Chapter 2 :Network transform representation

and analysis

February 26, 2026

 Inductor and Capacitor basics

Passive circuit elements do not generate energy; they store

or dissipate energy.

An inductor stores energy in a magnetic field when current

flows through it and opposes changes in current.

In a DC circuit, once steady state is reached, an ideal induc-

tor behaves as a short circuit.

A capacitor stores energy in an electric field and opposes

changes in voltage.

In a DC circuit, once fully charged, an ideal capacitor be-

haves as an open circuit.

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 Capacitor and Inductor ....

In DC circuits, a capacitor allows current only during charg-

ing; at steady state, the current becomes zero.

In AC circuits, a capacitor continuously charges and dis-

charges, allowing current to flow with frequency-dependent
impedance.

In DC circuits, an inductor resists sudden changes in current;

at steady state, it behaves as a short circuit.

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 Capacitor and Inductor ....
Open circuit: current is zero, but voltage may exist across
the terminals.

Short circuit: very low resistance path causing high current

and nearly zero voltage.

In the absence of external sources, the circuit response de-

pends only on the initially stored energy.

A charged capacitor or an energized inductor stores energy

in its electric or magnetic field, respectively.

When inserted into a circuit without independent sources,

the circuit operates only on this initially stored energy.

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 Analysis of first order circuits

It includes one energy storage element: either a capacitor

(RC circuit) or an inductor ( RL circuit).

Characterized by a single time constant and exponential be-

havior.

Is characterize by a first order differential equation.

The differential equation resulting from analyzing the RC

and RL circuits.

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 Source-Free RC Circuit

A source-free RC circuit has no external voltage or current

sources.

The circuit response comes entirely from the energy

initially stored in the capacitor.

This can occur either by initially charging the capacitor or

by suddenly disconnecting a DC source.

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 Source-Free RC Circuit ....

The capacitor discharges through the resistor when the

circuit is connected.

The current and voltage satisfy a first-order differential

equation:
ic + ir = 0
dv v
C + =0
dt R
dv v
+ =0
dt RC
This is a first-order circuit since it depends on a single
energy storage element.

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 Source-Free RC Circuit...

dv v
=−
dt RC
dv dt
Z Z
= −
v RC
t
ln v = − + ln A
RC
v t
ln =−
A RC

v = Ae−t/RC

v(t) = Ae−t/τ , τ = RC

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 Source free RL circuit
The response is the current i(t) through the current
di
vL + vR = L + Ri = 0
dt
di Ri
=−
dt L

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 Source-free RL Circuit
To determine the response, we assume the inductor has an
initial current i0 at t = 0.
The KVL equation gives:
di di R
L + Ri = 0 ⇒ =− i
dt dt L
Separate variables and integrate:
Z i(t) Z t
di R
= − dt
i0 i 0 L
Solve the integral:
i(t) R
 
ln =− t
i0 L
Exponentiate both sides to get the current response:
i(t) = i0 e−Rt/L = i0 e−t/τ
L
Where the time constant is τ = .
R
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 Source free Rc circuit
Exercise

let Vc (0) = 15V . Find VC , Vx , and ix for t > 0.

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 Solution: RC Circuit Response
Equivalent resistance:
20 × 5
Req = =4Ω
20 + 5
Time constant:
τ = Req C = 4(0.1) = 0.4 s
Voltage across the capacitor:
v(t) = v(0)e−t/τ = 15e−t/0.4 = 15e−2.5t V
Voltage at point vx using voltage division:
12
vx = v = 0.6 · 15e−2.5t = 9e−2.5t V
12 + 8
Current through the 12 Ω resistor:
vx
ix = = 0.75e−2.5t A
12
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 Second-Order Circuits

Second-order circuits have two energy storage elements,

such as in RLC circuits (both inductors and capacitors).
They can be represented by a second-order differential
equation.
Following are the examples of second-order circuits.

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 Analysis of Second-Order Circuits

Assignment 1 : Analysis second-order circuits

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 The transformed circuit

When analyzing a network in time domain we will be dealing

with derivation and integration

When transformed to complex frequency domain :derivation

,multiplication by ‘s’ and integration , division by ‘s’

Hence, it is easier to do network analysis in complex fre-

quency domain.

