my capabilities and for providing
his expert guidance and constructive feedback at every stage of this work. His encouragement
and mentorship were instrumental in shaping this dissertation.

I also want to express my gratitude to Dr. Rajeev Kumar and [Link] Singh for his
insightful comments, which greatly improved the caliber of this work.

I would also want to thank Miss Pallavi Singh and Miss Mamta Shukla, the RSAC UP
Project Scientist, for her tireless efforts in teaching me the geospatial
methodologies.

I also wish to thank all the project scientists and staff members of the School of Geo-
Informatics Division for their kind cooperation, technical support, and assistance throughout
my research period.

Finally, I owe a deep sense of gratitude to my family and friends for their endless support,
patience, and motivation, without which the successful completion of this dissertation would
not have been possible.

Page 3
 ABSTRACT

This report focuses on the identification and delineation of paleochannels in the

Lucknow region of the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) to support sustainable
groundwater management and reconstruct paleoenvironmental history.
Groundwater is a critical resource in the IGP, but over-extraction has led to
declining levels. Paleochannels, or ancient buried river courses, are crucial for
identifying "good groundwater prospect zones" due to their highly permeable,
coarse-grained sediments, which act as excellent aquifers. These features
facilitate enhanced natural groundwater recharge, exhibit higher hydraulic
conductivity, and possess significant storage capacity, making them ideal for both
natural and artificial recharge initiatives.
The study area, Lucknow, is the capital of Uttar Pradesh, India, situated in the
Northern Gangetic Plains, characterized by flat, fertile alluvial land and dissected
by the Gomti and Sai rivers

Page 4
 INDEX

List of figures
List of tables
Abstract
Chapter 1. Introduction.
1.1 About internship
1.2 About paleochannels
1.3 Identification and Delineation of Paleochannel
Chapter 2. Study Area and Data used.
2.1 Location and area of interest.
2.2 Study area map of lucknow.
2.3 Research interest.
2.4 Data used.
Chapter 3. Methodology.
3.1 Pre-processing of Toposheets.
3.2 Pre-processing of Satellite images.
Chapter 4. Analysis.
4.1 Overlay and observation
4.2 Observing paleochannels through Microtopography
4.3 Paleochannels are source of ground water potential zones
Chapter 5. Result and conclusion
5.1 Spatial Distribution of Groundwater Depth
5.2 Paleochannels work as a natural recharge to aquifer.
Chapter 6. References

Page 5
[Link] LIST OF FIGURES [Link]
1. Study area map of Lucknow 8

2. Download page of open topograpgy 11

3. Geospatial data catalog of WRIS 12

4. Ground water quality zones in lucknow 14

5. Georeferencing toposheets in QGIS 15

6. Mosaic toposheets 16

7. Georeferencing of CORONA Image in QGIS 18

8. clipped CORONA Image 19

9. Digitization of Gomti river in QGIS 20

10. DIgitizitization of Gomti river and its tributaries 21

11. Overlay of digitize gomti rivper onto CORONA image 22

12. Paleochannels observed in CORONA image 23

13. Digitized paleochannels and oxbow lakes 24

14. Paleochannels observed in DEM data 25

15. Digital elevation model of lucknow 26

16. Borewells in google earth pro 29

17. Borewell map in ArcMap 29

18. Map of ground water depth 30

19. Paleochannels and other features 32

20. Ground water level changes with paleochannels 33

21. Ground water level with paleochannels map 34

22. Depth of water during pre-monsoon 37

23. Depth of water in post-monsoon 38

Page 6
Table no. LIST OF TABLES [Link]
1. List of data uses 9
2. List of borewells in lucknow 28
3. List of wells in post monsoon and pre-monsoon 36

Page 7
 CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 ABOUT INTERNSHIP

Internship is one of the crucial aspects of research and education especially for
students as it gives them an opportunity to imply their learning, previous
experiences and skills in real time world problems and extracting meaningful
insights from the work assigned to them. Importance of Internship in Research
and Development

➢ ADVANTAGES OF INTERNSHIP

▪ APPLIED LEARNING: Students during their period of internship learn

to apply theoretical knowledge in real situation and helps in understanding
of scientific principles and concept which they use to correlate and draw
inference from their study.
▪ DATA COLLECTION AND MANIPULATE: Students during the
internship are often required various types of data, these data are either
available on web sources or sometimes needed to be collected directly by
field visit to the area of interest which is then required to be processed or
manipulated do it can be used to provide the conclusion.

