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COMMUNICATION PROCESSES, PRINCIPLES AND ETHICS

Lesson 1

Introduction

Communication attracts differences of people with different cultures in

establishing good relationship in many situations-may it be friendly or business in nature.
The age of time has established different ways of connecting people from different
settings all over the world; at this time technology is in demand and communication is
modernized. The face-to-face conversation of people has been mixed-up with
technological means. Through these varied ways in communication, communication
style also changes. The use of social media has become one of the ways of which
people use to express their feelings and as a means of their communication. People
have become modernized to inform, persuade and influence others in any means which
technology continuously develops. What people may expect on the years to come is the
more advanced ways of communication.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. describe communication process viewed from different models;

b. demonstrate the changes of communication through times; and

c. adopt cultural differences to effective communication.

Learning Content

1. ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

➢ The elements of communication are present in any ways of delivery.

a. Source

A message is crafted through a sender who initiates the communication process. It can
be an author of a book, a public speaker, or a teacher who discusses a lesson.

b. Message

Communication is delivered through a message send by the speaker to the receiver.

c. Channel

Channel is the means of communication. Examples are phone in calls and letters sent
in business transactions. To have an effective communication, communicators should
select the best means of communication.

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 d. Receiver

When the message is sent by the sender it is received by the recipient. A receiver can
be an audience in a symposium, a reader who receives the letter or a pedestrian who
reads road signs.

e. Feedback

An understood message is confirmed through the response of the receiver. Feedbacks

may be written, spoken or acted out such as thumbs up given by a listener.

f. Environment

The sender and receiver’s feelings, mood, place and mindset are called environment.
Both sender and receiver have to consider the setting where communication takes
place. This factor may also hinder effective communication where barriers may interfere
such as noise from the buses or poor signal in phone calls.

g. Context

The meaning conveyed from the message sent by the sender to the receiver is called
context. It is necessary that both the encoder and decoder share common understanding
to achieve effective communication.

h. Interference

Interferences or barriers prevent effective communication. These are factors that hinder
the communication process.

➢ The following are the types of barriers in communication:

a. Psychological barriers

These are thoughts that hamper the interpreted message received by the receiver such
as dizziness of the listener while the teacher lectures or when the listener is preoccupied
by some other things while listening to the speaker.

b. Physical barriers

These are stimuli from the environment which disrupt communication, weather or climate
conditions and physical health of the communicator.

c. Linguistic and cultural barriers

Word differences are present in different cultures which may result to ineffective
communication.

d. Mechanical barriers

These are interferences which affect channels to transmit the message such as poor
signal or low battery consumption of mobile phones while calling.

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2. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO MODE

A message may be impart through these types; verbal-non-verbal and visual. While
communication is often thought of as verbal, the non-verbal mode is equally essential
as it enhances one‘s message.

• VERBAL-NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION Effective communication calls for the

blending of these two types. One cannot be separated from the other. For example,
door-to-door sales persons who demonstrate product knowledge can only be effective
if they know how to properly punctuate what they say with proper gestures and facial
expressions. Their communication with the customer begins upon greeting him/her with
a welcoming smile then assessing customer needs and answering customer queries
enhanced by gestures and a friendly, happy and pleasant disposition. It is through this
mode that sales pole with excellent communication skills are able to provide the best
information needed, by that means convincing the client to patronize their products.

• VISUAL COMMUNICATION is the type of communication that uses visuals to convey

information and/or messages. Some examples are signs, symbol, imagery, maps,
graphs, charts, diagrams, pictograms, photos, drawings or illustrations, and even
various forms of electronic communication. Visual communication now occupies an
important place in any work environment. For instance, during presentations, instructors,
managers, doctors, lawyers, legislators and the like use visuals to transfer data into
digestible information. Very likely, they have greater success in catching the attention of
the audience making the latter easily recall the information.

What makes visual communication even more advantages is that it makes use of
communication even more advantages is that it makes use of technology that provides
apps (applications), videos and images that rely less on the printed word making
presentations more interesting. This leaves a powerful effect on the audience and
prospective clients. Speakers/presenters should be mindful of the content of their
presentation since wrong and irrelevant information may lead to miscommunication.
Likewise, they should pay attention to graphic elements, such as position, color, size,
shape and orientation as all these play an important role in the presentation of slides.
Audience size should be considered as well when preparing slide presentations or other
forms of visuals.

3. COMMUNICATION MODELS

Several models in communication are introduced to understand the different

settings and contexts in which communication takes place. Since communication
happen in different settings whether face-to-face or technological, verbal or non-verbal,
these models expose how the process is undergone in different mediums.

The earliest model that structures how public speaking is undergone is explained
through Aristotle’s model of communication. In this model, Aristotle identified the five
elements which compose the communication process which are the speaker, speech
occasion, audience and effect. This model is speaker-centered which results the
audience as passive. The effect of the speech delivered by the speaker to the audience
in an occasion is that either the listeners be persuaded or not; in this case the

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communication becomes one-way delivery because feedback from the audience is not
expected.

Technological model of communication process is explained by the proponents

Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver known as Shannon-Weaver’s model of
Communication (Flores, 2016). This model was developed because of the technological
invention of telephone. Six elements of communication are identified in this model:
sender, encoder, channel, noise, decoder, receiver, and feedback. In comparison to the
basic elements of communication, this model specifies that the sender and encoder do
not function similarly. Technologically, in telephone calls the caller functions as the
sender while the encoder is the telephone that turns the caller’s voice into series of
binary data packages which is sent down to the telephone lines. The telephone wire
works as channel and the telephone which the receiver uses to receive the message
becomes the decoder and the destination of the call is the receiver. The noise present
in the channel may interrupt the communication process which results to poor
communication. With this, the receiver may respond that he/she wasn’t able to
understand what the caller had sent.

The two-way street flow of communication in which a sender and a receiver send
back and forth messages was popularized by Charles Egerton Osgood. This model
considers communication as circular because both the encoder and decoder take turn
in sending the message. Along the process of communication, the recipients filter to
interpret the meaning of the words sent to them. The different meanings applied to send
messages could become interference in communication known as semantic noise.

In the latter years, Wilbur Schramm adapted Osgood’s model and added another
element in communication called field of experience. Sneha Mishra (2017) identified

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culture, social background, beliefs, experiences, values and rules that correspond to this
element. With great similarity of the recipients’ field of experience, the greater effective
communication is expected.

OSGOOD-SCHRAMM’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Another circular model that explains communication as a continuous process

with no real beginning or end is Eugene White’s Stages of Communication. According
to White, it is possible to begin at any stage of the elements outlined in his model
because communication is circular which may start at any beginning and ends at any
point. The elements in this model are thinking, symbolizing, expressing, transmitting,
receiving, decoding, feed backing and monitoring.

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 CHAPTER

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

lesson 2

Introduction

People use words and languages every day to interact whether at home or
workplace. The question is, have they communicated their messages effectively? In
order to be effective in communication, there are three parts to be considered: listening,
responding and understanding. Listening entails accepting of words and ideas. This is
also taking nonverbal cues such as facial expression and body language. On the other
hand, Responding is evaluating the worth of message. It requires a psychological
processing which leads to Understanding -giving meaning to the words or expressions
uttered.

Besides knowing the fundamental truths of effective communication,

communication also requires ethics not only to be practiced by individuals but also in
businesses, and professional entities. It talks about moral good present in any form of
human communication. In this lesson, Principles of Effective of Communication and
Communication Ethics will be discussed thoroughly.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. Explain the principles of effective communication;

b. Define the guidelines in ethical communication; and

c. Formulate judgment on what is good, right or virtuous in communication.

Learning Contents

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Many definitions describe communication as a transfer of information, thoughts

or ideas to create shared understanding between a sender and a receiver. The
information may be written or spoken, professional or social, personal or impersonal to
name a few possibilities. Basically, the communication process involves a sender,
receiver, message, channel and feedback. However, this simplistic description
significantly under-represents what can actually be a very complex process.

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 Michael Osborn (2009) claims that communication must meet certain standards
for effective communication to take place.

a. Clarity: Clarity makes speeches understandable. Fuzzy language is absolutely

forbidden, as are jargons, cliché expressions, euphemisms, and double speak language.

b. Concreteness: Concreteness reduces misunderstandings. Messages must be

supported by facts such as research data, statistics or figures. To achieve concreteness
abstract words must be avoided

c. Courtesy: Courtesy builds goodwill. It involves being polite in terms of approach and
manner of addressing an individual.

d. Correctness: Glaring mistakes in grammar obscures the meaning of the sentence.

Also, the misuse of language can damage your credibility

e. Consideration: Messages must be geared towards the audience. The sender of the
message must consider the recipient’s profession, level of education, race, ethnicity,
hobbies, interests, passions, advocacies, and age when drafting or delivering a
message.

f. Creativity: Creativity in communication means having the ability to craft interesting

messages in terms of sentence structure and word choice.

g. Conciseness: Simplicity and directness help you to be concise. Avoid using lengthy
expressions and words that may confuse the recipient.

h. Cultural Sensitivity: Today, with the increasing emphasis on empowering diverse

cultures, lifestyles, and races and the pursuit for gender equality, cultural sensitivity
becomes an important standard for effective communication.

i. Captivating: You must strive to make messages interesting to command more

attention and better responses.

2. COMMUNICATION ETHICS

Ethics is the discussion of the judgments we make about the appropriateness,

the right or wrong, of our actions and policies be those actions communicative, political,
social, personal, or a mixture of areas (Johnessen, 1990). There are largely unrehearsed
conversations however when an individual or organization communicates. There are
factors to be considered such as audience, context and purpose. How we communicate
depends on who we are talking, what we are discussing and where & when the talk is
taking place? Here, Ethics plays a crucial role in communication. In real world, mindful
or ethical use language must be practiced.

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➢ Here are the guidelines for ethical communication which should shape communication
practice:

a. Ethical Communicators are Respectful of Their Audiences

b. Ethical Communicators Consider the Consequences of Their Communication.

c. Ethical Communicators Respect Truth.

d. Ethical Communicators Use Information Properly.

e. Ethical Communicators Do Not Falsify Information.

f. Ethical Communicators Respect the Rights of Others to Information.

3. ETHICS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making,

and the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts,
cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human
worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity,
and respect for self and others.

POINTS TO PONDER

Ethics is the discipline that examines one’s moral standards of a society.

Communication is the process of exchanging ideas, opinions, and information between two or more
interlocutors.

The members of the National Communication Association in America, endorsed

and are committed to practicing the following principles of ethical communication that
are especially relevant for students today:

They advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to

the integrity of communication. Nowadays, social media and speeches in public
have been filed with black propaganda and whitewashing that there is a call to reiterate
the need for truth and honesty. It is important to be accurate when we communicate,
and to have facts and figures to prove our assertions. It is important to be reasonable,
rather that to be too emotional or threatening when we communicate.

They endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and

tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision making
fundamental to a civil society. In certain political climates, people may feel threatened
to the point that they no longer feel that it is safe to express what they feel or think. This
is not a good environment to live in. It is important to foster an environment where people
feel safe enough to express what they think and feel, and for these expressions to be
met with reasonable dialogue and debate, rather than outright censure or violence.

They strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluating

and responding to their messages.

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 They promote access to communication resources and opportunities as
necessary to fulfil human potential and contribute to the well-being of families,
communities, and society.

They promote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that

respect the unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators.

They condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity

through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the
expression of intolerance and hatred. This condemnation is important because it
safeguards society from racism, sexism, and violence against oppressed peoples.

They are committed to the courageous expression of personal convictions in

pursuit of fairness and justice.

They advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings when facing

significant choices while also respecting privacy and confidentiality.

They accept responsibility for the short- and long-term consequences for
our own communication and expect the same of others. All too often, there have
been people who do not feel accountable for their actions. Therefore, if one risks to
communicate maliciously, spread false news, or incite hatred or violence, he or she
should be ready to face the consequences of such actions.

Source: [Link]

POINTS TO PONDER
Practicing ethics in communication is anticipating and weighing the effects of one’s message
on an audience.
Ethical use of language is also a must when preparing for such deliberate form of
communication.

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 CHAPTER

COMMUNICATION AND GLOBALIZATION

Introduction

Local and international business nowadays believe that schools should help
students to think more globally. Cultural awareness and understanding global issues
are particularly valued and are as equally important as learning a foreign language
nowadays. Giving young people an understanding of how the world works can be a
really important skill as thriving in life is concerned (Sutcliffe, 2012).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

a. Explain how cultural and global issues affect communication;

b. Appreciate the impact of communication on society and the world;

c. Determine culturally appropriate terms, expression, and images; and

d. Adopt cultural and intercultural awareness and sensitivity in communicating

ideas.

Learning Content

Because of technology, our world has transformed into a global village.

Communication becomes faster and in a split of a second, an event is shared to the
entire world through the use of social media. Today, individuals have to understand the
dynamics of long-distance collaboration, the outcome of non-verbal cues in different
cultures, as well as the use of technology in connecting people.

These developments require communication etiquette such as holding virtual

meetings where individuals from different places share their ideas – coming up with
solutions and innovations for the company.

“While the dream of global village holds great promise, the reality is that diverse
people have diverse opinions, values, and beliefs that clash and too often result in
violence.

Only through intercultural communication can such conflict be managed and

reduced” (Neuliep,2006).

Culture is perceived as the summation of values, beliefs and behaviours from a

group of individuals having a shared history of verbal and nonverbal cues.

The cultural, micro-cultural and environmental contexts surround the

communicators, whose socio-relational context is defined by the exchange of verbal and
nonverbal messages are encoded and decoded within each interactant’s perceptual
context”. James Neuliep (2006).

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 Globalization is not the only thing influencing events in the world today, but to
the extent that there is a North Star and a worldwide shaping force, it is this system.
Thomas Friedman (1999 cited from Kluver, 2006) in The Lexus and the Olive Tree

Every is enticed to join in the “new international information order” and that
detailed cultural, social, economic and political conditions are interrelated to people’s
interaction. Likewise, there is a phenomenal change as individuals delve into the
elements of intercultural communication

Globalization-may be seen as an interconnectedness of economic relationships,

political units as well as digital networks. Such technology and other social networks
have transformed the economic and social relationships breaking cultural barriers.
Hence, cultural and civic discourse will mold information and communication
technologies.

1. FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT INTERCULTURAL

COMMUNICATION

Five assumptions that take place during intercultural communication: (Neuliep, 2006).

Assumption #1 Messages relayed are not usually the messages received.

When two speakers from different cultures interact, their values, emotions,
perceptions, and behaviours greatly affect the interpretation of their messages.
“Intercultural communication is a symbolic activity where the thoughts and ideas of one
are encoded into a verbal/or nonverbal message format, then transmitted through
some channel to another person who must decode it, interpret it, and respond to it”
(Neuliep, 2006). Thus cultural noise is filled with encoding, decoding and interpreting
making cultre a smokescreen of all the messages. This allows the speakers to think
that one’s own culture is the center of everything.

Assumption #2 A nonverbal act between individuals

Since it is said that intercultural communication is a nonverbal procedure where

articulation of power, intimacy and status being combined with “paralinguistic cues,
proxemics, haptics, oculesics, and olfatics”. For instance, an individual’s position in
Korea is manifested through vocal tone and pitch. Therefore, when a lowly person
receives an important document, this person grasps with both hands and the
associated with a moderate head nod and indirect eye contact.

Different sensory is shared by different cultures. Edwards Hall (cited from

Neuliep, 2006) claims that various cultures employ in “selective screening of sensory
information” that will eventually result in different perspective. “Regarding olfactics
(smell), most cultures establish norms for acceptable and unacceptable scents
associated with the human body. When people fail to fit into the realm of olfactic cultural
acceptability, their odor signals others that something is wrong with their physical,
emotional or mental health” (Neuliep, 2006). American are fixated on how to mask the
smell of the human body since body odor is considered as horrible and unlikable.

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Several Muslims think that hygiene of the body and purity of the soul are correlated.
After menstruation, Muslim women purify themselves. Even before and after meals,
cleanliness is being recommended.

Reference: google images

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Assumption #3 Involvement of style in communication among speakers

There are communication gaps and only wisdom tells as whether to when to
speak or not. Interpretation of silence differs from across cultures. Expression of
intimacy in relationships is best demonstrated without words according to Japanese
and some native American tribes. “They believe that having to put one’s thoughts and
an emotion into words somehow cheapens and discounts them.” Neulip (2006).
Several cultures favor in direct and impersonal style in communication. There is no
necessity of saying verbally every message. Neulip (2006). True understanding is
implicit, coming not from words but from actions in the environment where speaker
provide hints or insinuations.”

Assumption #4 Group phenomenon experienced and shared by individuals

Communication is subject to the speaker’s background and knowledge. “In

other words, we have a tendency to see others not as individuals with unique thoughts,
ideas, and goals, but rather than as an “Asian”, or a “woman”, or an “old person” or “a
cab driver”. We do not see the person; we see the groups to which the person belongs.
That’s why people must not prejudge a person just because this individual is
associated to a specific grop. When this happens, miscommunication cannot be
avoided. During intercultural communication, we have to be mindful that while the
person with whom we are interacting is from a different cultural group, he or she is also
an individual. Only through intercultural communication can we ever get to know the
person as an individual” (Neulip, 2006).