The voltage current relationships of network elements in

time domain and complex frequency domain are given as:

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 The Transformed Circuit

Resistor: The time- and frequency-domain relationships are

v(t) = Ri(t)

V (s) = RI(s)

Inductor: The time- and frequency-domain relationships are

di(t)
v(t) = L
dt
Z t
1
i(t) = v(τ ) dτ + i(0− )
L 0

V (s) i(0− )
I(s) = +
sL s
V (s) = sLI(s) − Li(0− )

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 The transformed circuit....

An impedance sL in series with a voltage source, used in

mesh analysis or
1
An admittance sL in parallel with a current source , used
in nodal analysis

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 The Transformed Circuit....

Capacitor – The time-domain relationships are

Z t
1
v(t) = i(τ ) dτ + v(0− )
C 0

dv(t)
i(t) = C
dt
In the frequency domain, they become

I(s) v(0− )
V (s) = +
sC s
I(s) = sCV (s) − Cv(0− )

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 The transformed circuit....

An impedance 1/sC in series with a voltage source ,used in

mesh [Link]

An admittance sC in parallel with a current source , used in

nodal analysis

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 The transformed circuit..
Example:

In the figure below, the switch is switched from postion 1

to 2 at t=0. Draw its transformed circuit and write the
transformed equations using mesh analysis

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 The transformed circuit..
solution
The transformed circuit is

The transformed equations become

vC (0− ) 1 1
 
−
V1 (s) + L1 iL1 (0 ) − = sL1 + I1 (s) − I2 (s)
s sC sC

vC (0− ) 1 1
 
+ L2 iL2 (0− ) = − I1 (s) + + sL2 + R I2 (s)
s sC sC

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 The transformed circuit...
Example:1
The switch is thrown to position 2 at t=0. Find i(t).

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 The transformed circuit...
solution
since iL (0− ) = 2A, vc (0− ) = 2v, L = 1h and C= 0.5 f
vc 2 1 2
values: sL = s, LiL = 2, = and =
s s sc s
The transformed circuit is.

the transformed equation:

5 2 2
+ 2 − = (3 + s + )(I1 (s)) (1)
s s s
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 The transformed circuit...
solution ...

Solving for I1 (s)

2s + 3 2s + 3
I1 (s) = = (2)
s2 + s + 2 (s + 2)(s + 1)

A B
2s + 3 = + (3)
s+2 s+1
A = 1 and B = 1
therefor
1 1
I1 (s) = + (4)
s+2 s+1
Inverse transforming:

i1 (t) = e−2t + e−t (5)

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 The transformed circuit..
Exercise
At t=0, the switch is opened. Find the node voltages,v1
and v2
1
L = h, c = 1f, G = 1M ho and V = 1v
2

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 Network Function

A network function is defined as the ratio of the zero-state

response to the input, both expressed in the Laplace
transform domain
R(s)
H(s) =
E(s)

The variable s is the complex frequency (Laplace)

variable,s = σ + jω

Two types of network functions:

Driving point functions

Transfer functions

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 Network Function
Driving Point Functions

A driving point function is defined when the excitation and

response are measured at the same pair of terminals

It describes the relationship between voltage and current at

the same port

Two types of driving point functions exist:

Impedance function
Admittance function

When the excitation is a current source and the response is

a voltage, the network function represents an impedance

When the excitation is a voltage source and the response is

a current, the network function represents an admittance

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 Network Function
Driving Point Functions

Because of the similarity of impedance and admittance,

these two quantities are assigned one name “Immittance”
(a combination of impedance and admittance).

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 Network Function
Impedance and Admittance Functions

For a series circuit

Z(s) = Z1 (s) + Z2 (s) + Z3 (s)

For a parallel circuit

Y (s) = Y1 (s) + Y2 (s) + Y3 (s)

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 Network Function
Immittance Functions
The following table shows Immittance functions for simple
networks

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 Network Function
Driving Point Functions: Example1
Determine the driving-point impedance function of a
one-port network shown in Fig below

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 Network Function
Driving Point Functions:Example2
Find the driving point impedance Z(s) of the network
shown in Figure

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 Network Function
Driving Point Functions....