▪ PROBLEM SOLVING: During internship students develop critical

thinking, adaptability and resilience. CAREER PREPRATION: Internship
provides valuable experience to students which they can utilize either in
the field of research or job for their career development.
▪ PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT: During the Internship period a student
works under a supervisor and gets associated often with team work thus it
helps in personal development as a student learns adaptability, cooperation
and even management skills.

1
1.2 ABOUT PALEOCHANNELS

The Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), including the Gomti River basin, are
characterized by vast stretches of alluvial deposits, making groundwater a critical
resource for agricultural, industrial, and domestic use. However, increasing
demand and over-extraction have led to declining groundwater levels in many
areas. In this context, the identification of "good groundwater prospect zones"
becomes paramount for sustainable water management. Paleochannels, or ancient
buried river courses, within the alluvial plains are increasingly recognized as
significant indicators of such zones due to their unique hydrogeological
properties.

Understanding Paleochannels: Paleochannels are relict fluvial channels that

have been abandoned by a river due to changes in its course (avulsion) or climatic
shifts, and subsequently buried by newer sediments. These ancient channels often
retain their original characteristics, including coarse-grained channel-lag deposits
(sands, gravels, and even boulders), which are highly permeable.

Hydrogeological Significance of Paleochannels:

1. High Permeability Aquifers: The coarse-grained sediments within
paleochannels act as excellent aquifers. Their higher hydraulic
conductivity (rate at which water can flow through them) compared to the
surrounding finer alluvial deposits (silts and clays) allows for efficient
storage and transmission of groundwater. Studies in the Ganga Plains, for
instance, show hydraulic conductivity values ranging from 30 to 75.3
m/day in paleochannel areas, significantly higher than the 13.5 to 22.3
m/day in the adjacent alluvial plain aquifers.

2
2. Enhanced Recharge Potential: Paleochannels often facilitate higher
natural groundwater recharge rates. Rainfall infiltration is more effective
in these coarse-grained zones. In the Ganga plains, natural groundwater
recharge due to precipitation has been estimated to be 18.9–28.7% in
paleochannel areas, compared to 6.3–8.9% in the surrounding alluvial
plains. This makes them ideal locations for both natural and artificial
groundwater recharge initiatives.

3. Significant Storage Capacity: Due to their considerable width (often

several kilometers) and depth, paleochannels can hold substantial volumes
of groundwater. This large storage capacity provides a significant buffer
against short-term changes in abstraction and climate variability.

4. Connectivity with Shallow Aquifers: Paleochannels in the Indo-Gangetic

Plains are often well-interconnected with the adjacent shallow aquifers,
facilitating groundwater movement and recharge across a wider area.

3
Geological and Paleoenvironmental Studies:
1. Paleoclimate and Paleohydrology Reconstruction: By studying the
morphology (shape, size, sinuosity) and sedimentary infill of
paleochannels, geologists can reconstruct past river systems, their flow
regimes, and infer ancient climatic conditions (e.g., rainfall, temperature,
vegetation). They act as natural "time capsules" of past environments.
2. Fossil Records: Paleochannel sediments can preserve a wealth of
paleontological information, including plant and animal fossils (macro and
microfossils), pollen, and spores. These provide insights into past
ecosystems, biodiversity, and evolutionary history.
3. Tectonic History: The shifting courses of ancient rivers, often marked by
paleochannels, can be indicators of past tectonic activity, such as uplift,
subsidence, and faulting.
4. Sedimentology and Stratigraphy: They provide crucial data for
understanding depositional environments, sediment transport processes,
and the stratigraphic architecture of sedimentary basins.
Paleochannels of the Gomti River:
• The Gomti River basin, a part of the Central Ganga Plain, exhibits various
geomorphic features, including meander scars, ox-bow lakes, and
paleochannels. These relict features are indicative of past fluvial dynamics
and hold promise for groundwater exploration. While specific detailed
studies focusing solely on the paleochannels of the Gomti River as
groundwater prospect zones are less readily available in broad searches,
the general principles observed in the wider Indo-Gangetic Plains apply.
• The Gomti River is primarily a groundwater-fed tributary of the Ganga,
emphasizing the importance of understanding its subsurface hydrogeology.
The basin's alluvium, composed of inter-layered fine sand and mud
deposits, suggests the potential for buried coarse-grained units.

4
1.3 Identification and Delineation of Paleochannels:
Modern techniques play a crucial role in identifying and mapping paleochannels:
• Remote Sensing and GIS: Satellite imagery (e.g. Declassified image from
USGS, image from Google Earth, Cartosat DEM) can effectively map
exposed paleochannels, which appear as curvilinear and meandering
courses with subtle tonal variations. Integrated GIS approaches combine
various spatial thematic layers (geology, geomorphology, soil, lineament
density, slope, drainage density) to delineate groundwater potential zones,
with paleochannels contributing significantly to high and very high
potential areas.