Assumption #5 A circuitous of adaptation and stress

It is normal to feel anxious, apprehensive and uncertain when one mingles and
speaks to another person from a different culture It is important to be flexible and adapt
a communication style to be able to make the other individual comfortable. Being able
to recognize that people from various cultures are different is really an advantage. This
will lead the speaker to adjust the verbal and nonverbal symbols appropriately to the
individual from another culture.

Cultural Context

“Cultural hides more than it reveal, and strangely enough what it hides most
effectively from its own participants.” -Edward T. Hall (Cited from Neuliep, 2015)

People learn to arrange their ideas, thoughts, emotions and even their
behaviour according to the stimulus of the environment. Thus, culture is not innate
even if people are born into it since culture is always learned. Culture teaches

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 individuals to think and behave, therefore a kind of interaction among people is
depicted in various circumstances.

Culture is also associated with geography like Saudi Arabia for instance which
is considered hot and a desert contrary to Siberia which is labelled as mountainous
and cold. James Neulip (2016) explains, “But culture is more a human phenomenon
than a geographic one. And while geography certainly affects how people live within a
particular culture, the people, more than a geography, are what constitute culture. So,
when you think of culture, think of people. That being said, it is also important to
understand that cultures of people are not static, but rather dynamic. This means that
cultures change; they are fluid, always moving.

Low ---------------------------------------------------------------High

Culture may be low and high which demonstrates the magnitude and degree
of how a person affiliates the self. There is no such thing as a pure individualistic of
collectivistic culture.

These cultural dimensions can be opposing or not, fixed or not, static in time
while other cultures move in transition. Likely a culture that is considered collective can
also be individualistic in the passing time such Japan which is thought to be
“collectivistic, group-oriented” community. Nonetheless in 1950s, many Japanese
researchers saw that the young generation of Japanese were becoming individualistic
than their parents and grandparents.

Individualism- individualistic cultures focus on individual goals. It also aims to

benefit the individual since every person is seen as unique with distinct talents and
potential, thereby enabling them to hone their creativity, develop, independence, and
confidence. People in individualistic cultures are disconnected from the in-groups such
as the family and ironically belong to several groups but their stay is short-lived.

Collectivism -Is the assumption that groups blend well by serving the in-group
(family, neighbors, or occupational groups). People are not viewed as isolated
individuals but rather they are identified by their membership. It emphasizes harmony
and likewise prefers the significance of the group than the individuals being emotionally
linked to it and their bond may last a lifetime. One’s behaviour is role-based, and
deviations from the prescribed role are discouraged and often negatively sanctioned.
In this sense, a person’s behaviour is guided more by shame than by personal guilt. A
collectivist who stands out from the group disrupts the harmony and maybe punished.
Most collectivistic cultures value social reciprocity, obligation, dependence and
obedience.

2. TYPES OF CULTURAL ORIENTATION

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Horizontal Individualism speaks of an autonomous self that values the individual more
and independence is being highlighted.

Vertical Individualism values the autonomous self by seeing it as difference and an

equal to others. It also emphasizes status and competition.

Horizontal Collectivism notes the self as a member of a group sharing the same values
and interests. The self is reliant and equality is expected.

Vertical Collectivism believes that the self is an integral part of the in group even if the
members are different from the other. It also specifies the group’s interdependence and
in equality.

CHAPTER

LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL

SETTINGS

LESSON 1

Isolated cultures stagnate; cultures that communicate with other evolve.

- T. Sowell, Race and Culture 1994

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Introduction

Communication can be a challenging activity because of the highly pluralistic

nature of the people participating in the communication process. Each participant may
differ in cultural, social and biological backgrounds, which are all critical factors to
effective and successful intercultural communication. Instances there are that these
differences may lead speakers to misinterpretation or misunderstanding. So in order to
understand communication within and outside the context of one’s culture, it is
necessary to identify first the challenges that may be encountered, then the form of
intercultural communication, and the ways on how to improve communicative
competence in multicultural settings.

Living in a globalized world, you encounter people with diverse cultural

backgrounds. Such interactions occur in a social, educational, political and commercial
settings. Hence, in today’s era of increased global communication, it is imperative to
understand intercultural communication for us to enhance our intercultural awareness
and competence. Intercultural competence is essential for us to live harmoniously
despite our differences in culture.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. Cite examples on how to enhance one’s ability to communicate with people

from diverse cultures; and
b. Create a three-to four minutes presentation about various cultural modes of
communication of a certain country.

Learning Content

1. CHALLENGES OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

It has become a widespread notion that speakers’ use of different languages

results in intercultural miscommunication and misunderstanding. As Scollon and Scollon
(1995) state:

When we are communication with people who are very different from us, it is
very difficult to know how to draw inferences about what they mean, and so it is
impossible to depend on shared knowledge and background for confidence in our
interpretation (p.22).

Indeed, the lack of shared knowledge and beliefs and cultural diversity make it
more complicated to arrive at the correct inference or interpretation of meanings. But it
can also be argued that English is now a global lingua franca. In fact, with the ASEAN
integration, English has been declared the official or working language of ASEAN. So
with just one language to be spoken or used by many countries including the 10 member
countries of the ASEAN, what else can go wrong?

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 It is thus important to emphasize that the ownership of English cannot be attributed
to just one country or to those who use it as a native or home language. The varieties of
English spoken by different speech communities have evolved for a reason. They use it
for communal purposes. These varieties have been heavily influenced by the local
culture and its speakers. Recent studies have shown that the problem of
misunderstanding is not overt and can’t be traced to speech perturbations, poorly
managed turn-taking, and non-aligned, “parallel talk” (House 1999, p. 80). Meirkord
(2000, p. 11 as cited by Kaur, 2016) emphasizes that communication in English as a
lingua franca (ELF) is “a form of intercultural communication in English as characterized
by cooperation rather than misunderstanding” (p.135). This she noted in her study of
participants coming from 17 different first language backgrounds which yielded the result
that the participants displayed communicative behavior not generally associated with
their linguacultural backgrounds making the talk cooperative and SUPPORTIVE IN
NATURE WITH FEW MISUNDERSTANDINGS.

2. FORMS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Communication is like a kaleidoscope. Many units of different sizes,

shapes, and color make up the whole picture. Any action, shift, or
change adjusts the pattern and the relationship of all of the units to each
other, thereby altering the picture.

a. Interracial communication – communicating with people from different races

b. Interethnic communication – interacting with people of different ethnic origin

c. International communication – communicating between representatives from

different nations.

d. Intracultural communication – interacting with members of the same racial or

ethnic group or co-culture

According to Gamble and Gamble (2008), communication style among cultures

differs, it may be high context or low-context communication.

High-context communication is a tradition-linked communication system

which adheres strongly to being indirect. Low-context communication is a system that
works on straightforward communication.

High-context cultures (Meditteranean, Slav, Central European, Latin American,

African, Arab, Asian, American-Indian) leave much of the message unspecified, to be
understood through context, nonverbal cues, and between the lines interpretation of
what is actually said. By contrast, low context cultures (most Germanic and English-
speaking countries) expect messages to be explicit and specific.

3. IMPROVING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE

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 The following guidelines may help you enhance your ability to communicate
effectively across cultures (Gamble & Gamble, 2008):

1. Recognize the validity and differences of communication styles among people.

2. Learn to eliminate personal biases and prejudices.
3. Strive to acquire communication skills necessary in a multicultural world.

CHAPTER

VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE

LESSON 2

Introduction

The spoken mode is often associated with everyday registers while the written
mode is strongly associated with academic registers. However, this is not always true.
For instance, in everyday communication, face to face conversations are usually
supplemented by text messaging. In academic contexts, significant forms of oral
communication are used along with written communication. Significantly, both every day
and academic communications are characterized by multi-modality or the use of multiple
modes of communication, including spoken, written modes and images, music, videos,
gestures, etc.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. Determine culturally appropriate terms, expressions, and images;

b. Adopt cultural and intercultural awareness and sensitivity in the communication of
ideas; and
c. Apply the varieties of spoken and written language in the proper context

Learning Content

Lin (2016) presents the following nature of language variation as prescribed by

most linguists based on the ideas of Mahboob (2014).

1. Language varies when communicating with people within (local) and outside (global)
our community.
2. Language varies in speaking and in writing.
3. Language varies in everyday and specialized discourses.

Mahboob (2014) identifies eight different domains in which language varies

depending on the combinations (field, tenor and mode) of the context of communication.

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 The first domains include language variations that reflect local usage done in one
local language or multiple local languages depending on the context. They vary in the
following ways:

1. Local everyday written. This may include instances of local everyday written usage
found in the neighborhood posters (e.g. a poster looking for transient/bed spacers).
2. Local everyday oral may occur in local communications among neighbors in everyday,
informal and local varieties of languages.
3. Local specialized written. An example of local specialized written usage can be found
in the publication and web sites of local societies such as the Baguio Midland Courier.
4. Local specialized oral involves specialized discourses. For example, in a computer
shop in the neighborhood, specialized local usage can be found (e.g. specialized
computer game-related vocabulary is used)

On the other hand, the other four domains involve global usage. These four
domains of language usage differ from the first four domains since they refer to context
of language usage where participants need to communicate with people not sharing
their local ways of using language.
They are as follows:

5. Global everyday written avoids local colloquialisms to make the text accessible to
wider communities of readers. This can be found in international editions of newspapers
and magazines.
6. Global everyday oral may occur in interactions between people coming from different
parts of the world when they talk about everyday casual topics.
7. Global specialized written expands to as many readers internationally, hence the non-
usage of local colloquial expressions (e.g. international research journal articles)
8. Global specialized oral occurs when people from different parts of the world discuss
specialized topics in spoken form (e.g. paper presentation sessions in an international
academic conference).

1. TYPES OF LANGUAGE REGISTER (Joos, 1961 as cited in Biber, 1994)

There are five language registers. Each level has an appropriate use that is
determined by differing situations.

a. Frozen

This style of communication rarely or never changes. It is “frozen” in time and

content. This is official business and educational language which features complete
sentences and specific word choice, which often contains archaisms.

Example:

We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to
build a just and humane society, and establish a Government that shall embody our
ideals and aspirations, promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony,

20
and secure to ourselves and our posterity, the blessings of independence and
democracy under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality,
and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution (Preamble, 1987 Constitution)

b. Formal/Academic

This language is used in formal setting and is one-way. This use of language
usually follows a commonly accepted format. It is generally impersonal and formal. It is
often used to show respect. Word selection is more sophisticated, and certain words are
always or never used depending on the situation. In a formal register, the story structure
focuses on the plot: It has a beginning and ending and it weaves sequence, cause and
effect, characters, and consequences into the plot.

Example:

“The strongest reason why we ask for woman a voice in the government under
which she lives; in the religion she is asked to believe; equality in social life, where she
is the chief factor; a place in the trades and professions, where she may earn her bread,
is because of her birth right to self-sovereignty; because, as an individual, she must rely
on herself (a speech delivered by Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1892).”

c. Consultative

It is a standard form of communications. Users engage in a mutually accepted

structure of interfaces. It is formal and societal expectations accompany the users of
speech. This register can be described as two-way participation, professional setting,
background information is provided (prior knowledge is not assumed), interruptions and
feedback fillers allowed (“uh-huh,” “I see”), more complex syntax, and longer phrases.
Sentence structure need not be complete, since non-verbal assists, hand movements
and body language, are often used to convey meaning.

Example:

Patient: Hello doctor! Can you spare me a few minutes?

Doctor: Certainly! Come in and sit down. Now, what is the matter with you?
Patient: I seem to be generally out of sorts. I have no appetite for my food, and yet I am
always suffering from indigestion.
Doctor: Are you troubled with headaches?
Patient: Yes, I am. And what is worse I cannot sleep at night.
Doctor: I see. What is your work?
Patient: I am a clerk in an office, and have to work for long hours.
Doctor: I see, Well, you are evidently run down and need a rest and change. All your
troubles are signs of nervous exhaustion. I will give you a nerve tonic, but the main thing
is rest. If you do as I say, you will soon be alright.
Patient: Thank you, doctor. I will follow your advice.
Doctor; Let me know how you get on.

21
d. Casual/Informal

The language used in conversation with friends. A casual register is

characterized by 400- to 500- word vocabulary, broken sentences, and interruptions are
common. Very informal language, idioms, ellipsis, and slang are common. No
background information is provided, “group” language – must be a member to use,
interruptions are common, and context and non-verbal communication are important.
General word choice and conversation are dependent upon non-verbal assists. The
focus of the story is characterization. It is an indirect, random approach with many
omissions and does not have a sequence, cause, and effect, or consequence.

Example:

Marie: Hey, D! I’m stressing about weight gain on Xmas. Got any ideas for me?
Diane: It’s only one day, so don’t worry too much.
Marie: I’m worried I’ll eat a gazillion calories at my in-laws! 
Diane: Just make sure you don’t arrive too hungry, have a healthy snack beforehand
(nuts, granola bar, etc.)
Marie: Yeah, you’re right. Thanks, D! You’re the best! Xx
Diane: No worries, M! xx

e. Intimate

This communication is private. It is reserved for close family members or intimate

relations. It is non-public, the intonation is as crucial as wording and grammar, and often
a special vocabulary full of coded words is used.

Example:

Husband: Hi honey, how was your day?

Wife: Great, We got a lot done. And yours?
Husband: Fine, but stressful. Pass me that magazine, please.
Wife: Here you go, darling.

Register use can help you communicate effectively. Nevertheless, appropriate register
use depends on the situation and the tone of voice you use. It is vital to grasp the
fundamentals of correct register use to communicate well in English. If one register is
expected and another is presented, the result can either be that offense is taken (or
intended) or a comic response. Incorrect register use can cause problems at work, cause
people to ignore you, or, at best, send the wrong message.

2. CULTURALLY SENSITIVE AND BIAS-FREE LANGUAGE

To write in a culturally sensitive way means to be aware that cultural differences

and similarities between people exist and that these should not be assigned a positive
or negative value via words and descriptions selected in writing. Academic and
professional writings are characterized by bias-free language. Students, scholars,

22
professionals, and anyone wishing to maintain harmonious communicative relations
should be careful in using words and phrases that do not discriminate against particular
groups, whether in terms of race, ethnicity, gender, social class, age, and disability. The
essential point in a way that is respectful of diversity.

Here are some general principles to follow when referring to different groups or
categories:

1. Race and Ethnicity

Racism is a form of discrimination against a person or persons of a different

race. In general, it is best to avoid identifying people by race or ethnic group. Race is an
emotionally charged topic, so it is best to tread carefully with the language used and to
refer to race as Patricia Arinto (2009) asserts in English for the Professions, “only if it is
relevant to what you have to say.” Words that reinforce streotypes and that imply all
people of a particular race or ethnic group are the same should be avoided. For example,
although the assessment is positive in the sentence “Naturally, the Asian students won
the math contest,” the word “naturally” reinforces the stereotype or generalization that
Asians have superior aptitude in math.

Next, one must be attuned to the current terminology by which racial and ethnic
groups refer to themselves. This may be done by reading national newspapers and
watching television news, which typically are good indicators of current and preferred
usage. According to Kitty Locker and Donna Kienzler (2013), one should “refer to a
group by the term it prefers,” which means some research is required to find about
acceptable and preferred terms. For example, for a long time, “Native American” has
been considered the politically correct term for the indigenous peoples of the Americas,
over the label “red Indian.” But today, most Native American people prefer to be referred
to by their specific nation or tribe. In the Philippine context, there have been shifts in the
preferences for terms that Filipinos of Chinese ancestry use to describe their identity:
from Tsino, to Chinoy, to Filipino Chinese.

It is also important to be sensitive to religion when referring to various ethnic

groups. Assumptions should not be made that stereotype a race, nationality, or ethnic
group with a specific religion. For example, not all Arabs are Muslims, not all Indian are
Buddhists, and not all Filipinos are Roman Catholics.

2. Gender and sexual orientation

Sexism refers to the prejudice and discrimination based on sex or gender. To be

inclusive of all people in general references, one should favor gender-neutral words and
phrases over gender-biased words. For example, rather than “man-made.” One can say
“manufactured,” “synthetic,” or “artificial.” Instead of “layman’s terms,” one can use
“ordinary terms.” Neutral words should also be chosen over words with “man” and
“woman” in job titles or descriptions. For example, it is more appropriate to use
“chairperson” in place “chairman,” “flight attendant” in place of “stewardess,” and “labor”
in place of “manpower.”

23
 One should also avoid sexist terms like “a woman lawyer” and “male nurse” and
simply use “lawyer” and “nurse” Pronouns may also be gender-biased, for example,
when the masculine “he” pronoun is used as generic one for both genders.

Gender-biased pronouns can be avoided by (a) dropping pronouns that

signify gender and restating the sentence, (b) changing to plural construction, and
(c) replacing masculine or feminine pronouns with “one” or “you”.

Examples of alternative gender-neutral constructions are provided here.

Gender-biased example: Each student should submit his term paper by Monday.

Restatement Each student should submit a term paper by

Monday.
Plural Students should submit their term papers by
construction Monday.
Use of “you” You should hand in your term paper by Monday.