Find the driving point admittance,Y(s) of the network

shown in Figure

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 Transfer Functions
If the excitation and response are measured at different
sets of terminals, the corresponding network function is
called a transfer function

Transfer functions of a two-port network relate the voltage

or current at one port to the voltage or current at the other
port

They are used to describe networks having at least two

ports

One common form is the voltage transfer function, defined

as the ratio of the voltage transform at one port to the
voltage transform at another port

The voltage transfer function is denoted by

V2 (s)
G(s) =
V1 (s)
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 Transfer Functions...
Transfer impedance function is defined as the ratio of the
voltage transform at one port to the current transform at
the other port and is denoted by Z(s)
V2 (s) V1 (s)
Z12 (s) = , Z21 (s) =
I1 (s) I2 (s)
Transfer admittance function is defined as the ratio of the
current transform at one port to the voltage transform at
the other port and is denoted by Y (s)
I2 (s) I1 (s)
Y12 (s) = , Y21 (s) =
V1 (s) V2 (s)
Current transfer function is defined as the ratio of the
current transform at one port to the current transform at
another port and is denoted by α(s)
I1 (s) I2 (s)
α21 (s) = , α12 (s) =
I2 (s) I1 (s)
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 Transfer Functions.....

The excitation e(t) and response r(t) of a linear system are

related by a linear differential equation.

When transformed to the complex frequency domain, this

relationship becomes algebraic.

For an initially inert system, the excitation and response

are related by the system function H(s):

R(s) = H(s)E(s)

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 Transfer Functions...

Transfer impedance is when

the excitation is a current
source and the response is a
voltage
1
sC · sL
Ztotal = R + 1
sC + sL

V0 (s) = Ztotal Ig (s)

Transfer function:
1
V0 (s) sC · sL
H(s) = =R+ 1
Ig (s) sC + sL

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 Transfer Functions...

Transfer admittance (voltage

source , current response):

I0 (s)
H(s) =
Vg (s)
Voltage excitation Vg and Total impedance with series L,
current response I0 R and parallel C’s:
1 1
Z(s) = sL+R1 +R2 + +
sC1 sC2
Vg (s)
I0 (s) =
Z(s)
I0 (s) 1
H(s) = = 1
Vg (s) sL + R + sC

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 Transfer Functions...

Voltage ratio transfer

function:
V0 (s)
H(s) =
Vg (s)
Voltage divider: Vg applied
across Z1 + Z2 , V0 across Z2
Vg (s) = (Z1 (s) + Z2 (s))I(s)
V0 (s) = Z2 (s)I(s)
Take the ratio:
V0 (s) Z2 (s)I(s)
=
Vg (s) (Z1 (s) + Z2 (s))I(s)

Final transfer function:

Z2 (s)
H(s) =
Z1 (s) + Z2 (s)
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 Transfer Functions...

Current ratio transfer function:

I0 (s)
H(s) =
Ig (s)
Show that

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 Poles and Zeros of Network Functions
Poles are obtained from the denominator of the transfer
function, while zeros are obtained from the numerator

These poles and zeros are plotted in the s-plane

The locations of poles and zeros provide important

information about the stability of the network

Poles of a network function are those values of s for which

the network function becomes infinite

Consider the network function

s+1
Z(s) =
s(s + 2)(s + 3)
The function becomes infinite for s = 0, −2, −3; hence
these values are the poles of the network function

In general, poles of a transfer function are determined by

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 Zeros of Network Functions

Zeros are those values of s for which the network function

becomes zero

Consider the network function

s+1
Z(s) =
s(s + 2)(s + 3)

The function becomes zero for s = −1; hence s = −1 is the

zero of the network function

In general, zeros of a network function are determined by

equating the numerator to zero

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 Pole – Zero Diagram
Example

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 Pole – Zero Diagram

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 Stability Criterion for an Active Network

A network is said to be stable only when all the poles lie in

the left half of the s-plane.

The location of the poles provides an idea about the

stability of the network.

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 Stability Criterion for an Active Network....

Stability of the network is directly related to the location

of poles in the s-plane:
1 When all the poles lie in the left half of the s-plane, the
network is stable.

2 When the poles lie in the right half of the s-plane, the
network is unstable.

3 When the poles lie on the jw-axis, the network is marginally

stable.

4 When there are multiple poles on the jw-axis, the network

is unstable.

5 When the poles move away from the jw-axis towards the
left half of the s-plane, the relative stability of the network
improves.

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Questions?