• Geophysical Surveys: For buried paleochannels, ground-based

geophysical techniques such as Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Airborne
Electromagnetic (AEM) systems, Electrical Resistivity Tomography
(ERT), Time Domain Electromagnetics (TDEM), and Magnetic Resonance
Sounding (MRS) are employed to map subsurface conductivity distribution
and identify coarse-grained deposits indicative of paleochannels.

• Drill Log Data/Borehole Analysis: Subsurface lithofacies data from well

logs provide direct evidence of sediment type and thickness, confirming
the presence and geometry of buried paleochannels.

5
 CHAPTER-2
STUDY AREA AND DATA USED

2.1 LOCATION OF AREA OF INTEREST-LUCKNOW

Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh, India, boasts a rich history and a distinctive
geographical setting within the vast Gangetic Plains.

1. Location:
• Geographical Coordinates: Lucknow is situated roughly between 26.30°
N to 27.10° N latitude and 80.30° E to 81.13° E longitude. More broadly,
it's often cited as around 26.50° N and 80.50° E.
• Elevation: It lies approximately 123 meters (404 feet) above sea level.
• Surrounding Districts: It is bordered by:
o East: Barabanki district
o West: Unnao and Hardoi districts
o South: Raebareli district
o North: Sitapur and Hardoi districts

2. Geography:
• Gangetic Plain: Lucknow is situated in the Northern Gangetic Plains, a
vast and fertile alluvial plain formed by the Ganges River and its
tributaries. This makes the land largely flat and highly fertile.
River Gomti: The River Gomti is the chief geographical feature of Lucknow.
It flows through the city, dividing it diagonally into two main regions:
• Trans-Gomti: The area across the Gomti River.
• Cis-Gomti: The area on the same side of the Gomti River as the historical
city center.

6
Tributaries: The Gomti in Lucknow district has tributaries like the Kukrail,
Loni, and Beta.

• River Sai: The Sai River flows to the south of the city and enters
Raebareli district in the east. Its banks are generally shallower and less
eroded compared to the Gomti.
• Flat Topography: The landscape of Lucknow district is predominantly
flat, with virtually no hills. There's a gradual slope from northwest to
southeast, following the general course of the rivers.
• Alluvial Soil: Geologically, the area is composed of light alluvium and
"dun gravels" of relatively recent age, characteristic of riverine plains.
Nodular limestone deposits called "kankar" are also found scattered
throughout the district.
• Limited Forest Cover: While historically there were more forested areas
(especially Dhak forests), much of it has been cleared for agriculture. As
of 2008-09, about 5.19% of the district's land area was under forest cover,
with the Kukrail forest reserve being a notable exception on the outskirts
of the metro area.
• Seismic Zone: Lucknow city is located in Seismic Zone III, indicating
a moderate risk of earthquakes.
• Climate: Lucknow experiences a humid subtropical climate

7
2.2 STUDY AREA MAP OF LUCKNOW-

Figure 1-STUDY AREA MAP OF LUCKNOW

8
2.3 Research interest-
Paleochannels in the Lucknow region are primarily driven by the critical need for
sustainable groundwater management in a rapidly urbanizing and agriculturally
intensive area, coupled with the desire to reconstruct the region's dynamic
paleoenvironmental history.
2.4 DATA USED.
There are following data is used in this work.
[Link] TYPE OF DATA TIME PERIOD SOURCE OF DATA
1 Toposheet 2024 [Link]
2 Satellite image 1966 [Link]
3 Digital elevation 2000 [Link]
model
4 Borewells data 2022-23 [Link]

TABLE-1 LIST OF DATA USED

1. TOPOSHEETS
• Toposheets have been extracted from the online platform,
Survey of India.
• Survey of India - Survey of India, The National Survey and
Mapping Organization of the country under the Department
of Science & Technology, is the OLDEST SCIENTIFIC
DEPARTMENT OF THE GOVT. OF INDIA. It’s mainly
work to provide the basic map coverage required for the
development of the country.

Toposheets no. -
1. 63a12 6. 63b13
2. 63a16 7. 63b14
3. 63b5 8. 63e4
4. 63b9 9. 63e14
5. 63b10 10. 63f1

9
 2. SATELLITE IMAGE-
• The CORONA program was a series of classified U.S. photographic
reconnaissance satellites operated from 1960 to 1972. While primarily for
military intelligence during the Cold War, the imagery was declassified in
1995 and made available to the public, primarily through the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Resources Observation and Science
(EROS) Center.