Other gender-related terms may have to do with gender orientation or sexual

orientation. It is important to be sensitive to new attitudes about homosexual,
transsexual, and transgender people. For example, most gay people prefer the term
“gay” to the more clinical “homosexual” as a label. “”lesbian” is currently the term
preferred by gay women. Transgender people prefer to be referred to as being the
gender they identify as, not their birth gender. Again, as a matter of principle, one should
refer to societal groups in the way that members of these groups prefer to be referred
to. Note also that terminology in this area is developing, and that not everyone agrees.

3. Social Class

Class discrimination or classism is a form of prejudice against a person or

people because of their social class. An example of language with a bias against class
is the American term “white trash,” which is not only a racial slur but a classist one that
refers to white people, usually from the rural Southern United States, coming from a
lower social class inside the white population. The term is negative not just because of
the words that comprise it but because of its connotation of danger; white trash people
are seen as criminal, unpredictable, and without respect for authority. In the United
States and other cultures, there may also be a kind of classism against those who are
economically privileged. The rich are sometimes referred to by the derogatory terms
“preppie” and “yuppie,” both of which connote not just wealth but arrogance.

There are examples from Philippine culture as well, in the informal terms “conyo”
and “jologs,” both derogatory terms referring to class. The first, used to describe young
people from the upper class who speak an idiosyncratic mix of English and Tagalog,
connotes vanity and consciousness about social status. The second now perhaps
replaced by the term “jejemon”, as used in reference to an idiosyncratic spelling or
writing style, is used to describe persons who look poor and out of style.

24
4. Age

Ageism is a form of discrimination against other people because of their age, or

assuming that older people are less physically, intellectually, or emotionally able than
other age groups. The capabilities of younger people should also not be underestimated
on the basis of their age. Again, it is important to refer to a person’s age only when that
information is pertinent to what is being discussed. When referring to a generic group,
one should also ask their subjects what wording s they prefer: Do they wish to be called
“older persons” or “senior citizens”? Do they refer the label “youths,” “teenagers,” or
“young people”.
Lastly, according to the American Psychological Association, writers should
be specific when referring to males and females in terms of their age: female 18 years
or older are women, not girls. “Girls” refers to those in high school or younger (under
18). The same is true for “boys” and “man.”

5. Disabilities

Discrimination in this area often arises because of lack of understanding and

awareness. Therefore, first, it is important to distinguish some terms that are mistakenly
understood to be synonymous. Various guides on bias-free communication and often –
confused terminology are available online. One example is “A Guide to Bias-Free
Communications” published by the University of Wisconsin-Madison. It defines the terms
“impairment,” disability,” and “handicap” as, respectively, (1) “a physiological condition,”
(2) “the consequence of an impairment” which “may or may not be handicapping,” and
(3) “the social implication of a disability; a condition or barrier imposed by society, the
environment or oneself. “ Thus, according to these definitions, a “limp” is an impairment
in which a leg or foot is damaged or stiff. A disability that may result from arthritis is
difficulty in walking, or walking unevenly and haltingly. People who limp may be
handicapped by having to climb stairs in buildings with no elevators. Other guides from
other cultural contexts may provide different definitions and examples; it is essential
when writing to do research on these definitions.

Finally, when referring to people with disabilities, the focus should be on the
person, not the condition (Arinto, 2009). In Patricia Arinto’s English for the Professions
(2009), she advises writes to avoid hurtful expressions such as “retards” or even the
seemingly neutral description “the mentally retarded” and to use instead “people with
mental retardation.” Similarly, instead of “the blind” and “cancer patients,” one should
instead use “people with vision impairments” and “people being treated for cancer,”
respectively. These examples demonstrate the importance of identity-first language or
the importance of putting the person or people first. Note the difference in the following
sentences:

Disability first: The blind student used a special keyboard during the exam.
Person first: The student, who is visually impaired, used a special keyboard during the
exam.

25
 Next, Arinto (2009) suggests considering the negative implications of usages
such as “confined to a wheelchair” and “AIDS victim.” For the former, one should instead
write or say “uses a wheelchair” because wheelchairs enable to escape confinement,
while for the latter, one should use “person with “AIDS” as someone who can acquire a
disease without being victimized by it. Arinto (2009) also notes that the word “abnormal”
may be replaced with “atypical” because “people who have disabilities are atypical but
not necessarily abnormal” (Arinto, 2009). These latter examples demonstrate the
importance of not representing people with disabilities as unfortunate, limited, and
helpless victims’.

CHAPTER

EVALUATING MESSAGES AND/OR IMAGES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

DIFFERENT CULTURES

Introduction

In this era, media play a crucial role in our lives. Media inform, educate, and
entertain us. The pictures, videos, texts, and all the other forms of mass media shape
the way we think and how we look at our surroundings and influence the way we look at
the world.

The framework of Media Literacy serves as the foundation in critically

understanding the content of mass media. Guided by this framework, we can decipher
the intended meaning of the type of media presented.

In this module, we will analyze and evaluate messages, images, and other
media work using the framework of Media Literacy.

26
Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

a. Analyze media messages and/or images using Key Concepts of Media Literacy
Framework; and
b. Create a multimodal advertisement or project of a cause-oriented event.

Learning Content

Brainstorming….

Analyze the drawing and picture below. Generate ideas and concepts about the message
being conveyed by the pictures presented.

(Banuelos, M. (2018). Requirement in GEC4

27
 htps://[Link]/newsfeatures/58712/10-ads-that-created-
controversy-2015-edition

Multimodal literacy is about understanding the different ways of knowledge

representations and meaning-making (Kress, et al., 2001). It focuses on the design of
discourse by investigating the contributions of specific semiotic resources (language,
gesture, images) co-deployed across various modalities (visual, aural, somatic). It also
deals with the interaction and integration in constructing a coherent multimodal text such
as advertisements, posters, news report, websites, and films.

Traditional Media Social Media

Advertisement

Editorial Cartoon

Traditional Media

Social Media

Cope & Kalantzis (1999). Multiliteracies: A Design for

Social Futures. Routledge.

Key Concepts of Media Literacy (Center for Media Literacy, 2005)

Key Concepts Guide Questions in Media Keyword

Text Analysis
1. All messages are • What kind of “text” is it? Authorship
‘constructed.’ • What are the various
elements (building
blocks) that make up the
whole?
• How similar or different is
it to others of the same
genre?
• Which technologies are
used in its creation?
• What choices were made
that might have been
made differently?
• How many people did it
take to create this

28
 message? What are their
various jobs?
2. Media messages are • What do you notice… Format
constructed using a (about the way the message
creative language with is constructed)?
its own rules. ▪ Colors? Shapes?
Size?
▪ Sounds, Words?
Silence?
▪ Props, sets, clothing?
▪ Movement?
▪ Composition?
Lighting?
• Where is the camera?
• What is the viewpoint?
• How is the story told
visually? What are people
doing?
• Are there any symbols?
• Visual metaphors?
• What’s the emotional
appeal? Persuasive
devices used?
• What makes it seem
“real?”
3. Different people • Have you ever Audience
experience the same experienced anything like
media message this in your life?
differently. • How close is this portrayal
to your experience?
• What did you learn from
this media text?
• What did you learn about
yourself from
experiencing the media
text?
• What did you learn from
other people’s response?
• From their experience of
life?
• How many other
interpretations could
there be? How could we
hear about them?
• Are other viewpoints
present?
• How can you explain the
different responses?
4. Media have embedded • What kinds of behaviors / Content
values and points of consequences are
view. depicted?

29
 • What type of person is the
reader / watcher / listener
invited to identify with?
• What questions come to
mind as you watch / read
/ listen?
• What ideas or values are
being “sold” to us in this
message?
• What political ideas are
communicated in the
message? Economic
ideas?
• What judgments or
statements are mad
about how we treat other
people?
• What is the overall
worldview of the
message?
• What ideas or
perspectives are left out?
How would you find
what’s missing?
5. Most media messages • Who’s in control of the Purpose
are organized to gain creation and
profit and/or power. transmission of this
message?
• Why are they sending it?
• How do you know?
• Who are they sending it
to? How do you know?
• What’s being sold in this
message? What’s being
told?
• Who profits from this
message? Who pays for
it?
• Who is served by or
benefits from the
message
– the public?
– private interests?
– individuals?
– institutions?
• What economic
decisions may have
influenced the
construction or
transmission of this
message?

30
 [Link]

[Link]

1. Picture Analysis
a. Choose one picture and analyze its
contents using the Key Concept Questions.
b. Present your image evaluation through a
PowerPoint or video presentation.

[Link]
racist-thai-advert-3944090/

31
 CHAPTER

COMMUNICATION AIDS AND STRATEGIES

USING TOOLS OF TECHNOLOGY
5
Introduction

In the previous lessons, we understand why there is a need for humans to

communicate. They do so for certain purposes. To achieve those purposes,
communication strategies will be used to obtain, provide, and disseminate information.
We already know how communication changed drastically with the aid of technology, so
it is important for people to take into account every aspect of how they are relaying
information. This is where communication strategies come into play.

In this module, you will learn the different communication aids and strategies
for media presentation and what is best to use in your presentations. This lesson is
important because it will help you to be more confident in making and presenting your
multimedia presentations.

Learning Outcome

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

a. Convey ideas through oral, audio-visual, and/or web-based presentations for
different target audiences.
b. to determine the various presentation that are commonly used.
c. to evaluate the effective strategies in preparing and using these media when
communicating.
d. Apply the strategies in making digital slides.

Learning Content

CREATING MULTIMEDIA PRESENTATION

Definition

Presentation Media – an independent presentation that contains information,

using slides, video, recordings and digital representations.

Using Computer Technology

1. Digital Slides – a presentation

software commonly using PowerPoint.
It allows computer users to display
2. Real-Time Web Access – used to
information in multimedia presentation.
demonstrate how to do something
special on the web such as researching
ideas and information.

It’s presently being used to describe information

being available in search results as soon 32
as it has
been published by its author. Examples of this are
Twitter or FriendFeed search.
A. Characteristics of Multimedia Presentation

In preparing multimedia presentations for various communication purposes, it is

important to consider the following:
1. Multimedia presentations are visually oriented (displayed on a monitor or projected
onto a screen)
2. They allow users to use different modalities such as:

VIDEO

PHOTOG ANIMA
RAPHS TION

MODALITIES

AUDIO TEXT

GRAPHICS

B. Special Features of Computer-Based Presentations

The following features of computer-based presentations are widely used and
are of great help to the users:

1. Custom navigation Printouts

Linking
between Can be made
slides, to into hard copy
other media, printouts or
and to the transparencies.
internet.

Uploadable

Can be
uploaded to
the web.

33
 C. Strategies Using Tools of Technology
Although the use of technology is personalized and creativity is required, the
following strategies are recommended for effective delivery of information and ideas:
• Keep it simple
• Emphasize your key ideas
• Show what you can’t say
• Use close up shots and other images
• Keep the number of images you present manageable
• Combine variety with coherence
• Use large lettering

D. Multimedia Presentation Tips

Here are some tips for your multimedia presentations to be more presentable:
1. Go for creativity. Create your own design. Try different combinations and let
your creativity flow.
2. Colors are nice. Flat colors are beautiful and contrast is your friend.
3. Use good fonts. Comic Sans and Georgia will do.
4. Text is evil. Too many texts in one slide exhausts the audience.
5. Images say more than a thousand words. Make the images more powerful.
6. Big is beautiful. Think big. Think bold.
7. Info graphics are amazing. Use simple info graphics.
8. Get inspired. Remember your ultimate goal.

Always remember these:

• 10-20-30 rule: 10 slides, 20 minutes, 30 font size
• 1-6-6 rule: 1 main idea, 6 bullets, 6 words per bullet
• 7-7 rule: 7 lines, 7 words
• 9Ps: Prior Proper Preparation Prevents Poor Performance of the Person
Putting on the Presentation.

Communication Aids

Communication Aids are visual support used to make presentation interesting

and effective. It is a great help to present the ideas clearly by highlighting the
significant information.

Communication Aids Examples

• PowerPoint – offers users many ways to display information from simple to
complex multimedia presentations.
• Prezi – a visual storytelling software alternative to traditional slide-based
presentation formats. Prezi presentations feature a map-like overview that lets users
pan between topics, zoom in on details, and pull back to reveal context.
• LinkedIn Slideshare – users can upload files privately or publicly in PPT,
Word, PDF, or OpenDocument format. Content can then be viewed on the site itself,
on hand held devices or embedded on other sites

34
 • Brainshark – provides a web-based applications and products delivered via
software as a service to help companies improve sales effectiveness and productivity.
• [Link] – an American media organization that posts talks online for free
distribution under the slogan “ideas worth spreading”.

35
 CHAPTER

COMMUNICATION FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES

Introduction

Communication takes place in all settings we could ever imagine or in whatever

situation we are into. It appears on different forms and being used with different
purposes. People communicate because of certain purpose. This module deals with
several aspects of an effective communication. It includes topics intended for
communication for various purposes. It starts with the identification of reasons why we
communicate. The purpose, audience, message structure, and channel are to be
considered in order to achieve an effective communication. It also presents an important
aspect of communication which is the purpose. The purposes of communication are to
obtain/provide/disseminate information, and to persuade/argue. Moreover, this part
introduces communication in the workplace. It emphasizes communication that takes
place either inside or outside the workplace. It also identifies the common
communication materials in a workplace such as minutes of the meeting, memorandum,
letters, and reports. Furthermore, this part prepares the students to become effective
communicators through the activities prepared at the end of the chapter.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

a. convey ideas through oral, audio-visual, and/or web-based presentations for

different target audiences in local and global settings using appropriate registers;

b. create clear, coherent and effective communication materials;

c. present ideas persuasively using appropriate language, registers, tone, facial

expressions and gestures; and

d. adopt awareness of audience and context in presenting ideas.

Said is not heard;

Learning Content Heard is not understood;
Understood is not agreed;
Agreed is not implemented.
-A Dutch Saying

The saying shown above gives us an idea on what effective communication is.
But what is it really about? What are the primary reasons why we communicate?

Generally speaking, people communicate to inform, persuade or argue. Having

an aim is what defines communicating with a purpose. While this might sound simple
enough in theory, it is the application that becomes rather complex since there are many
considerations that can come into play. West (2015) identifies these as follows:

36
 1. Purpose: Many people find it difficult to communicate well because the first thing they
think about is what they are supposed to say. A better strategy however is to determine
your purpose: why do you want or need to communicate?

2. Audience: After identifying your purpose, what you need to identify next is your
audience or who is going to receive your message. It is vital that your message is
specifically tailored to your audience so as to ensure effective communication.

3. Message structure: How are you going to convey your message? There are two
ways you can use: the direct and indirect approach. The direct approach is deductive.
This means that you state your main idea first then follow it up with supporting
statements. You can use this approach if you are emphasizing a result rather than the
steps you took to arrive to that idea. The indirect approach on the other hand is inductive.
This means that you start your message with a background and lead your audience to
the main idea. This is the traditional approach and you can use this if you want to
establish a common ground with your audience first.

4. Channel: After creating the message, you now have to choose an appropriate channel
to send it through. Will it be a written communication or a verbal one? If it is verbal, will
it be done face-to-face or through the telephone? Remember, the channel you choose
has a large impact on the effectiveness of your message that is why it is important to
consider its appropriateness.

Now that you know the things you have to consider in communicating effectively,
you now have to master the identification of the most important aspect of
communication: the purpose.

Communication Purpose 1: Obtain/Provide/Disseminate Information

Most definitions of ‘communication’ probably mention the exchange and sharing

of information between two parties. The etymology of the word itself,
‘communis’(common) belies what it is primarily about so basically, the main aim of
communication is the passing and receiving of information from one party to another.

One mark of literacy is the ability to seek out and understand information from
various channels of communication. These channels may be formal or informal.
Furthermore, the 21st Century has ushered in so many information sources that getting
information can be as easy with a few taps or clicks in a gadget. Given below are some
of the channels by which you can obtain information (The Health Foundation, 2017):

• Group meetings, workshops

• Letters/E-mail
and conferences
• Leaflets, brochures and flyers
• Webinars
• Merchandise or display materials
• Mobile technology (e.g. SMS
(posters, charts, infographics, etc.)
and mobile applications)
• Blogs
• Websites
• Newspapers
• Film/Animation
• Media coverage (professional
and consumer media)
• Social media

37
 Considering the richness of your information source is also important. You have
to know which channel of communication can provide you with the best and the most
information. Traditionally, channels that are done through physical presence such as
meetings can give the most reliable and richest information source. This is followed by
personal interactive such as communication done through the telephone or through the
internet such as webinars. The leanest information sources on the other hand come from
impersonal interactive channels such as e-mails and social media as well as impersonal
static channels like letters, reports, news updates and newsletters.

Communication Purpose 2: Persuade/Argue

Influencing others is another purpose of communicating. A resource from the

University of Minnesota (2018), when we communicate to persuade or argue, we aim to
influence the beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviors of those who we are
communicating to. This is achieved mainly through the presence of three components:
the claim, the evidence and the warrant.

The claim is the statement that you want to be accepted by your audience. It is
the thesis statement that overarches everything else you will say. It is in turn supported
by evidence which is also called grounds. The evidence is vital in ensuring that you will
persuade your audience to believe your claim. And finally, you have the warrant which
is the underlying justification connecting the claim to the evidence. For a clearer
understanding of these three components, look at the example:

Claim: Night curfews should be applied for minors in the community.

Evidence: Police reports have shown that many crimes are committed at
night and a lot of them involve the youth. Gang wars are
common as well as petty robberies.