Film and Resolution:

• Black-and-White Film: The images were originally recorded on high-
quality black-and-white film. Some experimental missions carried small
samples of infrared and color film, but black-and-white was the standard
due to its superior resolution.
• Film Width: Typically, 70 mm film, though KH-5 used 5-inch film.
• Focal Length: Common focal lengths were around 24 inches (610 mm).
• Ground Resolution: The resolution varied by mission and camera model,
but significantly improved over time:
o Early systems: Around 25-40 feet (7.6-12 meters)
o Later systems (especially KH-4B): Achieved impressive resolutions
of 6 feet (1.8 meters) at nadir (directly beneath the satellite), and
even objects as small as 3-5 feet (0.9-1.5 meters) could be resolved.
This was remarkably high resolution for the era.

IMAGE NO.-
1. DS1037-1007DA097
2. DS1037-1007DA098
3. DS1037-1007DA099
4. DS1037-1007DA100

10
3. DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL
• The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) obtained
elevation data on a near-global scale to generate the most
complete high-resolution digital topographic database of Earth.
• SRTM consisted of a specially modified radar system that flew
onboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour during an 11-day mission
in February of 2000. SRTM is an international project
spearheaded by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
(NGA) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA).

Figure 2-DOWNLOAD PAGE OF OPEN TOPGRAPHY

11
4. BOREWELLS DATA –
• The India Water Resources Information System (India-WRIS) is a crucial
online platform managed by the Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of
India, in collaboration with ISRO. It aims to be a "Single Window" source
for comprehensive, authoritative, and consistent data on India's water
resources, including borewell data.

Figure 3-GEOSPATIAL DATA CATALOG OF WRIS

• Borewell data is arguably the most fundamental and direct source of

information for delineating groundwater prospect zones. While remote
sensing and geophysical surveys provide indirect clues, borewell data
offers actual "ground truth" about subsurface conditions.

12
1. Lithological Information (Subsurface Geology):
• Identification of Aquifers and Aquicludes: Borewell logs (lithologs)
provide detailed information about the sequence and type of geological
formations encountered during drilling (e.g., sand, gravel, clay, silt,
weathered rock, fractured rock). This allows hydrogeologists to identify
water-bearing layers (aquifers) and impermeable layers (aquicludes or
confining layers) that limit or prevent water flow.
• Sediment Characteristics: Borewell data reveals the grain size, sorting,
and composition of aquifer materials (e.g., fine sand vs. coarse gravel).
Coarser sediments generally indicate higher permeability and better
groundwater prospects.
2. Hydrogeological Parameters:
o Water Table/Potentiometric Surface Maps: These maps show the
elevation of the groundwater surface and indicate the direction of
groundwater flow. Groundwater generally flows from higher to
lower elevations.
o Groundwater Level Fluctuations: Monitoring SWL over seasons
and years helps assess aquifer recharge (during monsoon) and
depletion (during dry periods), indicating the sustainability of water
extraction.
o Transmissivity (T): A measure of an aquifer's ability to transmit
water horizontally. Higher T values indicate better groundwater
flow.

13
3. Groundwater Quality:
• Chemical Analysis: Water samples collected from borewells are analyzed
for various physical and chemical parameters (pH, EC, TDS, major ions
like Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4, HCO3, NO3, F, As, etc.).
• Potability and Suitability for Use: This data determines if the
groundwater is suitable for drinking, irrigation, or industrial purposes and
helps identify areas with contamination or naturally occurring undesirable
constituents (e.g., high fluoride or arsenic). This information is crucial for
health and environmental management.

Figure 4-GROUND WATER QUALITY ZONES IN LUCKNOW

14
 CHAPTER-3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 PRE-PROCESSING ON TOPOSHEET
• Georeferencing of toposheets: - Toposheets are georeferenced with the
Gcp points using software QGIS (Quantum GIS). Georeferencing in QGIS
involves aligning a raster dataset with spatial data in a known coordinate
system so that the raster can be used accurately within a GIS environment
(Set the projection as WGS_1984_UTM_ZONE_44N for all the
toposheets).

Add toposheet to QGIS layer>Go to georeferencing layer>Go to add data and add
same toposheet > Add GCPs (Ground control points) at the corners of the
toposheet > Add coordinates in X and Y > Run georeferencing.

Figure 5- Georeferencing toposheets in QGIS

15
 • Clipping raster: All the toposheets are clipped to extract only the
toposheets portion. Clip Using Mask:
Make a polygon shape file > GO to Editing tool >Draw a polygon on AOI > Go
to ArcTool box > Data management tool > Raster > Raster processing >clip >
Add toposheet and shape file then clip.
To export the clipped raster, right-click the layer in the Table of Contents, Select
Data > Export Data, and choose the desired format and location.

• Mosaic dataset: Add Rasters (clipped toposheets) ArcMap>

Go to ArcTool box > Data management tool > Raster >Raster Dataset>
Mosaic> Add all toposheets to the input raster and add a toposheet to the
target raster into which all toposheets will be merged.

Figure 6 Mosaic toposheets

16
3.2 PRE-PROCESSING ON SATELLITE DATA: -
Identification of Area of Interest
• CORONA image having 4 panchromatic band, so we have to identity our
area of interest in those 4 bands. Go to properties of image> Symbology>
Stretched > Select AOI band.
• CORONA images are almost exclusively panchromatic (black and white).
• This means they capture information across a broad range of visible light
wavelengths, but they do not have separate spectral bands like modern
multispectral or hyperspectral satellite sensors (e.g., Landsat, Sentinel,
WorldView).
• Therefore, you cannot create "band composites" in the way you would with
multispectral imagery (like natural color RGB, false color infrared, etc.)
from a single CORONA image.
• What you "see" in a CORONA image is essentially one band of gray
values. Darker areas reflect less light (e.g., deep shadows, water bodies),
while brighter areas reflect more light (e.g., bare ground, bright buildings).

Georeferencing and Positional Accuracy

• Lack of Native Spatial Reference: The raw CORONA images provided
by USGS are not georeferenced. They do not "know" where they are on
Earth. This means every image needs to be manually aligned to a modern,
geographically referenced dataset (like Toposheet, Google Earth imagery,
modern satellite images, or accurate maps) using a process called
georeferencing.
• Difficult Ground Control Point (GCP) Selection: Georeferencing
requires identifying clearly identifiable, stable features (ground control
points) that exist in both the CORONA image and the reference image,
such as railway lines, roads intersection and permanent canals. we use
Mosaic toposheet of lucknow as referenced image.

17
Raster to Raster Georeferencing
• Raster-to-raster georeferencing is a fundamental process in GIS and
remote sensing where you align an unreferenced or poorly
referenced raster image (CORONA image) to another raster image
that is already accurately georeferenced (TOPOSHEETS).

Figure 7-Georeferencing of CORONA Image in QGIS

• The Amausi airport is observed in CORONA image and toposheet.
• Take a GCP at airport and road intersection and mark a point on
toposheet on same spot after it, search such points which are
uniformly distributed across the image so that perfect overlay is
done.

18
Clipping of Georeferenced image
• After Georerencing of images open it in Arcmap, then make a shape file
for each image and draw a polygon within the area and clip no data values.
• Go to ArcTool box > Data management tool > Raster > Raster processing
>clip > Add CORONA Image and shape file then clip and export the
clipped raster, right-click the layer in the Table of Contents, Select Data >
Export Data, and choose the desired format and location.
• Now open all Clipped images in ArcMap one by one

Figure 8- clipped CORONA Image

➢ All Corona images are aligned and placed in sequential manner as seen in
Figure-8

19
Digitization of Gomti river and its tributaries
• Digitizing the Gomti River and its tributaries from a toposheet and then
overlaying this vector data onto a declassified CORONA image (from
USGS) is a classic GIS workflow for historical environmental analysis. It
allows you to compare the river's path and network from different time
periods and analyze changes.
Create a New Vector Layer (Polygon Feature):
• In your GIS software, create a new shapefile or GeoPackage layer.
• Set the Geometry Type to Polygon.
• Set the Coordinate Reference System (CRS) to match your
georeferenced rasters As, UTM Zone 44N.
• Add relevant attribute fields (e.g., Name for river names, Type for main
river/tributary, Length of river)
Start Editing: Right-click on the newly created line layer and toggle editing

Figure 9- Digitization of Gomti river in QGIS

20
Digitize the Main Gomti River:
• Zoom into the georeferenced toposheet
• Use the "Add Line Feature" tool.
• Carefully trace the main channel of the Gomti River. Click to add vertices.
Add more vertices in bends and curves to capture the sinuosity accurately.
• When finish a segment (e.g., from one map edge to another, or to a major
confluence), right-click to finish the sketch and enter attribute information.
Digitize Tributaries:
• Continue digitizing all identifiable tributaries using the same method.