Warrant: Ensuring that minors should be home at a specific time at night

will prevent them from getting in trouble in the streets.

While persuasion and argument is done in both informal and formal set-ups in your
everyday life, the most common channel by which this is done is through public
speaking. Now when you engage in public speaking to persuade, the first thing that you
have to clearly define is your proposition.

The proposition is the overall direction of your content and it can be classified
into three as follows:

1. Proposition of fact: This focuses on a belief whether something is or is not.

Ex. Most juvenile-committed crimes take place when idle youth get together at nights in
the streets, police reports indicated.

2. Proposition of value: This focuses on persuading others that something is good or

bad or right or wrong.
Ex. It is wrong for parents to allow their children to go out at night unsupervised.

38
3. Proposition of policy: This focuses on advocating whether something should or should
not be done.

Ex. Implementing night curfew ordinances can help alleviate juvenile crimes.

After setting your proposition, you now move on to organizing your speech. You
may use the following as your discussion templates:

a. Problem-solution
b. Problem-failed solution-proposed solution
c. Cause-effect
d. Cause-effect-solution
When you are brainstorming for your content, it is helpful if you remember these
three points: (1) if your audience already agrees with your proposition, work on
intensifying their agreement and trying to move them into action; (2) if audience is
neutral, give them a background of the issue so that they will see the relevance of your
argument; and (3) if your audience disagrees with your proposition, emphasize on
establishing your credibility, point out some common grounds to establish rapport with
them and add counterarguments to refute their opposing belief.

Communication in the Workplace

Any workplace would not ‘work’ at all without

communication. After all the transactions to keep
“Communication skills are everything running would not be possible without
ranked first among a job
candidate’s ‘must have’ communication between the employees. Nonetheless
skills and qualities,
according to a 2010 survey
one of the challenges in the workplace still lies in the
conducted by the National communication level. This is because there are many
Association of Colleges and
Employers.” types of communication styles used depending on your
(Department of Labor)
purpose. Basically, however, organizational
communication is the most used and the style you
should master in the workplace.

Principles of Communication in the Workplace

For workplace communication, the following should be observed:

1. Efficiency and promptness

2. Truth and validity
3. Reliability and confidentiality
4. Conciseness and clarity

39
Types of Communication in the Workplace

A. Internal

This refers to the exchange of communication within the organization. Again, there
are various channels from which these are exchanged in such as telephones, e-mails
and hard copy of documents such as memorandums and letters.

Internal communication is organized in the following manner:

1. Vertical (Communication between employees with different hierarchical

positions)
• Downward (From employees of higher positions going to employees with
lower positions)
• Upward (From employees of lower positions going to employees with
higher positions)
2. Horizontal (Communication between individuals having the same hierarchical
positions)

B. External

This refers to the exchange of communication from the organization to the outside
world. It can be formal and informal.

Common Communication Materials in the Workplace

A. Minutes of a Meeting
Meeting minutes are the written documentation used in informing employees (both
attendees and non-attendees) on what was discussed during a meeting. Usually, it
includes (Heathfield, 2012):
1. Participants’ names
2. Agenda
3. Decisions made by the participants
4. Follow-up actions committed to by the participants
5. Any other discussions worthy of documentation

B. Memorandum
The memorandum is used for communicating policies, procedures and other related
official business within an organization. It is composed of the following (University of
Minnesota):
1. Header
2. Date
3. Subject line
4. Message (Declaration, Discussion and Summary)

40
C. Letters
These are brief messages that are usually sent outside the organization. The
business letter type is used in the workplace and it contains the following elements:

1. Return address: This is usually indicated in the letterhead or the footer and it
indicates where someone could send a reply.
2. Dateline: Placed on top of the page, five lines from the top of the page or the
letterhead.
3. Inside Address: This indicates the name of the person you are sending the
letter to. Include the title or position of the person as well as the name of
his/her organization.
4. Salutation: This must always be formal. Do not use the word “Dear”, instead,
address it Sir or Madam depending on your need.
5. Body: Written in text form, the paragraphs must be separated by a line in
between.
6. Complementary Close: This should be formal and the most appropriate is
“Respectfully yours”.
7. Signature line: Skip two lines after the complementary close and indicate your
complete name.

Reports
The reports done in the workplace usually compose of evaluation or assessment
of an issue or a set of circumstances of operations relevant to the organization. It is
written in an abbreviated style which allows the reader to go through it as quickly as
possible.

Headings and subheadings are used to indicate the different sections and if
necessary, bullet points, tables and diagrams are also included. Meintjes (n.d.) states
that the main function of any report is to deliver information quickly, clearly and
efficiently.

On the other hand, a resource from the Online Writing and Learning Link (2010)
gives a more comprehensive list on the purposes of the report:
• Examine possible solutions to a problem, situation or issue
• Apply business and management theories to practical situations
• Demonstrate analytical reasoning and evaluation skills in formulating possible
solutions and outcomes
• Identify conclusions to a problem or issue
• Provide recommendations for future actions
• Demonstrate concise and clear communication skills

More or less, the report generally contains the following elements:

1. Title: In formulating your title, you can simply base on the essentials of what
your report is all about.
2. Summary/Abstract: This is a paragraph that sums up the main points of your
report. This part is not always obligatory however and it is usually reserved for
long reports.

41
 3. Introduction: In this part, you can describe the details of your report and state
the rationale.
4. Procedure: Here, you must describe the method of information-gathering you
used.
5. Findings: This is the presentation of your data in a concise and logical way.
You can present opinions and statements from relevant people or sources and
include graphics if appropriate.
6. Conclusions: This part sums up your assessment of what you have found out.
7. Recommendations: You may give suggestions or call to action for the future
based on your conclusions.
8. Bibliography: This should be listed in alphabetical order in a referencing style
recommended by your organization.

Parts of the Program

1. Setting the Mood (moderator’s part)

2. Prayer

3. Opening Remarks

4. Introduction of the speaker

5. Lecture Proper

6. Closing Remarks

TAKE A BREATHER

The word memorandum originates from the gerundive of the Latin word
memorare which means “something to be remembered”. The word, therefore, was
originally used as an adjective and was placed at the head of a note for future
reference.

42
 CHAPTER

COMMUNICATION FOR WORK PURPOSESS 7

Introduction

Communication is vital and maintains a safe and efficient workplace

environment. How we interact with clients and staff will affect how well the organization
functions and how satisfying you find your job to be. Effective communication in the work
place is imperative in a leadership role. An age –old aphorism goes,” It’s not what you
say, but how you say it.” Good communication skill is what separates a poor leader
from exceptional one. Having effective communication skills is the key to good
leadership.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

a. convey ideas through oral, audio-visual, and/or web-based presentations for

different target audiences in local and global settings using appropriate
registers;
b. create clear, coherent and effective communication materials;
c. present ideas persuasively using appropriate language, registers, tone, facial
expressions and gestures; and
d. adopt awareness of audience and context in presenting ideas.

Learning Content

 Communication for Nurses: Writing Basic Patient Notes

 Communication for Journalists: Writing a Lead
 Tour Guiding
 Communication for Teachers: Storytelling
 Communication for Business and Trade
 Writing Business and Technical Reports
 Communication for Employment: The Resume
 Communication for Employment: The Application Letter
 Communication within a Company: The Memorandum
 Writing Minutes of Meeting

43
 Communication is critical in
getting the job done, as well as
building a sense of trust and
increasing the productivity of
employees.
[Link] [Link]>wiki

Workplace communication is the transmitting of information between one

person or group and another person or group in an organization. It can include emails,
text messages, voicemails, notes, etc.

Given below are some of the channels by which you can obtain information (The
Health Foundation, 2017):

✓ Group meetings, workshops and conferences

✓ Webinars
✓ Mobile technology (e.g. SMS and mobile applications)
✓ Websites
✓ Film/Animation
✓ Media coverage (professional and consumer media)
✓ Social media
✓ Letters/E-mail

Considering the richness of your information source is also important. You have
to know which channel of communication can provide you with the best and the most
information. Traditionally, channels that are done through physical presence such as
meetings can give the most reliable and richest information source. This is followed by
personal interactive such as communication done through the telephone or through the
internet such as webinars.

The leanest information sources on the other hand come from impersonal
interactive channels such as e-mails and social media as well as impersonal static
channels like letters, reports, news updates and newsletters.

✓ Leaflets, brochures and flyers

✓ Merchandise or display materials (posters, charts, info graphics, etc.)
✓ Blogs
✓ Advertisements
✓ Newspapers
✓
Communication for Business Meeting

For workplace communication, the following should be observed:

1. Efficiency and promptness

2. Truth and validity
3. Reliability and confidentiality
4. Conciseness and clarity

44
 Communication for Journalists: Writing A Lead

In journalism, the beginning sentences of a news story are everything. Called

leads or “ledes,” they must convey essential information, set the tone and entice people
to continue reading. If you’re interested in becoming an expert journalist, understanding
how to write a lead is a key skill for your toolbox.

Tips for Writing Leads

The Five W’s and H

News writing strives to answer “The Five W’s and H:” that is, Who, What, When,
Where, Why and How. Good leads answer as many of these questions as possible in a
single sentence. When writing a lead, it helps to think about which of these facts is the
most vital for readers to know.

Keep It Short. A good lead provides all the information the reader requires in just a few
words. Ideally, a lead should be between 25 and 40 words.

Keep It Simple. Don’t clutter up the lead with unnecessary adjectives or adverbs. Also
make sure that your lead only discusses one idea to avoid confusion.

Write in Active Voice. Avoid all forms of the verb “to be.” Common exceptions including
writing about fatalities (“two people were killed Thursday”) and when discussing police
activity (“two people were arrested”). Passive voice is often the result of incomplete
reporting.

Structure Your Lead Properly. Put your most crucial information at the very beginning
of the sentence. Important secondary information can go in subsequent sentences. Not
following this practice is called “burying the lead.” If you need attribution in your lead,
make sure it goes toward the end of the sentence because it is less important than the
information itself.

Understand the Context. Keep in mind what your readers may already know about
your story based on previous media coverage. Write in a way that speaks to these
realities and adds relevant, useful information.

Be Honest. Never mislead the reader. If you promise a certain type of information with
your lead, you should be ready to deliver.

Once you understand these cardinal rules, you can begin to experiment with style.

45
7 Types of Leads

Style implies a certain degree of voice and personal ownership over how a story
is written. Although there are many ways to write leads, here are seven common
approaches.

Straight Lead. Also called the “summary” lead, this is by far the most common and
traditional version; it should be used in most cases. It is a brief summary, containing
most of the Five W’s and H in one sentence.

“The European Parliament voted Tuesday to ratify the landmark Paris climate
accord, paving the way for the international plan to curb greenhouse gas emissions to
become binding as soon as the end of this week.”

Anecdotal Lead. The anecdotal lead uses a quick, relevant story to draw in the reader.
The anecdote must help enhance the article’s broader point, and you must explain the
connection to that point in the first few sentences following the lead.

“At the dilapidated morgue in the northern Brazilian city of Natal, Director Marcos
Brandao walks over the blood-smeared floor to where the corpses are kept. He points
out the labels attached to the bright metal doors, counting out loud. It has not been a
particularly bad night, yet there are nine shooting victims in cold storage.”

Scene-Setting Lead. The scene-setting lead describes the physical location where a
story takes place.

“On the second floor of an old Bavarian palace in Munich, Germany, there’s a library
with high ceilings, a distinctly bookish smell and one of the world’s most extensive
collections of Latin texts. About 20 researchers from all over the world work in small
offices around the room.”

First-Person Lead. This lead describes the journalist’s personal experience with the
topic. It should only be used when you have a valuable contribution and perspective that
help illuminate the story.

“For many of us, Sept. 11, 2001 is one of those touchstone dates — we remember
exactly where we were when we heard that the planes hit the World Trade Center and
the Pentagon. I was in Afghanistan.”

Observational Lead. When offering an authoritative observation about a story and how
it fits in with the larger picture, you should make sure you know the broader context of
your subject matter.

“Tax records and literary criticism are strange bedfellows. But over the weekend,
the two combined and brought into the world a literary controversy — call it the Ferrante
Furor of 2016.”

46
Zinger Lead. The zinger lead is dramatic and attention-grabbing. Although it has a
strong tone, it requires a hard set of facts to back it up.

“His last meal was worth $30,000 and it killed him.” (The story was about a man
who died while trying to smuggle cocaine-filled bags in his stomach.)

Question Lead. Question leads do just that: ask a question. Although they are effective
in sparking interest, use them sparingly because they generally do not provide the main
points of a story as concisely.

“What’s increasing faster than the price of gasoline? Apparently, the cost of court
lobbyists.”

Ultimately, understanding the types of leads and style options available can help
journalists tell stories as clearly and effectively as possible.

Communication for Business and Trade

Objective

• Identify strengths and needed skills for improvement

• Construct personal and business SWOT analysis

SWOT Analysis

A. Definition and Relevance

A SWOT analysis or a SWOT matrix is a diagram that shows an organization's

or person's key strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Doing this type of
analysis, any organization, corporation or company can innovate or adapt new ways or
strategies to put itself better in the corporate world.

B. Internal factors VS External factors

1. Internal factors. Internal factors are things that we can control. An example is
when workers in a company spend time and effort on fixing compute crashes. As
a solution to this problem, the employees could be trained and better software
could be purchased.

2. External factors. External factors are things we cannot control. For example is
inflation rate of goods due to government regulations.

47
 Internal Analysis External Analysis

Internal strength and External opportunities and

weaknesses threats

Identification of the key

strategic issues

Continual Feedback
Continual Feedback

Evaluation of options and

selection of strategy

Implementation and
management of the chosen
strategy

The process of SWOT (Riston, 2008)

C. Benefits of SWOT analysis

1. SWOT analyses identify any company or organization’s capabilities and resources.

Moreover, they also provide a look on the organization’s competitive environment.
2. Based on the result of SWOT analysis, the company can create a better marketing
strategy. 3. A SWOT analysis can create a new venture or new opportunities for the
company especially the ones that are not yet explored.
3. This can be an aid for the managers and directors reduce threats by understanding
their company’s current weaknesses.
4. This can be used by the people in a company as a planning technique.
5. Individuals who like to develop their careers can do SWOT analysis for it identifies
their skills, opportunities, and abilities.

48
D. How to make SWOT analysis

1. Make sure that the analysis heads to the right path or direction by defining your
objective. If your study focuses on what matters, this will eventually provide you a
right strategy. ,
2. Focus on the internal and external factors.
a. Strengths. Identify the things that do better in your company rather than the
competition. Are the people familiar to your products or brand? What is your
competitive advantage? Which one from your internal resources is doing best or
the one that excels in all aspects of intellectual property or human resources?
b. Weaknesses. In what areas are your competitors outclassing your company?
What holds your business back? Are there any things you can avoid? Does your
business lack something? Or weakness? For example, it may not have enough
suitably-skilled workers. This is an area that you can control.
c. Opportunities. Opportunities can help your company grow. Can you turn any
changes in technology, laws, or society, for example, into an opportunity?
Consumers today are more aware of and interested in the quality of life.
d. Threats. Are obstacles stopping your company from growing? What are these
rules, regulations, or technology that impede your business? Some aspects of
society may also repent obstacles. Is inflation rate a threat to the business?

SWOT analysis matrix (Whalley, 2010)

Strengths Weaknesses
Opportunities How do I use these strengths to How do I overcome the
take advantage of these weaknesses that prevent me
opportunities? from taking advantage of these
opportunities?
Threats How do I use my strengths to How do I address the
reduce the impact of threats? weaknesses that will make these
threats a reality?

49
 SWOT Analysis of a Coffee Shop

STRENGTHS WEAKNESS

• Close to universities and • No experience in operating a

public transport business
• Cheaper products offered • Lack of funds for the start-up
other than popular brands of the business
• Ambiance is good for study • Less popularity compared to
and leisure. well-known brands
• Growing demand by different • Staffs to be trained for
markets for coffee shops. operations

OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

• New products and services • There are lots of popular

are offered for expansion of coffee shops.
the market • There are also competition
• Brand franchising is also an with other coffee shops also
opportunity to expand starting-up
business • Market tastes are changing
• Co-branding or strategic • Price for coffee beans and
alliance with other firms. other supplies may increase
• Diverse target market

adapted from Wakat, G. S. et al.(2018). Purposive Communication. Quezon City, Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

50
 Writing Business and Technical Report

Objectives:

• Explain the classifications, parts, and types of reports

• Write a sample report applying the principles of report writing style

Engaging: Putting Things in the Right Perspective

1. List the types of reports you usually do in school. How do you frame such report?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Search for sample of old reports online from student councils, government offices,
companies, schools, hospitals, and other organizations.
3. Draw a Venn diagram to show the similarities and differences of school reports
and the report that you brought.

Venn Diagram

51
A report is a comprehensive document that covers aspects of the subject matter of study. It
presents results of an experiment, investigation, research or an inquiry to a specific audience.

Business and Technical Reports

Classification Types Parts

Informal • Progress Report
• Sales Activity Report
• Personnel Evaluation • Title Page
• Financial Report • Table of Contents
• Feasibility Report • Executive Summary
• Literature Review • Introduction
• Credit Report • Methods
Formal • Informational Report • Findings
• Analytical Reports • Conclusion
• Recommendation • Recommendation
Reports • Bibliography
• Research Reports
• Case Study Analysis
Reports
adapted from Wakat, G. S. et al.(2018). Purposive Communication. Quezon City, Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Characteristics of a Report

1. It presents information not an argument.

2. It is meant to be scanned quickly by the reader.
3. It uses numbered headings and sub headings.
4. It is composed of short and concise paragraphs.
5. It uses graphic illustrations such as tables, graphs, pie charts, etc.
6. It may have an abstract or an executive summary.
7. It may or may not have references or bibliography.
8. It often contains recommendations and/or appendices.

The Informal Report

• It functions to inform, analyze, and recommend.
• It may be in the form of a memo, financial report, monthly activities report,
development report, research, etc.
• It is written according to an institution’s style and rules. Introductory and prefatory
parts are not required.
• It is used for conveying routine messages.

52
 Types of lnformal Report

A. Progress report - written to provide information about the way a project is

developing.
B. Sales activity report — helps a firm to understand about the progress, of the sales
people and also identify the shortcomings
C. Personnel evaluation - used by an organization to assess an employee's
performance
D. Financial report - presents formal record of the financial activities, of a business,
person, or other entries.
E. Feasibility report — assesses the viability of a new project; details whether or not a
project should be undertaken and the reasons for that decision; persuades or helps
the decision makes to choose between available options
F. Literature review — conveys to the readers the work already done ‘ and the
knowledge and ideas that have been already established on a particular topic of
research
G. Credit report - details report of an individual's credit history prepared by a credit
bureau (Credit bureaus collect information and — create credit reports based on that
information, and lenders use the reports along with other details to determine loan
applicants' credit worthiness. )

The Formal Report

• It is an official report that contains a collection of detailed information, research,

and data necessary to make decisions.
• It is formal, complex and used at an official level.
• It is often a written account of a major project.
• It may be in the form of launching a new technology or a new project line, results
of a study or an experiment, a review of developments in the field, etc.

53
 Types of Formal Reports

Type Characteristics Examples

Informational • Provides data. facts, feedback, and • Results of a research
Report other types of Information without on the use of HIV
analysis or recommendations patients
• Presents an update of an operation,
an information or status of a current
research so readers can understand
a particular problem or situation
Analytical • It goes beyond just presenting • Explanation of what
Reports results. causes a
• Analytical reports present results, phenomenon.
analyze those results, and draw • Presentation of the
conclusions based on those results, results of a traffic study
It attempts to describe why or how showing
something happened and explains • accidents at an
what it means intersection
—the report explains
what it means.
• Explanation of the
potential results of a
particular course of
action.
• Suggestion which
option, action, or
procedure is best.
• Report writing on
monthly budgets, staff
absentees and so on...
Recommendation • This type advocates a particular • using treatment X is
Reports course of action. This usually more efficient than
presents the results and treatments Y and Z.
conclusions that support the However, that does not
recommendations. mean that you will use
• What should one do about a treatment X as cost
problem? and other
• Can a team do something? considerations might
• Should one change techniques, recommend treatment
methods, technology, or do Y.
something else?
Research • Most widely used report usually in • Writing a report on
Reports university levels. some product
development.
• Report writing for your
competitor's activities.
Case Study • Includes real life examples • Widely used in
Analysis Reports university level
competitions.
adapted from Wakat, G. S. et al.(2018). Purposive Communication. Quezon City, Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

54
 Parts of a Report

Parts of the Brief Contents Language

Report Description Characteristi
cs
Title Page Name of the • Name of the report in all caps (e.g. FINAL factual
report REPORT)
• Receiver’s name, title and organization
• Team name and team members
• Date submitted (month/data/year)
• The author/s, and their association/
organization.
• The author's. and their association/
• No page number on title page (page 1 is
executive summary)
Table of What you • Show the beginning page number where Factual
Contents find in the each report heading appears in the report
report (do not put page number range, just the
first page number).
• Connect headings to page numbers with
dots.
• Headings should be grammatically
parallel!
• Include major section headings and sub-
headings
• No page number on TOC page
Executive A summary • Should be no longer than one page. Factual, use
Summary of the report • It provides the key recommendations and of third
conclusions, rather than a summary of the person, use of
document. passive verbs
Introduction Background • Briefly describe the context. Factual, use
, problem, • Identify the general subject matter. of third
approach, • Describe the issue or problem to be person, use of
definition of reported on. passive verbs
special • State the specific questions the report
words used answers.
• Outline the scope of the report (extant of
investigation)
• Preview the report structure.
• Comment on the limitations of the report
and any assumptions made.
Methods Methods or • For all types of research provide: Factual, use
procedures • Goal for each piece of research (what is of third
which led to your question/ hypothesis?) person, use of
the findings • Data source passive verbs
• For surveys give the number of
surveys distributed, how was it
distributed, how the population was
chosen
• For observations give how, when, and
where the observations occurred

55
 Findings Results, • The goal is to supply proofs for Factual, use
investigation conclusions. of third
, research • Discuss, analyze, and interpret of (don't person, use of
and just give results, also say what they mean passive verbs
calculation — particularly with benchmarking).
• Remember to report on of your research,
including interviews with client and
personal observations (discuss in
methodology too).
• Support your findings with new evidence.
• Provide summary paragraph of key
findings and their significance at end of
section.
• Explain all graphs in writing.
• Arrange the findings in logical segments
that follow your outline.
• Findings should be presented in the same
order as discussed in methodology.
• Use clear, descriptive headings.
• Present “just the facts”, no opinions and no
feelings.
Conclusion Conclusion • Interpret and summarize the findings. Transition
drawn from • Say what they mean. signals such
the findings • Relate the conclusions to the report as it seems
issue/problem. that, the
• Limit the conclusions to the data results
presented, do not introduce new material. indicate that, it
• Number the conclusions and present them is probable
in parallel form. that, etc.
• Be objective: avoid exaggerating or
manipulating the data.
Recommen Things that • Make specific suggestions for actions to
dation should be solve the report problem
done as a • Avoid conditional words such as maybe
result and perhaps
• Present each suggestion separately and
begin with a verb
• Number of recommendations
• Describe how the recommendations may
be implemented (if you were requested to
do this)
• Arrange the recommendations in an
announced order, such as most important
to least important.
Bibliography Books,
magazines,
journals,
report, and
other
references
used
adapted from Wakat, G. S. et al.(2018). Purposive Communication. Quezon City, Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

56
 Communication for Employment: The Resume

Objectives:

• Use personal SWOT analysis or self-assessment exercises in planning what to

write in a resume
• Write an effective and appropriate print and scannable resume

What is a resume?

A resume is a persuasive summary of your qualifications for employment. If you

are in the job market, having a resume makes you look well organized and prepared to
your prospective employers. Together with this text is an application letter or a cover
letter that introduces you to these employers. Writing these two texts may also serve as
an ego-building experience: the person who looks so good on paper is you! When you
send both to your prospect employers, you are making an argument for why those
employers should want to meet you or even hire you. Moreover, writing a resume and
application letter is writing an advertisement selling your skills, talents, and abilities to
the employers who will likely sift through many applications to decide whom to grant an
interview. Thus, resumes and application letters require a level of care that few other
documents do.

Types of resume

1. Print résumés are printed on Paper for prospective employers to scrutinize. They
are designed to emphasize key information using bold or italic typeface.
2. Scannable résumés are designed to be read by computers; hence, they are to be
formatted using single typeface or without italics or bold.

PRINT RÉSUMÉS

Name in
Franchesca U. Morales
20 Evangensta Street Boldface
Leonila Hill, Baguio City 2600
+63917-245-2288
chescamorales@gmail com

OBJECTIVE To obtain a financial associate position where I can Objective tailored

utilize my strategic. analytic, organizational skills and
to specific job
interpersonal communication skills
sought
EXPERIENCE
April- October MLX Mining Corporation Corporation, Bakun, benguet Work experience
2015 Inventory Clerk
in reverse
• Did inventions on equipment and tools chronological
• Verified and computed amounts of inventories order
on record

57
 • Reconciled and reported on reasons of
discrepancies of count and computations

July-September MLX Mining Corporation, Bakun, Benguet

2014 Office Clerk Trainee Format to fill
entire page
• Monitored budgeted expenses of every
department
• Computed premium pay of employees
Format to fill
• Organized records on file
entire page
2012-2014 GLOLINKS Corporation, Baguio City
Customer Service Representative

• Provided clients their financial status

EDUCATION Santa Catalina College, La Trinidad, Benguet

2008-2012 Bachelor of Science in Accountancy

HONORS Dean's Lister from 2008-2010

Loyalty Medalist

ACTIVITIES Varsity Player in Volleyball, Organizations Fund- raiser

SKILLS Microsoft Office; SPSS for Windows; Eudora Pro;

PowerPoint; Fluency in English and Filipino languages;
Driving

REFERENCES Yochabel L. Que, MPsych

Head, CSR Department
GLOLINKS Corporation
25 Jump High Bldg . Harrison Road, Baguio City
(974) 442-0009

Engr. Xynai M. Sly

Supervisor
MLX Mining Corporation
Poblacion, Bakun, Benguet
(074) 443-0009

Jyra P. Sim, CPA, PhD

Dean, College of Accountancy
Santa Catalina College
Km 5, La Trinidad, Benguet
(974) 444-0000
adapted from Wakat, G. S. et al.(2018). Purposive Communication. Quezon City, Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

58
 SCANNABLE RÉSUMÉS

All information
Franchesca U. Morales in a single
typeface,
Key words: Public relations; accountant; auditor,
bookkeeper, sales; independent worker; responsible: hardworking: aligned on left
English language fluency margin

Address
20 Evangelista Street
Leonila Hill, Baguio City 2600
Phone: +63917-245-2288
E-mail: chescamorales@[Link]

Education
B.S. in Accountancy, Santa Catalina College, La
Trinidad, Benguet

Experience
Inventory Clerk. April-October 2015
Philex Mining Corporation. Benguet
Reconciliation and report on reasons of discrepancies of count and
computations.

Office Clerk Trainee. July-September 2014

Philex Mining Corporation, Benguet
Budgeted expense of every department 'S monitored
Computaton of premium pay’ of employees. Organizer of records on
file.

Customer Service Representative, 2012-2014

Sitel Corporation. Baguio City
Provider of financial status to clients.

Honors
Dean's Lister from 2008-2010
Loyalty Medalist

Skills
Microsoft Office; SPSS for Windows; Eudora Pro;
PowerPoint, fluency in English and Filipino languages,
Driving

Activities
Varsity player in Volleyball
Organization Fund raiser
adapted from Wakat, G. S. et al.(2018). Purposive Communication. Quezon City, Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

59
C. Parts of a Resume / Organizing your Resume (Sections)

A number of different organizational patterns can be used effectively. The

following sections are typical—which you choose should depend on your experience
and goals, the employer’s needs, and any standard practices in your profession.

a. Heading (name and contact information)

b. Job Objective
c. Qualifications Summary
d. Education
e. Employment Experience
f. Honors and Activities
g. Related Skills and Abilities
h. References and Portfolios
Whether you place “education” before “employment experience” depends on
the job you are seeking and on which credentials would strengthen your résumé the
most. If you are a recent graduate without much work experience, list education first.
If you have years of job experience, including jobs directly related to the kind of
position you are seeking, list employment experience first. In your education and
employment sections, use a reverse chronological sequence: List the most recent
experience first, the next most recent experience second, and so on.

a. Heading
• At the top of your résumé, include your name, address, telephone number
(home or cell), and a professional e-mail address.
• Make sure that your name stands out on the page.
• If you have both a school address and a permanent home address, place your
school address on the left side of the page and your permanent home address
on the right side of the page.
• Do not use a clever or hobby-related e-mail address in employment
correspondence; e-mail addresses that are based on your last name work
well.

b. Job Objective
• An objective introduces the material in a résumé and helps the reader quickly
understand your goal.
• If you decide to include an objective, use a heading such as “Objective,”
“Employment Objective,” “Career Objective,” or “Job Objective.”
• State your immediate goal and, if you know that it will give you an advantage,
the direction you hope your career will take.
• Try to write your objective in no more than three lines, and tailor it to the
specific job for which you are applying, as illustrated in the following examples:
• A full-time computer-science position aimed at solving engineering problems
and contributing to a management team.
• A position involving meeting the concerns of women, such as family planning,
career counseling, or crisis management.
• Full-time management of a high-quality local restaurant.
• A summer research or programming position providing opportunities to use
software-development and software-debugging skills.

c. Qualifications Summary

60
 • You may wish to include a brief summary of your qualifications to persuade
hiring managers to select you for an interview.
• Sometimes called a summary statement or career summary, a qualifications
summary can include skills, achievements, experience, or personal qualities
that make you especially well suited to the position.
• You may wish to give this section a heading such as “Profile,” “Career
Highlights,” or simply “Qualifications.” For example, “Award-Winning Senior
Financial Analyst”

d. Education.
• List the school(s) you have attended, the degree(s) you received and the
dates you received them, your major field(s) of study, and any academic
honors you have earned.
• List courses only if they are unusually impressive or if your résumé is
otherwise sparse
• Consider including the skills developed or projects completed in your course
work.
• Mention your high school only if you want to call attention to special high
school achievements, awards, projects, programs, internships, or study
abroad.

e. Employment Experience.
• Organize your employment experience in reverse chronological order, starting
with your most recent job and working backward under a single major heading
called “Experience,” “Employment,” “Professional Experience,” or the like.
• You could also organize your experience functionally by clustering similar
types of jobs into one or several sections with specific headings such as
“Management Experience” or “Major Accomplishments.”
• One type of arrangement might be more persuasive than the other, depending
on the situation.
• In general, follow these conventions when working on the “Experience”
section of your résumé.
• Include jobs or internships when they relate directly to the position you are
seeking. Although some applicants choose to omit internships and temporary
or part-time jobs, including such experiences can make a résumé more
persuasive if they have helped you develop specific related skills.
• Include extracurricular experiences, such as taking on a leadership position
in a college organization or directing a community-service project, if they
demonstrate that you have developed skills valued by potential employers.
• List military service as a job; give the dates served, the duty specialty, and the
rank at discharge. Discuss military duties if they relate to the job you are
seeking.
• For each job or experience, list both the job and company titles. Throughout
each section, consistently begin with either the job or the company title,
depending on which will likely be more impressive to potential employers.
• Under each job or experience, provide a concise description of your primary
and secondary duties. If a job is not directly relevant, provide only a job title

61
 and a brief description of duties that helped you develop skills valued in the
position you are seeking. For example, if you were a lifeguard and now seek
a management position, focus on supervisory experience or even experience
in averting disaster to highlight your management, decision-making, and
crisis-control skills.
• Focus as much as possible on your achievements in your work history
(“Increased employee retention rate by 16 percent by developing a training
program”). Employers want to hire doers and achievers.
• Use action verbs (for example, “managed” rather than “as the manager”) and
state ideas succinctly. Even though the résumé is about you, do not use “I”
(for example, instead of “I was promoted to Section Leader,” use “Promoted
to Section Leader”).
• For electronic résumés that will be scanned for keywords, however, replace
such verbs with nouns (instead of “managed” use manager).

f. Honors and Activities

• If you have room on your résumé, list any honors and unique activities near
the end. Include items such as student or community activities, professional
or club memberships, awards received and published works.
• Be selective: Do not duplicate information given in other categories, and
include only information that supports your employment objective.
• Provide a heading for this section that fits its contents, such as “Activities,”
“Honors,” “Professional Affiliations,” or “Publications and Memberships.”

g. Related Skills and Abilities

• Employers are interested in hiring applicants with a variety of skills or the
ability to learn new ones quickly.
• Depending on the position, you might list in a skills section items such as
fluency in foreign languages, writing and editing abilities, specialized technical
knowledge, or computer skills (including knowledge of specific languages,
software, and hardware).

h. References and Portfolios

• Avoid listing references unless that is standard practice in your profession or
your résumé is sparse.
• Always seek permission from anyone you list as a reference.
• A portfolio is a collection of samples in a binder or on the Web of your most
impressive work and accomplishments.
• The portfolio can include successful documents you have written, articles,
letters of praise from employers, and copies of awards and certificates. If you
have developed a portfolio, you could also include the phrase “Portfolio
available on request.”
• If portfolios are standard in your profession, you might even include a small
section that lists the contents of your portfolio.

D. Features of a Resume

62
1. Organization
There are different ways on how you can organize your resume depending on
your goals, experiences and qualifications. You can organize a resume chronologically,
functionally, or targeted.
a. Chronological resume is the general listing of all your academic and work
experience from the most recent to the oldest.
b. Functional resume is organized around various kinds of experience. If you want
to demonstrate a lot of experience in more than one area and if you wish to
downplay dates, you may write this type of resume.
c. Targeted resume generally announces the specific goal up to top, just beneath
your name, and offers information selectively. You can show only the experience
and skills relevant to your goal.

2. Succinctness
A resume must be concise. Entries may not be written in sentences but should
be parallel. For instance, “Organized inventory records” rather than “I organized
inventory records.” For print resume, use action verbs (organized, designed, etc…)
rather than nouns (organizer etc…) to emphasize your accomplishments. For
scannable resume, use nouns rather than verbs as key words.