Figure 10- DIgitizitization of Gomti river and its tributaries

21
 CHAPTER-4 ANALYSIS
4.1 Overlay and observation:
• Load All Layers: We have georeferenced CORONA image and newly
digitized river network (vector layer) loaded in QGIS
• Transparency: Adjust the transparency of the CORONA image and
modern base map so you can clearly see the digitized river network on top
of the historical imagery.
• Visual Comparison: now visually compare the digitized Gomti River
network from the toposheet (representing an earlier period) with the river's
actual course as depicted in the CORONA image (1960s/early 70s).
➢ Look for:
▪ Changes in river meanders (oxbow lakes, cutoffs).
▪ Development along the river banks.
▪ Changes in tributary confluences.
▪ Areas of increased/decreased sinuosity.

Figure 11-Overlay of digitize gomti river onto CORONA image

22
Digitization of paleochannels of gomti river and its tributaries
• Digitizing paleochannels from declassified CORONA imagery is a
fantastic application of historical remote sensing, particularly for a region
like the Ganga Plain where fluvial dynamics are so significant. However,
it's also one of the more challenging tasks due to the nature of CORONA
data and the subtle features of paleochannels.
➢ Identifying Paleochannels on CORONA Images
This is the most challenging and subjective part, as paleochannels often have
subtle signatures, especially on panchromatic imagery, looking for indirect
evidence of former river courses.
1. Visual Interpretation Clues:
Linear Tonal Variations: Look for linear or curvilinear patterns of slightly
different gray tones compared to the surrounding landscape. Paleochannels often
have different soil moisture, sediment composition, or vegetation cover, which
will affect their grayscale signature.
They might appear slightly darker due to higher moisture content or denser
vegetation, especially during dry seasons.

Figure 12-Paleochannels observed in CORONA image

23
o Relict Meander Scars/Oxbows: Look for abandoned, arcuate
(curved) features that resemble former river bends or cut-off
meanders. These are often the clearest indicators.

Figure 13-Digitized paleochannels and oxbow lakes

o Drainage Patterns: Observe how smaller, modern drainage lines or
agricultural ditches align. They might follow the path of older, relict
channels.
o Vegetation Patterns: Even in panchromatic images, differences in
vegetation vigor or type can sometimes be discerned. Paleochannels,
due to better soil moisture or different soil types, might support
different vegetation communities or have higher biomass, appearing
slightly darker.
o Microtopography: Although CORONA is 2D, if you've created a
DEM from stereo pairs, utilize hillshade and slope maps.
Paleochannels can manifest as subtle depressions, low ridges
(natural levees), or changes in slope.

24
4.2 Observing paleochannels through Microtopography
Finding paleochannels through microtopography and Digital Elevation Model
(DEM) data is a powerful and increasingly common approach in geomorphology,
especially when dealing with landscapes where surface expressions of past fluvial
activity are subtle. This method complements the visual interpretation of optical
imagery like CORONA.
• Microtopography: Refers to the subtle, small-scale variations in the
Earth's surface elevation (typically less than a meter of vertical difference).
These can be depressions, subtle ridges, or changes in slope that are often
imperceptible to the naked eye on the ground but can reveal underlying
geological or geomorphological features.
• Depressions and Channels: The most direct signature is a linear or
curvilinear depression representing the former river bed. Even if filled with
sediments, these can often be slightly lower than the surrounding
floodplain.

Figure 14-Paleochannels observed in DEM data

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 Figure 15-Digital elevation model of lucknow

Channel Network Extraction (Hydrological Analysis):

• How it works: Using DEMs, you can apply hydrological tools to model
flow paths and delineate drainage networks. While primarily for active
channels, sometimes these tools can pick up the faint "flow paths" of
paleochannels if their depressions are continuous

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 4.3 Paleochannels are source of ground water potential zones

Paleochannels are indeed considered excellent sources of groundwater and are

highly significant groundwater potential zones in the Lucknow region and across
the wider Ganga Plain.
The principles explained previously (high permeability due to sand/gravel infill,
enhanced storage, preferential flow paths, and better recharge) apply strongly to
the hydrogeology of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, including the area around
Lucknow.
Lucknow and the Ganga Plain:
• Alluvial Aquifers: The Ganga Plain is characterized by a vast and thick
sequence of Quaternary alluvial sediments. These sediments form multi-
layered aquifer systems, and paleochannels within these alluviums play a
critical role in their hydrogeology.
• Historical River Shifts: Rivers in the Ganga Plain, including the Gomti
and its predecessors, have a long history of shifting their courses,
abandoning old channels and forming new ones. This process has created
an intricate network of buried paleochannels across the plain.
• Research Confirmation: Numerous hydrogeological studies, including
those by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) and various research
institutions, have consistently identified and confirmed that these
paleochannels act as significant groundwater repositories. They often
exhibit:
• Higher Hydraulic Conductivity: Water moves more easily through the
paleochannel sands than the surrounding fine-grained over bank deposits.
Studies in the Ganga Plain have shown significantly higher hydraulic
conductivity values in paleochannel areas.
o Higher Recharge Rates: Precipitation and surface water can
infiltrate more readily into paleochannels, leading to higher natural
groundwater recharge rates compared to adjacent areas.
o Higher Yields: Wells drilled in paleochannel zones often yield more
water than those drilled in areas dominated by silty or clayey
sediments.

27
While remote sensing and GIS techniques (like using CORONA images and
DEMs to find paleochannels) are excellent for delineating groundwater potential
zones, validation with actual ground truth data, especially from wells, is
crucial.
So, we have different-different wells data all along the lucknow for better
interpolation of ground water potential zones
o Created a Excel file from data provided by CGWB (Central ground water
board), Ministry of jal shakti govt. of india.
Table-2-List of borewells in lucknow

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o Create a kml file in google earth pro through latitude and longitude
of borewell from excel sheet :-

Figure 16-Borewells in google earth pro

o Create a point shape file from kml file in ArcMap > ArcTool box>
conversion tool > kml to Layer

Figure 17-Borewell map in ArcMap

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INTERPOLATION MAP OF LUCKNOW

Figure 18- Map of ground water depth

➢ An interpolation map of groundwater depth in wells in Lucknow, or any

region, provides a wealth of crucial information for water resource
management, environmental studies, and urban planning. Here's what can
be extracted.

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 CHAPTER-5
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Spatial Distribution of Groundwater Depth:

• Depth to Water Table: The map visually represents how deep the
groundwater is below the land surface across the entire study area, even in
locations where direct measurements weren't taken. This is often displayed
in meters below ground level (mbgl).
• Areas of Shallow and Deep Groundwater: It clearly highlights regions
where groundwater is easily accessible (shallow) and areas where it's much
deeper, indicating potential challenges for extraction. For Lucknow, recent
reports show significant depletion in some urban areas, with depths
reaching 270 feet (approx. 82 meters) in places like Alambagh, while other
areas might have shallower levels.
Groundwater Flow Direction:
• Water Table Contours (Piezometric Surface): If the map shows
groundwater elevation (height above mean sea level) instead of just depth,
contour lines can indicate the "slope" of the water table. Groundwater
generally flows from areas of higher elevation to areas of lower elevation,
perpendicular to the contour lines. This helps to understand the natural
movement of groundwater.
Identification of Recharge and Discharge Areas:
• Recharge Zones: Areas where the water table is relatively high or where
the contours indicate inward flow can suggest groundwater recharge zones,
where surface water infiltrates the aquifer.
• Discharge Zones: Areas with lower water table elevations or outward-
flowing contours might indicate discharge zones, where groundwater
emerges as springs or feeds into rivers and lakes. In Lucknow, the Gomati
River and its tributaries are often influenced by shallow groundwater.

31
 The cumulative evidence from subsurface lithological data, CORONA imagery,
Digital elevation model and regional geomorphological studies strongly confirms
the founding and presence of paleochannels within the Lucknow region. These
are not merely hypothetical features but demonstrable fluvial geomorphological
structures.

Figure 19-PALEOCHANNELS AND OTHER FEATURES

These paleochannels represent relict fluvial systems that have been buried by
subsequent sedimentation. Their composition, primarily consists of highly
permeable sand and gravel, renders them critical aquifers within the complex
alluvial setup of the Ganga Plain. Their discovery is paramount for:

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• Accurate Hydrogeological Modeling: Incorporating paleochannel
geometries and properties is essential for developing realistic groundwater
flow models.
• Targeted Groundwater Exploration: They pinpoint zones of high
groundwater potential, enabling more efficient drilling and resource
extraction.
• Effective Groundwater Management: Understanding their distribution is
vital for formulating strategies for sustainable groundwater abstraction and
implementing artificial recharge programs, especially in areas facing water
stress due to increased demand and declining water tables.
The identification of these paleochannels in Lucknow provides a robust
foundation for informed decision-making in water resource planning and
ensuring long-term water security for the burgeoning urban population

Figure 20- ground water level changes with paleochannels

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 Figure 21 ground water level with paleochannels map

Spatial Variation in Groundwater Depth:

• Deep Groundwater Zones (Red Areas): Significant areas with very deep
groundwater levels (over 500 mbgl) are prominently observed in:
o Central Lucknow: A large red patch indicating very deep
groundwater.
o South-western Sarojini Nagar: Another distinct red area.
o North-western Malihabad: A smaller, but notable red zone.