3. Comprehensiveness
A resume must present all important details that can gain the nod of the
prospective employer. In giving details, however, carefully choose the words that you
use. You may use the exact words in the advertisement provided that they really
reflect your experiences or qualifications. Check all the information you provided -
from the contact information down the references. Make sure that all information are
reflected correctly and that those whom you placed in the references know that you
placed them as Sources of information for your employment before sending the
resume.

4. Design
The resume should be reader-friendly and be professionally packaged. For
print resume, use appropriate spacing, section headings, and uniform typeface for
each headings. Scannable resume, on the other hand, shall only have one standard
typeface.

Communication for Employment: The Application Letter

63
Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. discuss the principles of good application letter writing;

b. write an application letter following the principles of effective business letter
writing;
c. compose an impressive resume, and
d. fill up properly an application form.

Learning Contents

The Application Letter

The main purpose of the application letter is to convince trhe reader that the
applicant is able and qualified for the position; the writer should confirm that he is a
person of good character and values. Although this can not be written directly into the
letter, it is suggested by the qualities of the letter and the references that the applicant
provides.

The successful letter of application is one which makes a strong and favorable
impression upon the reader. Therefore, it should be well-written, clearly worded, and
properly formatted.

There are two types of letter of application: the solicited letter replying to an
advertisement either in print or in broadcast media, and the unsolicited letter. Both
conform to the same principles.

The cover letter, also called a letter of application or face letter, accompanies
the resume. The application should not be more than one page long if it is
accompanied by a data sheet or a resume although this rule is subordinate to the
effectiveness and completeness of the letter.

A face letter includes the following essential points:

1. The source of the information

2. The job you are applying for
3. Your primary assets stating your qualifications needed for the job
4. Names of persons you can use as reference
5. Your desire for interview

The character references are at least three persons who can vouch for the
capabilities, personality, and character traits of the writer. They should be credible
personalities, who are successful in their chosen fields of endeavor.

64
 After the letter of application is presented comes the interview. After the
interview, the applicant may send a thank you letter answers to some questions raised
during the interview. Theapplicant may preferably send more samples of his work or
show continued interest. Follow up letters serve the same purpose of convincing the
employer of the sincerity of the applicant and his capability for the job he is applying
for.

Parts of the Application Letter

If you are applying for an advertised position, have the ad in front of you and
refer to it frequently. Be sure to address all the job requirements in the letter.

Match some of the keywords and skills from the advertisement or company
Website with the skills in your resume and letter.

Return Information

It is now permissible to only include your name, E-mail address and cell phone
number. It is acceptable to eliminate your address due to privacy and safety issues. Be
sure your E-mail address is mature and professional. Ideally, it should contain parts of
your name for ease of use.

Inside/Letter Address

It is very important that you address your letter carefully. After spending time
making your letter perfect, you do not want it to be directed to the wrong person or get
lost in the mail.

If there is a contact name on the ad, address your letter to that person. (Mr. John
Smith)

If you are writing to a company for a job, the chances are that unless you have
contacts on the inside you will not know the name of the person you need to use in the
inside address. In this case you can address your letter to the manager of the specific
department (Sales Manager, Personnel Manager, etc.) or use Ladies and Gentlemen.

You should also make sure that the recipient's name, department and address
details on the envelope are the same as at the top of the letter.

Salutation

This is also known as the greeting. The person’s name should be followed by a
colon (:) or left blank. Do not use a comma. (Commas are permissible for use in
personal letters; not business letters.)

Dear Mr. Smith: If you know the name of the person to whom you are writing.
Dear Ms. Chambers: If you are not sure of the marital status of a female recipient.
Ladies and Gentlemen: If you have no idea as to the name of the recipient.

Body

65
 The body of the letter contains four basic parts and should be three or four
paragraphs long. These paragraphs should attract the employer’s attention; state your
interest in the company and position; arouse the employer’s desire to interview you;
and request that the employer take action in the form of an interview. (AIDA)

First Paragraph

Identify the purpose of the letter—why you are writing. Be specific. Tell the reader
how you learned about a job opening. Tell the employer what job you want.

Examples:

• In response to the advertised position in The Evening Sun on July12, please

consider my résumé in your search for an office assistant.
• I was pleased to hear from Jeremy Green that you will soon have a vacancy for a
Marketing Assistant. I am very interested in this position. With the skills that I
possess, I know that I could be an asset to your company.
• I am writing to apply for the Photographic Assistant position as advertised in the
November 1 edition of The Evening Sun.

Referrals and leads from friends and family members (networking) are the best
way to learn about a job. Most employers enjoy getting referrals. They trust the
recommendation of a valued employee or friend who states that you would be a good
employee.

Examples:

Mr. Peter Lo, a programmer in the systems programming department,

suggested that I contact you regarding an opening you may soon have for a Marketing
Trainee.

• I was referred to you by Mike Thomas, who is a member of my church and a

long-time family friend.
• I am sending you my resume to you because of a referral from Mike Thomas,
an associate in your Baltimore store.

Second Paragraph

Why should an employer be interested in hiring you? Briefly describe your

professional and academic qualifications that are relevant to the position. Relate
experiences that you have had, classes you have taken or skills you possess that
satisfy the job requirements. If the job was advertised, refer to all of the required skills
mentioned.

Examples:

As my resume indicates, I am active in theater in high school and had important

roles in two plays. My school activities include being a member of both forensics and

66
 student government. With these experiences, I can offer you excellent communication
and interpersonal skills. During the school year, I

• maintain a 3.0 average and work ten hours per week. My technical skills include
familiarity with Windows, Microsoft Office applications and Google Docs. I use the
Internet regularly and can keyboard more than 45 words per minute.

• As a computer science major with a sincere interest in................. (elaborate your

educational background)
• Interacting with people has always been one of my strongest attributes. During my
last summer job, I coordinated..........(state your work experience)
• For my senior graduation project, I built a personal computer .............. (state your
ability)

Third Paragraph

Emphasize what you can do for the company. Outline a relevant career
goal. For example, if you are applying for sales positions, do not say that you are
training to be an airline pilot. Expand on the most relevant points of your resume.

Example:

• Because I am energetic, reliable, and resourceful, I would be an asset to your

organization. I am willing to learn new things and be the best employee that I can
be.

Fourth Paragraph

Request action. For example, indicate your desire for a personal interview and
that you're able to meet with the employer at their convenience. Include your cell phone
number and when it would be a good time to call.

Some advertisements ask you to include salary requirements. You can choose
to ignore this. You can either wait until the interview to talk about money and mention a
broad salary range.

Examples:

• You can reach me on my cell phone any day after 4 p.m. E-mail is also a great
way to contact me as I check it daily. I look forward to hearing from you soon.
Thank you for your time and consideration.

• I hope that my qualifications are of interest to you and that an interview might be
arranged at your convenience. I can be reached at (717) 876-5432 or a message
can be left on my cell phone. I look forward to meeting you.

Closing the letter

67
 Finish your letter with an appropriate Complimentary Closing (Sincerely, or
Sincerely yours,). Leave enough room to sign the letter before keying your name. Do
not forget to sign it. Remember to include an enclosure notation at the bottom.

Sample Letter of Application

This application letter sample shows the correct format you should use when
sending out your application letter in print form. If you plan on submitting your application
letter via email, refer to the second application letter sample below.

Sample #1:
22 H Venture St.,
Diliman, Quezon City
Philippines

April 17, 2015

Mr. Vincent Chua

Dear Mr.
Hiring Chua,
Manager
Bank of the Philippines Islands (BPI)
12/F Ayala Life-FGU
I am writing Center,
to express Ayalafor
my interest Ave.
the position of Recruitment Assistant in your esteemed company.
Makati City 1226
Having recently obtained my Bachelor’s Degree in Business Administration major in Human Resource
Development Management (BSBA-HRDM) in the Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP), I
wish to bring my knowledge, skills and commitment to excellence to your company’s innovative
environment.

As a Business Administration student, majoring in HR management, I’ve become equipped with the
necessary knowledge that come with the position including manpower recruitment, workforce
organization, personnel training and compensation as well as legal provisions and other labor
concerns.

My internship at San Miguel Corporation also afforded me with the crucial skills to work with some of
the best professionals in the recruitment and human resources industry. Being a trainee has developed
in me enthusiasm and a true passion for human resources and has subsequently convinced me that
human resource management is my true calling.

For additional details regarding my qualification and expertise, please review my attached resume.

Thank you for taking the time to consider this application and I look forward to hearing from you.

Sincerely,

(signature)

Jessica Cenadoza

Adoptedfrom[Link]

As previously mentioned, the format of your application letter may differ

depending on whether you are submitting a print copy or an email copy. The second
application letter sample below is a copy tailored specifically for emails.

68
 Sample #2.

Email Subject: Eric Tala, Marketing Associate Position

Dear Ms. Castañeda,

I would like to express my interest in applying for the position of Marketing Associate as was recently
made available in your company.

I believe that my degree in Business Administration (BSBA) major in Marketing from the Philippine
School of Business Administration (PSBA) has prepared me for this position. As a student, I was
equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills to help develop and drive effective marketing
strategies.

During my internship at Uniliver Philippines’ Marketing Department, I learned how companies

determine what product or service to sell, how to reach target demographics and how to respond to
the demands of competitors. More importantly, I had the opportunity to work with seasoned
professionals who taught me how to easily grasp complex marketing concepts and at certain times,
how to roll with the punches in order to achieve various objectives.

I have also acquainted myself with a wide range of skills that allow me to blend with the group or
team’s culture and to continuously strive to reach common goals amidst failures and setbacks.

My active involvement in many academic and extracurricular activities has done so well in developing
my communication and leadership skills, which are vital in finding success in the corporate world.

With this application letter, I attach herewith my resume for your full consideration. Thank you for
taking time to review my application and I am looking forward to your reply so that we can further
discuss my application.

Yours sincerely,

Alvin C. Marfal
7194 Marcelo Ave
Parañaque City, Metro Manila 1700
Mobile: +63 929 XXX XXXX

Adoptedfrom[Link]

Communication within a Company: The Memorandum

69
Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. define memorandum and identify its parts;

b. differentiate a memorandum from a business letter;
c. decide when the memorandum is the appropriate form of communication
called for by a situation, and
d. compose an effective memorandum.

When communicating with someone in a different organization, you will usually

use a letter or a fax message. If you want to communicate with someone in your
organization, you may:

1. go to his work area and speak to him

2. telephone him
3. text him
4. E-mail him
5. write him a message or an office memorandum and either leave it on his
desk or send it by internal messenger

The fifth alternative usually turns out to be the most convenient.

Learning Content

Memorandum/Memoranda (Memos)

Memorandums can be used in written communications between people in the

same organization for the following purposes:

1. To confirm the essential points of a business conversation at which both

receiver and sender were present
2. To inform a colleague/superior/subordinate of events/data/ideas
3. To give instructions
4. To request for information or assistance

Some situations when a memo would not be appropriate even though the
message is between people in the same organization:

1. When an employee is given his resignation or promotion, the communication

calls for a letter.
2. When sending messages concerning social occasions of personal nature such
as weddings, birthday parties, house warming, and similar occasion.
Characteristics of Memorandums (Memos)

1. They begin with Date, To, From, and Subject.

2. They are short and usually cover just one topic.

70
 3. They are usually informal.

Parts of a Memo

Standard memos are divided into segments to organize the information and to
help achieve the writer's purpose.

Heading Segment

The heading segment follows this general format:

TO: (readers' names and job titles)

FROM: (your name and job title)

DATE: (complete and current date)

SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)

Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and job title. You
might call the company president "Maxi" on the golf course or in an informal note, but
"Rita Maxwell, President" would be more appropriate for a formal memo. Be specific
and concise in your subject line. For example, "Clothes" as a subject line could mean
anything from a dress code update to a production issue. Instead use something like,
"Fall Clothes Line Promotion."

Opening Segment

The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraph and includes:
the purpose of the memo, the context and problem, and the specific assignment or
task. Before indulging the reader with details and the context, give the reader a brief
overview of what the memo will be about. Choosing how specific your introduction will
be depends on your memo plan style. The more direct the memo plan, the more explicit
the introduction should be. Including the purpose of the memo will help clarify the
reason the audience should read this document. The introduction should be brief:
approximately the length of a short paragraph.

Context

The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are
solving. You may use a paragraph or a few sentences to establish the background and
state the problem. Oftentimes it is sufficient to use the opening of a sentence to
completely explain the context.

Example:

"Through market research and analysis..."

71
 Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is clear.

Task Segment

One essential portion of a memo is the task statement where you should describe
what you are doing to help solve the problem. If the action was requested, your task may
be indicated by a sentence opening like,

Examples:

"You asked that I look at...."

If you want to explain your intentions, you might say,

"To determine the best method of promoting the new fall line, I will...."

Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-makers in the

context, but be convincing that a real problem exists. Do not ramble on with insignificant
details. If you are having trouble putting the task into words, consider whether you have
clarified the situation. You may need to do more planning before you're ready to write
your memo. Make sure your purpose-statement forecast divides your subject into the
most important topics that the decision-maker needs.

Summary Segment

If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate summary
segment. However, this section is not necessary for short memos and should not take up
a significant amount of space. This segment provides a brief statement of the key
recommendations you have reached. These will help your reader understand the key
points of the memo immediately. This segment may also include references to methods
and sources you have used in your research.

Discussion Segments

The discussion segments are the longest portions of the memo, and are the parts
in which you include all the details that support your ideas. Begin with the information that
is most important. This may mean that you will start with key findings or recommendations.
Start with your most general information and move to your specific or supporting facts.
(Be sure to use the same format when including details: strongest to weakest.) The
discussion segments include the supporting ideas, facts, and research that back up your
argument in the memo. Include strong points and evidence to persuade the reader to
follow your recommended actions. If this section is inadequate, the memo will not be as
effective as it could be.

Closing Segment

72
 After the reader has absorbed all of your information, you want to close with a
courteous ending that states what action you want your reader to take. Make sure you
consider how the reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those
actions easier.

Example:

"I will be glad to discuss this recommendation with you during our Tuesday trip to
the spa and follow through on any decisions you make."

Necessary Attachments

Make sure you document your findings or provide detailed information whenever
necessary. You can do this by attaching lists, graphs, tables, etc. at the end of your
memo. Be sure to refer to your attachments in your memo and add a notation about
what is attached below your closing, like this:

Example:

Attached: Focus Group Results, January- May 2007

Formats of Memorandum

1. Formal Memorandum Template

This sample memo format includes some tips about how to write your memo.
These tips are also included in the memorandum template.
To: [Audience]
From: [Person and/or Department issuing the memo]
Date: [Date Sent]
Subject: [Subject of the Memo]

[Opening – Get to the point in the opening paragraph. Keep things simple and short. Make it easy
and fast to read.]

[Summary – Provide enough background so all readers understand the history, but again, keep it
simple.]

[Conclusion – End with a call to action.]

CC: [Send copies to anyone affected by the memo.]

Attachments: [List any attachments to the memo. Only list items referred to in the body of the memo.]

2. Casual Memo Letter Template

To: [Audience]
From: [Person and/or Department issuing the memo]
Date: [Date Sent]
Subject: [Subject of the Memo] 73

[Opening – Get to the point in the opening paragraph. Keep things simple and short. Make it easy
and fast to read.]
Sample Memorandum
MEMORANDUM

To: Computer Programming Division

From: Vice President Lumbergh

Date: February 19, 2019

Subject: Attaching cover sheets to TPS reports

This is to remind the division that, starting today, we are now filing all Testing Procedure
Specification (TPS) reports with new cover sheets.

The reason for this change is simple. In addition to a new format, the cover sheets provide a
summary of the report as well as the updated legal copy. The new cover sheets also include
Initech's new logo.

Though this change may initially seem like a headache and an extra step, it is necessary to include
the new cover sheets due to their updated information. Failing to do so will result in a confusing and
inaccurate product delivered to our customers.

Please be sure to follow this new procedure.

Best regards,

Vice President Lumbergh

Memos through the E-mail

Memos thru e-mail messages are becoming increasingly iportant forms of

internal communication for most companies today. They replace conversations and they
are usually informal. However, they still maintain a businesslike tone. Organizations of
today which are downsizing, flattening chains of command, forming working teams,
empowering rank and file employees, giving more power in making decisions,
employees find that they need more information. They must collect, exchange, and
evaluate information about the products and services they offer. Management also
needs input from employees to respond rapidly to local and global market actions. This
growing demands for information results in an increasing use of memos and especially
e-mail. That is why anyone entering the business world today should know how to write
good memos and E-mail messages.

74
Parts of the e-mail includes:
To:

From: Example:JCRUZ@[Link]

Subject: JCRUZ is the user id

CC: @[Link] is the domain
BCG:

The e-mail address of the sender and the user is composed of the user id and the domain.

Important Points to Remember

• Always use a clear and specific subject line.

• Do not waste the reader’s time by using lengthy memos. Be clear and concise.
• Use the active voice.
• Use the first person.
• Be formal.
• Avoids slangs and friendly words.
• One should use a careful and logical arrangement of information.
• Keep the paragraphs short.
• One can use enumerations for the paragraphs.
• One can use solid capitals and center indentation for important details.
• Use of bullets to make points.
• Always end the memo in courteous words.
• Use text fonts and color to attract attention.
• Avoid rude and thoughtless memos.
• It does not need a complimentary close or a signature.
• Proofread the content before sending.

Writing Minutes of Meeting

75
Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. take down notes from the proceedings of a meeting, and

b. write the minutes of a meeting using correct layout and appropriate language.

The minutes are the account of the meeting. They serve as the official record of
the meeting. The minutes are written by the secretary from notes trhat he makes during
the meeting. The minutes are circulated to members before the next meeting at which
they have to be approved by the members before being confirmed by the chairperson.

The meeting minutes is known as protocol or note, minutes are the live written
record of a meeting. They include the list of attendees, issues raised, related responses,
and final decisions taken to address the issues. Their purpose is to record what actions
have been assigned to whom, along with the achievements and the deadlines.

Meetings are essential to move things forward in organizations. But they're also
infamous for their inefficiency: according to Doodle 2019 state of meeting report, the
cost of poorly handled meetings in 2019 will reach $399 billion in the U.S solely.

That's why learning how to write effective meeting minutes is vital to

leverage all the efforts spent in meetings and make your team or company thrive.

Learning Content

Layout of the minutes of a meeting:

A. Unnumbered Sections
Title identifying the meeting

List of members present and the Presiding Officer

Formal opening of the meeting (The chairperson calls the meeting to order)

B. Numbered Sections
1. Obligatory items for ordinary meetings
1.1. Apologies for absence
1.2. Minutes of the previous meeting
1.3. Matters arising
2. Items for discussion at this meeting (Discussion of the agenda)

Format of Minutes of Meeting

A minute of the meeting normally includes the following elements:

76
 Name of the company − to the top-left of the page.
Date − to the top-right of the page.
Topic − after two return keys; Center-aligned.
Attendees − Name and designation (2 columns of a table).
Absentees − name, roles, reasons for absenteeism. (3 columns)
Agenda at hand − topic to be discussed.
Issues raised − along with the names of the speakers.
Suggestions − made along with the names of the speakers.
Decision − the outcome of the meeting.
Task List − task allotted and the respective allottee.
Future Meetings − the date and topic of the next meeting

WELLNESS HOSPITAL

Luna St., Calasiao, Pangasinan

DOCTORS for the BARANGAY COUNCIL

Minutes of the Monthly Meeting

March 8, 200__

Attendance:

Dr. Monica E. Cayabyab

Dr. Raymund V. Dimalanta
Dr. Nikki C. Bongo
Dr. Geoffrey Guanzon
Dr. Honeylette O. Aquino
Dr. Ma. Althea B. de Guzman
Dr. Ricardo C. Ravanera
Dr. Danica G. Bonao - Presiding Officer

Dr. Danica G. Bonao called the meeting to order at 3:00 p.m. with a player led

by Dr. Honeylette Aquino.

77
 1. Preliminaries of the Meeting
1.1. Apologies for absence
1.2. Minutes of the previous meeting. [The minutes of the previous meeting
are read by the secretary or the recording officer.]
1.3. Dr. Dimalanta asked whether the medicines needed for the Medical
Mission have been purchased. Dr. Cayabyab confirmed that it had been bought.

2. Items for discussion

2.1

2.2

2.3

3. Other business or other matters

4. Date of the next meeting and adjournment

The secretary informed the members of the date and time of the next meeting.

It will be held on the last Friday of next month, same time and same venue.

Thereby having no further business to discuss, the Presiding Officer

adjourned the meeting at 5:00 p.m.

Recorded and prepared by:

MYRNA C. FERRER
Secretary

Noted and confirmed:

DR. DANICA C. BONAO

Presiding Officer

If an item appears on the agenda, it must also appear in the minutes even if
nothing came up on it during the meeting. For example, if all members were present, that
is, no one was absent, this must be noted under the heading “Apologies for Absence” as
follows:

1. Apologies for Absence

There were no apologies for absence.

2. Matters arising

There were none or there were no matters arising.

78
3. Any other business

There was none or there was no other business.

If amendments were made to the minutes of the previous meeting, these should
be noted in the minimum.

Example:

Mr. Reyes pointed out that his name was not spelled correctly. The secretary made
the corrections.

Ms. Bautista requested that it be recorded in the minutes that she was opposed to
the proposal to hire an additional technician. The chairperson asked the secretary to
insert, “Ms. Bautista objected to the proposal that the management should hire an
additional technician.” The minutes were accepted with the above amendments.

Kinds of Minutes According to Form

The amount of detail in the minutes varies. As decided by the group, it may either be:

1. Condensed. Only the wording of the motion, the proposer and seconder, the number
of votes and the decision appear.

2. Detailed. It includes a description of the discussions preceding the voting.

Note: In most minutes the discussions are summarized instead of being reported word
for word.

Language Used for Writing Minutes

1. The language of minutes is formal in style. The secretary does not refer to himself
as I but as the Secretary of Mr. X/Miss Y. When names are used, the surname
preceded by Mr/Miss/Mrs and other honorific as Dr/Sir/Madam are used.

2. The past tense of the verb is used to relate what happened at the meeting.
Example: “As there were no amendments, the chairperson confirmed the minutes.”

3. What happened before the meeting is related in the past perfect.

Example: The residents had complained about the equipment.

4. Both active and passive voice are acceptable.

Examples:

Active: The chairperson confirmed the minutes.

Passive: The minutes were confirmed by the chairperson.
5. Accounts of what was said in the meeting are given in reported or indirect speech.
Suitable adjustments have to be made to the verbs: when converting from direct to
indirect speech, the verbs must be moved back in time.
Example:

Mrs. Duque asks, “Has the new set been purchased?”

Mrs. Duque asked whether the new set has been purchased.

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6. Expressions of time and nearness must also be changed, as shown in the table below.

Direct speech Indirect speech

tomorrow the next day
today that day
yesterday the previous day
last month/year/week the previous month, year, date (or
give the month, year, date)
two years ago two years before then
now then
here there
this that, the
these those

Examples:

• Mrs. Dela Cruz said, “The meeting can be held tomorrow.”

• Mrs. Dela Cruz said that the meeting can be held the next day.
• Mrs. Lopez said, “The meeting could be held in that room.”
• Mrs. Lopez said that the meeting could be held in that room.

7. The pronouns and possessive adjectives must be in the third person, not the first or
second person. Sometimes, the person we/us in direct speech is replaced by “the
committee” or “the meeting” when it refers to the members as a group.
Examples:

• Mr. Gloria said that he would approach the relevant committee.

• Mr. Gloria said, “I will approach the relevant authorities…”
• Mr. Tanedo said the committee should investigate...
• Mr. Tanedo said, “We should investigate the matter…”
• Mr. Domingo said that he would contact his friend.
• Mr. Domingo said, “I will contact my friend.”

8. When writing minutes, avoid using the same reporting verb. Instead of said, the
following verbs may be used as:

explained announced Agreed

reported pointed out suggested
commented agreed explained
stated informed supported
opposed assumed remarked

COMMUNICATION FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

LESSON 1: WRITING ACADEMIC PAPER

80
Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. understand the purposes, features and types of academic paper

b. Write and present academic papers using appropriate tone, style and conventions.

LET’S WARM UP

Think and Answer…

IDENTIFY WHICH TYPE OF WRITING IS BEING DESCRIBED.

______________ 1. A story about the time you got lost at Disneyland

______________ 2. A web page telling how to create a web page
______________ 3. The Harry Potter books
______________ 4. Writing in which you record details of a trip taken
______________ 5. An essay discussing a theme from Romeo and Juliet
______________ 6. A poem about the sights and sounds of rainfall
______________ 7. A Study about students’ performance in Licensure Examination

LET’S BEGIN…

ACADEMIC WRITING

Academic writing is clear, concise, focused and backed up by evidence. Its

purpose is to aid the reader’s understanding.

It is formal by avoiding casual or conversational language, such as contractions or

informal vocabulary.

It is impersonal and objective by avoiding direct reference to people or feelings,

and instead emphasizing objects, facts and ideas. It is technical by using vocabulary
specific to the discipline.

This is a writing style that scholars and researchers use to define the intellectual
boundaries of their respective disciplines or their areas of expertise (Hartley, 2008).

Accordingly its general purpose is to aid the understanding of its readers. More
particularly, it has three purposes (Whitaker, 2009):

1. To persuade. You want to convince your reader to agree with your perspective so
you use reason and evidence to influence their stance about an issue or topic.

2. To analyse. You aim to explain and evaluate possible points about an issue or topic
based on criteria. Academic papers having this purpose usually investigate, examine,
evaluate, assess, establish relationships and synthesize.

3. To inform. You want to explain and give readers new points about an issue or topic.

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Features of Academic Writing (Gillett, 2018)

Here are the defining characteristics of academic writing that makes it different
from the other types of writing you might have done in the past:

1. Complexity
The complexity of academic papers lies in the grammar not in the vocabulary.
Compare the following examples:

Non-academic Writing Academic Writing

You can control the trains this way and The use of this method of control
if you do that you can be quite sure that unquestionably leads to safer and faster
they’ll be able to run more safely and train running in the most adverse weather
more quickly than they would otherwise, conditions.
no matter how bad the weather gets.

2. Formality
Academic writing is formal because colloquial words and expressions (stuff,
sort of) as well as contractions (can’t, doesn’t) are avoided. Knowing the level of
formality needed in your paper is crucial that is why you should also know who your
readers are and your purpose for writing. The following table shows the three levels of
formality:

Informal/ Non-standard versus Formal/Standard Usages

Informal/Non-Standard Usages More Formal/Precise Equivalents

Alright,alot,result to, discuss about, cope up
All right, a lot, result in, discuss, cope with
with (non-standard, informal, or unique to (acceptable usages in Standard written
certain varieties of English) English)
Good-as in a “good” book (imprecise) Entertaining, insightful, interesting,
instructive (precise)
Can’t, won’t I’ll, she’s, didn’t Cannot, will not, I will, she is, did not
(conversational, speech-based (spelled out as two words)
contractions)
gonna, gotta (conversational/speech-based going to, have to (spelled out)
shortcuts)
Anyways, boring as hell, bored to death, Anyway, boring or uninteresting,
major downer (conversational/informal) extremely bored, depressing (more
formal/precise/uncluttered)
I got here late; she got out of the office; he I arrived here late; she left the office; he
got a call; they got gas (overused, imprecise received a call; they loaded gas or they
verb) refuelled (more specific alternatives)
ASAP, BTW,SOP (acronyms that may not As soon as possible, by the way, standard
be universally known) operating procedure (spelled out)

82
 UP, BTW, SOP (acronyms that may not be University of the Philippines, Ateneo de
universally known) Manila Iniversity, De La Salle University
(spelled out the first time they are used,
but later may be substituted with
acronyms)
hit the sack, loo, and comfort room Sleep, toilet or bathroom, and toilet or
(expressions from American English, British bathroom (more widely understood
English, and Philippine English) usages)
Lol, afk, nrn, #feels (informal Internet or text Laugh out loud, away from keyboard, no
messaging language) reply necessary, a wave of emotions
(spelled out or explained)

1. Precision

In academic writing, you have to make use of particular information, dates and figures.
For an instance, instead of saying “there are a lot of participants” say “there are 100
participants” instead.

2. Objectivity
Academic writing is not personal. This is because the emphasis should be on the
information and not on the writer. To ensure objectivity, strong support such as facts,
examples and expert opinions can be used.

3. Explicitness
The text of an academic paper is explicit in establishing the relationships in its contents.
It is not just all facts and summaries. Explicitness can be achieved by using transitional
devices.

4. Accuracy
Since academic writing is written by scholars for other scholars, the information therein
should be truthful and exact. Accuracy is seen not only in the information or data given
but also in the use of words. For an instance, while they may have similarities, the terms
“gathering”, “conference” and “meeting” refer to different things.

5. Organization
Academic writing is well-organized because the content flows easily from one part to
another. There is a standard organizational pattern for each kind but basically there is
an introduction, a body and a conclusion.

83
6. Planning
Academic writing is well-planned. The writer has a specific purpose in writing which has
been established after research and evaluation. For this, many research sources should
be used to support ideas that are integrated in the paper.

Things to be avoided in academic writing

1. Addressing readers especially by using second person pronouns.

2. Contractions
3. Questions (unless in the statement of the problem of a research paper)
4. Exclamations
5. Run on expressions
6. Coordinating conjunctions at the beginning of sentences
7. Passive voice (unless the agent of the action is unimportant)

Listed below are the basic types of academic paper.

ESSAY

BOOK
JOURNAL
REVIEW

RESEARCH
SYNTHESIS
PAPER

REACTION LITERATURE
PAPER REVIEW

84
 MOST COMMON EXAMPLES OF ACADEMIC WRITING

1. PERSONAL REFLECTIVE ESSAY: The personal reflective essay presents your

insights on a particular aspect of life as you have observed and experienced. It can
include vivid description of what you have witnessed and gone through.

Fig. 1 Gibb’s Reflective Cycle

PARTS OF REFLECTIVE ESSAY

•shortest; usually only one paragraph that establishes the frame of

your personal reflection in a clear and concise manner.
Introduction
•often achieved using reflective statements
•pointed sentences that describe the key ideas

•where you can be more creative with your space and structure
•it is where descriptive langauge must used to differentiate
Body
between simply retelling of key events ans a rich narrative that
exhibits true personal reflection.

•typically another single paragraph where restating the reflective

statements in the introduction must be avoided.
Conclusion •it is where you can remind your reader of the links between your
experiences and the impacts of these experiences have had on on
your development in the areas targerted, whether you are focusing
on growth academically, professionally or otherwise.

85
STEPS IN WRITING

1. Prewriting – in this stage, you plan what you are going to write. You choose your
topic, identify your audience and purpose, brainstorm ideas, and organize your
information.

2. Drafting – in this stage, you start with a working thesis and then write your ideas in
sentences and paragraphs. You follow your prewriting plan to create a first draft of your
essay.

3. Revising – This stage involves making changes that will improve your writing. You
focus on large-scale elements of the essay, such as, overall organization or logical flow
of support, effective thesis statement, interesting introduction and concluding
paragraphs, well-developed body paragraphs with clear topic sentences, appropriate
tone and style for intended audience and purpose, etc.

4. Editing and Proofreading – this is the stage of your essay where you polish your
essay. You focus on smaller-scale yet important essay elements, such as, clarity in
sentence structure, appropriate word choice, correct spelling and grammar, and
accurate document format.

5. Publishing – in this final stage, you choose a way to present your work to an audience
(often this is indicated by your instructor).

As already stated, these steps do NOT need to be completed in this exact order;
frequently, in the writing process, you go back and forth between the different stages. A
true visual representation of this process may be more circular than linear. It may look
something like this example:

86
TIPS IN WRITING

1. Consider your purpose and your context

2. Consider your audience and your mode and medium in choosing the level of
language you will use.
3. Consider your purpose, your audience, your stance and your tone.

Author: (Anonymous)

As an English major I have learned to appreciate the peaceful, yet exhilarating

moment when my mind engages with an author's thoughts on a page. As Toni Morrison
says in The Dancing Mind, "[reading is] to experience one's own mind dancing with
another's." In my early days as a college student, I wanted to know the "true" meaning of
a work or what the author intended, however, I have now realized this would void literature
of its most noteworthy complexities. Individual interpretations bring varied insights to a work
and it is also interesting to point out messages the author may not have realized s/he
included in the piece.

I have always been a thinker, but throughout my coursework, I have greatly

sharpened my critical analysis skills. Instead of focusing on proposed meanings or
biographical background, I have learned to continuously ask "why" on many different levels.
I challenge myself to dig into a text as deeply as possible and unpack every detail to develop
a satisfying close read. Also, by reading multiple novels by the same author I have learned
to identify different writing styles and make connections that weave texts together; this
helped me develop a deeper understanding of the novels. When I look at one of my
freshman level novels and see clean pages, I realize that I did not actively read the book. I
guess you could say that I have learned to read with a pen, which has drastically taken my
writing to a new level because I am able to connect back with my initial insights marked on
the page.

Writing had always been one of my strengths, but it was challenging to take that
initial step past the high school, five-paragraph essay form that constricted my ideas for so
long. Moving past this form, however, has greatly opened my mind. My thoughts are now
able to be more complex because I have learned how to sustain a logical argument in an
organized manner. My writing has become increasingly more concise and I no longer have
room for added "fluff" or "padding." Another improvement is my ability to point out multiple
complexities within a text, instead of sticking to one-sided arguments in my papers.
Furthermore, learning how to find peer reviewed journal articles and order books through
interlibrary loan has significantly widened the scope of my research, which has led to more
scholarly papers with credible references. My writing is so much more interesting than it
used to be.

It is difficult to identify gaps in my knowledge as an English major, only because I

feel like I have learned so much. I feel that I have largely expanded my literary analysis and
writing skills, but I need to be prepared to teach high school students their required
literature. I think it would be useful to identify commonly taught novels in our local high
schools and study them myself. By studying the required literature and thinking about how
to teach it, I will have a sturdy foundation to work from once I am in the classroom.

87
1. INFORMATIVE ESSAY: It is written to provide information on topics that are not known to
a vast majority of readers. You are expected to do some research since you need to give
facts and evidence on your chosen topic. Your end goal is to make sure your reader will
understand your topic better. Your readers will expect up-to-date information, as well as
explanations of complex terms.

It provides
concrete and
purposeful
information.

It may explains It uses

a process, different
analyse causes rhetorical
and effects. patterns.
features of
Informative
Essay

define unique
terminologies, It defines
or compare and complex terms
contrast certain and ideas.
subjects.