34
 • Shallow Groundwater Zones (Blue Areas): Areas with relatively shallow
groundwater levels (around 70-150 mbgl) are found in:
o Eastern Malihabad Taluka.
o Central Bakshi Ka Talab Taluka.
o Northern Mohanlalganj Taluka.
o Scattered smaller blue patches across the district.
Relationship between Paleochannels and Groundwater Depth:
• Paleochannels in Deeper Groundwater Zones: Many of the
paleochannel features appear to pass through or are located adjacent to
areas exhibiting deeper (red and orange) groundwater levels,
particularly in the central Lucknow and parts of Sarojini Nagar. This might
suggest:
o High extraction rates in areas where paleochannels are present,
leading to localized drawdown.
o The paleochannels themselves could be acting as conduits for rapid
groundwater flow, potentially leading to faster depletion if recharge
is insufficient.
o The current land use and abstraction patterns overriding the natural
advantage of paleochannels for shallow groundwater.
• Paleochannels in Shallower Groundwater Zones: Some paleochannels
are observed within or bordering areas with shallower (blue and light
blue) groundwater levels, particularly in eastern Malihabad and parts of
Bakshi Ka Talab and Mohanlalganj. This could indicate:
o Areas where the paleochannels are effectively contributing to
recharge, or where extraction is less intense, maintaining higher
water tables.
o These paleochannels might be closer to their original surface
expressions, facilitating more direct recharge from rainfall or surface
water bodies.

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5.2 PALEOCHANNELS WORK AS NATURAL AQUIFER RECHARGE
ZONE-
Paleochannels act as ideal aquifer recharge points due to their unique fluvial
characteristics, which are consistent whether they are found in Lucknow or
other regions with similar geomorphic formations.
• High Permeability
• Natural Water Filtration
• Connection to Aquifers

o Created a Excel file of depth of well in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon

time from data provided by CGWB (Central ground water board), Ministry
of jal shakti govt. of india.

Table 3- List of wells in post monsoon and pre-monsoon

36
Figure 22 Depth of water during pre-monsoon

37
Figure 23 Depth of water in post-monsoon

38
Pre-Monsoon Map (May)
• Deeper Water Levels: Generally, the pre-monsoon map (before the rainy
season) is expected to show deeper water levels. This is because
groundwater has been continuously extracted for irrigation, domestic, and
industrial uses, and there has been minimal natural recharge from rainfall
during the dry months.
• Areas of Stress: Regions with the darkest colors (deepest water levels)
would indicate areas of high groundwater stress or over-exploitation,
where extraction significantly outweighs natural recharge. Urbanized
areas or intensively farmed agricultural zones often fall into this category.
Post-Monsoon Map (November)
• Shallower Water Levels: The post-monsoon map (after the rainy season)
should ideally show shallower water levels compared to the pre-monsoon
map. This is due to the natural recharge from monsoon rainfall infiltrating
the ground and replenishing the aquifers.
• Recharge Effectiveness: Areas that show a significant shift from deep
(pre-monsoon) to shallower (post-monsoon) water levels indicate
effective natural recharge.
• Persistent Deep Levels: If certain areas still show very deep water levels
even after the monsoon, it suggests:
o Poor natural recharge in those specific zones (e.g., due to
concretization, impermeable surface geology).
o Continued high rates of groundwater extraction even during the
monsoon.
o Hydrogeological characteristics that limit rapid recharge.

39
 CHAPTER-6
REFERENCES

• Identification of Paleochannels Using Remote Sensing: a Study on Upper

Gangetic Delta in Parts of Murshidabad and Nadia Districts, West
Bengal. Remote Sens Earth Syst Sci 4, 104–120 (2021). Karmokar, S.,
Halder, M. & Nandy, S.
[Link]

• Paleochannel and paleohydrology of a Middle Siwalik (Pliocene) fluvial

system, northern India Z A Khan1,∗ and R C Tewari
[Link]

• CENTRAL GROUND WATER BOARD Ground water Yearly issued

book
[Link]
pdf

• A Glimpse of Research & Development at NIH

[Link]
FD_NIH.pdf

• GROUND WATER BROCHURE OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT, UTTAR

PRADESH by Arun Kumar Scientist 'C'
[Link]

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