Some examples of informative Some possible titles for inspiration:

essay topics:
World poverty How to Donate Blood
History of women's right to vote A Brief History of Ireland
Dream interpretation Understanding the Link Between
Recycling How to Buy a House
Air pollution The Health Benefits of a Vegetarian Diet
Procrastination and its effects The Importance of Regular Daily Exercise
How to open a bank account Top Three Causes of Global Warming

Study the given example below:

88
 "How to Travel Solo Successfully"

James Baldwin said it best. "I met a lot of people in Europe. I even encountered myself"
(Baldwin, 2014). Solo travel will not only reveal colorful new heights, it will also introduce you to
yourself - your resiliency, your sense of adventure, your independence. Learning how to travel
solo is as intrinsic as tying your shoes, and it is something that can be learned today.

The first, most obvious, way to travel solo successfully is to research your area. The
number one indicator of a tourist is someone stopped in the middle of the sidewalk scanning the
GPS on their phone. According to World Travel News Report, four in fifteen tourists will be
pickpocketed if they stand still on a busy street (Parker, 2019). Arrive well-informed on the area.
Understand the public transportation system to the point where you can blend in as a local.

Also in line with safety, you may want to splurge on accommodations. You can stay alone
in a hostel, but read the reviews carefully. Make sure it is in a safe area and security is a priority
for them. You might even want to consider a private room, some of which include a private bath.

In terms of fun, pack for your lack of companionship. Bring a blank journal to record your
adventures. Pack a paperback to enjoy while you wait out a rainstorm in a coffee shop. World
traveler Samantha Byrnes says, "I never travel with friends. When I'm exploring a new continent,
my journal is my only sidekick" (Byrnes, 2018).

This allows her to absorb her new surroundings, make new acquaintances, and focus on
the act of encountering herself. Byrnes continues, "We lost sight of ourselves in the day-to-day.
We focus on work, family, to-do lists, chores. Solo travel allows us to return to ourselves so that,
when we resume our day-to-day activities, we can give our all" (Byrnes, 2018).

Learning how to travel solo successfully is an achievable feat. You can stay safe if you
remain knowledgeable on the area and choose your accommodations wisely. Beyond that, you
can experience true transformation through the simple act of carrying a tattered old journal.
What do you say? Will you explore solo travel? Choose wisely, for it just might change your life
forever.

2. RESEARCH REPORT

89
 A research paper uses outside information to support a thesis or make an
argument. Research papers are written in all disciplines and may be evaluative,
analytical, or critical in nature. Common research sources include data, primary sources
(e.g., historical records), and secondary sources (e.g., peer-reviewed scholarly articles).
Writing a research paper involves synthesizing this external information with your own
ideas.

COMMON RESEARCH FORMAT IN UNIVERSITY

TITLE
Name of author(s)
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
DEDICATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter I. Introduction
A. Background
B. Statement of topic area
Chapter II. Literature Review
A. Summary and synthesis of the major schools of thought s on the topic and a review of the relevant
current main findings reported on the chosen topic.
B. Conceptual framework (links the research variables which has been specified based on the findings in
the literature so that the research questions and hypothesis could be explicitly stated in the next
subsection
C. Specific research question(s) and hypothesis to be tested.
Chapter III. Method
A. Participants
1. Who? How many?
2. Characteristics (male/female, proficiency level, native language, etc.)
3. Sampling Technique
B. Materials
1. What equipment? What Setting?
2. What data collecting instruments?
C. Procedures
1. How is the treatment to be administered?
2. How/when is the testing to be conducted?
3. What analysis techniques?
Chapter IV. Results
Charts, tables, and/or figures accompanied by verbal descriptions
Chapter V. Discussion/Conclusion (often two separate sections)
Common features:
• Summary of conclusions
• Relation to other results
• Aberrant results
• Implications
• Grand summary (including summary, limitations and suggestions for future research)
APPENDICES
THE RESEARCH PAPER
BIBLIOGRAPHY

90
 The research paper is the result of an exhaustive process that involves critical
thinking, source evaluation, organization and composition (Baker, Brizee and
Velazquez, 2018). It aims to further the field it was written for and provides scholars
with the means for increasing their knowledge.

It should not be confused with summary of informed sources however. Nor it is an

expository or an interpretative essay. The research paper is much more since it requires
an exhaustive amount of investigation and evaluation of resources about a particular
topic.

I. Types of Research Paper

A. Argumentative Research Paper (Goal: Persuasion)

In this type of research paper, everything starts with an introduction that
introduces the topic and the stance it intends to take. Since this is the case, the topic
should be controversial or debatable.

Examine this topic carefully:

While the topic can instantly be classified as controversial, you might have
mistakenly concluded that it is also debatable. It is not.

If you examine the statement more carefully, you will notice that no claim is made.
The statement simply articulated how various official sources have studied the effect of
marijuana and found it to be effective against some diseases. In other words, there is no
stance yet. If you want to use the same topic in your research paper, you should state it
this way:

91
 In this statement, the stance of the writer is already present. The writer is
challenging the established norm of marijuana being illegal. Now, the thesis statement
is both controversial and debatable.

From there, the writer may develop the research paper by citing primary and secondary
sources to support her thesis and thus persuade his readers that the interpretation he
presented is possible.

B. Analytical Research Paper (Goal: Exploration and Evaluation)

In this type of research paper, a question is usually addressed. And while the
question may also be debatable or controversial, the writer does not take a stance since
that is not the intention of the paper in the first place.

Look at this example:

The statement above might be controversial and debatable in the sense that fairy
tales are not naturally examined or interpreted using the Marxist perspective; but take
note that there is no stance presented hence the writer does not intend to challenge
the traditional readings or interpretations on the fairy tale. Instead, the writer simply
aims to provide a new perspective or reading of the literary piece.

II. Parts of a Research Paper

Most probably, your professor will give you the format for the research paper you
are required to do. Nonetheless, a research paper generally consists of the following
parts:

A. Title Page
As the first page of your paper, this contains the following:
✓ Title
✓ Author’s name
✓ Institutional affiliation
Note: Your professor may also add additional information in the title page such as
semester and school year among others.

B. Main Text
The main text of a research paper is composed of the following parts:
✓ Abstract
(Should not exceed 120 to 150 words)
The abstract should specify the purpose of the study, the participants (if there are)
and the results.

Note: Below the abstract are the keywords of the study which are to be separated by
commas.

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✓ Introduction
This part should describe the rationale of the study. Preferably, the discussion
must run from general to specific and end with a purpose or a hypothesis.

✓ Review of Related Literature and Studies

This contains the primary and secondary sources used by the researcher in
identifying the gap of the study and in building the background for inquiry.
✓ Methodology
The Methodology includes information on the participants and their profile, the
instruments used and the procedure for data-gathering and analysis.

✓ Results and Discussion

This part contains the outcome of the study and the analysis done on the data
gathered and treated.

C. References
It is also termed as Bibliography or Works Cited in some instances. The sources
should be arranged in alphabetical order with hanging indention.

III. Developing the Introduction, Body and Conclusion (White, 2009)

A. The Introduction

The introduction’s purpose is to show the reader the issues that enabled the
researcher to develop the inquiry in the first place and how he proposes to address them.

The introduction of a research paper does not have to be very long. In fact, a
shorter introduction is better.

B. The Body

The body of the research paper contains (a) the development of the argument
and (b) needed information to sustain the conclusion. It is also composed of a number
of sections which are indicated by headings.

The headings act as signposts on how the argument is being developed. For a
paper of 5,000 words, it is advisable that only two levels of heading are used. For a
paper of about 15,000 words, three levels of heading can be used.

To develop the body, you may use relevant illustrations and authoritative
quotations. When you use these elements, make sure that you also weave in your
argument or points in between. Remember, illustrations and quotations are useful in
validating your perspective but they should not be the sole content of your paper.

C. The Conclusion

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 The last part of your paper, the conclusion, draws together everything that you
have argued and stated about the topic. Its focus should be on addressing the question
you asked at the beginning of the paper.

Phrase your conclusion in such a way that the inquiry will be finalized. There
should be no new arguments in this part of your paper.

IV. Re-drafting and Editing

Critiquing your first draft is a must. Look it over and reflect on the following
questions:
✓ Is the message clear?
✓ Are the points well-developed and exemplified?
✓ Is there a clear thread of argument?
✓ Are there gaps in the reasoning?
✓ Are there too many or too few quotations?
✓ Are the citations correctly stated?
✓ Was the research question/issue properly or clearly addressed?
✓ Do you think this is a good piece of writing?
It is at this stage that you will also receive the critique and advice of your
professor. Many students are apprehensive of this stage, but this should not be the case.
Instead, students should use this phase wisely since the supervisor’s criticism will enable
you to sharpen your ability to assess your own strengths and weaknesses in writing.

V. Preparing the Final Text

At this phase, your tasks will include the following:

✓ Following up points that need attention.

✓ Ensuring proper referencing.
✓ Editing the work to ensure that it complies with the specific requirements.

LESSON 2: UNDERSTANDING THE IMPORTANCE OF CITATION IN WRITING

ACADEMIC PAPERS

Objectives

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 By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. understand the importance of citing sources in writing and publishing an Academic

Papers

b. apply the different acceptable ways of citing and referencing in writing academic
paper.

Let’s Warm Up

Think and Answer!

1. Why do you think it is important to cite your sources in writing academic papers?

2. What would be the problem if you did not cite your sources in your academic paper?

3. What do you think is the significance of research paper in the society?

LET’S BEGIN…..

✓ AVOIDING PLAGIARISM

Plagiarism is the unethical practice of using words or ideas (either planned or

accidental) of another author/researcher or your own previous works without proper
acknowledgment.

It is considered as a serious academic and intellectual offense; plagiarism can

result in highly negative consequences such as paper retractions and loss of author
credibility and reputation.

It is currently a grave problem in academic publishing and a major reason for

retraction of research papers.

Here are some guidelines to avoid plagiarism.

1. Understand the context

Do not copy–paste the text verbatim from the reference paper. Instead, restate the
idea in your own words.

Understand the idea(s) of the reference source well in order to paraphrase correctly.

2. Quote

Use quotes to indicate that the text has been taken from another paper. The quotes
should be exactly the way they appear in the paper you take them from.

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 3. Identify what does and does not need to be cited

Any words or ideas that are not your own but taken from another paper need to be
cited.

Cite Your Own Material—If you are using content from your previous paper, you
must cite yourself. Using material you have published before without citation is called
self-plagiarism.

The scientific evidence you gathered after performing your tests should not be
cited.

Facts or common knowledge need not be cited. If unsure, include a reference.

4. Manage your citations

Maintain records of the sources you refer to. Use citation software like EndNote or
Reference Manager to manage the citations used for the paper

Use multiple references for the background information/literature survey. For

example, rather than referencing a review, the individual papers should be referred to
and cited.

5. Use plagiarism checkers

You can use various plagiarism detection tools such as iThenticate or eTBLAST
to see how much of your paper is plagiarised.

✓ CITATION

Citing and Referencing in Academic Writing

Academic writing involves sources of information from authorities of published

materials (books, journal articles and published reports). These sources are used to
support the ideas you present. They are classified as primary and secondary.

Primary: publicly available data (historical documents, interview data), raw data from
experiments and demographic records

Secondary: data that were also based on primary data and have been produced for
public consumption in journal articles or chapters in edited books.

When you include sources in your academic paper, they are known as literature. When
you use literature in your paper, it is known as citing or in-text referencing.

Citation Style Types

There are many types of citations styles used in academic writing and they depend on
the type of paper you are doing. Generally, students do not choose, they simply comply

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with the referencing style guidelines provided by the school or department they belong
to. The following are the citation style types commonly used in academic writing:

1. APA (American Psychological Association) FORMAT

APA (American Psychological Association): this is used within the social sciences and sometimes
in other related fields. It is an author-date format by which in-text references are given within
parentheses.

In-text referencing:
Ex. Diaz (2010) suggested that…
Recommendations suggested that (Diaz, 2010)

Reference list:
1. Book: Author’s last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of book. Place of
publication. Publisher.

Ex. Walklate, S. (2017). Criminology: The basics (2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom:
Taylor & Francis Ltd.

2. Journal article: Last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of article. Title of Journal,
Volume number. Page numbers.

Ex. Sorensen, J., Snell, C., & Rodriguez, J. J. (2006). An Assessment of Criminal Justice
and Criminology Journal Prestige∗. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 17(2), 297-
322.

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3. Webpage: Author’s last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of webpage. Retrieved
from [URL here].

Ex. Muirehead, R. (2016). Components of the Criminal Justice System | Goodwin

College. Retrieved from [Link]

Notes: If there is no author, begin with the title and then the publication date
If there is no publication date, write n.d. (no date) within the parentheses instead

2. MLA (Modern Language Association) FORMAT

MLA (Modern Language Association): this is used within the fields of literature and
language. In-text referencing is also done within parentheses at the end of the sentence.

In-text Referencing: In MLA, the last name of the author and the page number are cited.
Ex. Diaz suggested that…(11)
Recommendations suggested that…(Diaz 11)

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Reference list:
1. Book: Author’s last name, First Name. Book Title. Place of publication. Publisher,
Publication year.

Ex. Walklate, Sandra. Criminology: The Basics. 2nd ed. London, United Kingdom:
Taylor & Francis Ltd, 2017.

2. Journal Article: Author’s last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Journal Title.
Volume. Issue Publication Year. Inclusive page numbers.

Ex. Sorensen, Jon, et al. "An Assessment of Criminal Justice and Criminology Journal
Prestige∗." Journal of Criminal Justice Education, vol. 17, no. 2, 2006. pp. 297-322.

3. Webpage: Author’s last name, First name. “Title of Work.” Title of overall website.
Version. Publisher. Publication Year. Date of access.

Ex. Muirehead, Roger. "Components of the Criminal Justice System." Goodwin College.
Wordpress, 2016, [Link]/enews/components-criminal-justice/. Accessed 11
Nov. 2015.

Using Other Authors’ Ideas in Your Paper

You cannot simply copy literature when you cite them in your paper. You have
to state the author’s idea in your own words. While this may be difficult at first, you can
improve with practice. You can do this effectively by summarizing and paraphrasing.

a. Summarizing
To summarize is to select the key or important features of a text and then
consolidate these into a shorter version of the original text. Summarizing is done by
simplifying ideas and by using differently structured sentences (Bowker, 2007).

Look at the following example:

Original Text Summarized Version

According to Quijano (2007), One of the main reasons why
reading problems are one of the students do poorly in the National
primary reasons why some Achievement Test is poor
students do poorly in the reading skills (Quijano, 2007).
National Achievement Test or Which in turn are due to the
NAT has something to do with students’ disinterest in reading.

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 reading. Students’ poor reading
skills are credited to their lack of
interest in reading itself.

As you can see, there are words that were extracted from the original text and
used again in the summarized version. These are the keywords and preserving them in
the summarized version of the text is necessary to ensure that the original idea is still
retained.

b. Paraphrasing

When you paraphrase a text, you restate information differently. The difference
of summarizing from paraphrasing is that paraphrasing does not necessarily need to
shorten or condense the text. The aim of paraphrasing is to rewrite by using different
words and phrases (Bowker, 2007).

Look at the following example:

Original Text Paraphrased Version

This study was conducted among 100 Grade V pupils in Reina
100 Grade V pupils of Reina Mercedes Central School in the
Mercedes Central School during school year 2017-2018
the school year 2017-2018. participated as respondents in
Through the data-gathering, the this study. Data gathered from
researcher was able to determine the respondents indicated the
the relationship between the relationship between reading
reading performance and the performance and the reading
reading anxiety of the pupils anxiety experienced by the
pupils.

As you might have noticed, the paraphrased version is not necessarily shorter than
the original text. Furthermore, the order of ideas did not change.

Additional Techniques in Summarizing and Paraphrasing

Your summarizing and paraphrasing skills can be improved if you take the time to
develop an extensive vocabulary of words you can use. You may start with the following
terms (Bowker, 2007):

Articulate, comment, mention, maintain, note, point out, say, state, suggest,
indicate, refer
Hypothesize, predict, theorize, conceptualize, demonstrate, show, convey,
portray, support
Substantiate, corroborate, verify, confirm
Investigate, research, experiment, conduct, administer, observe
Acknowledge, assert, claim

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Argue, challenge, compare, contradict, contrast, counteract, debate, defend,
refute, hold
Comprise, consist, constitute, embody, characterize, define, identify,
recognize, diagnose
Create, construct, develop, generate, produce, evolve, manufacture
Synthesize, coordinate, cooperate, correspond, collaborate, contribute, share
Reveal, conceal
Analyze, examine, evaluate, scrutinize, criticize
Report, record, collect, collate, categorize, document
Differentiate, deviate, distinguish, divide, separate
Access, utilize, deploy, adopt, practice
Strengthen, increase, expand, weaken, reduce, decrease, contract, condense
Convince, compel, justify, explain, clarify, reason, account
Signify, highlight, specify, specialize, symbolize
Accumulate, calculate, maximize, minimize, formulate
Relate, connect, link, associate, correlate
Exclude, include, situate, locate, place
Condemn, deny, decline, negate
Dominate, segregate, subordinate
Affect, influence, transform
Conclude, summarize

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 You can also practice effectively summarizing and paraphrasing by changing the
structure and form of the sentences. For that, you may use the following strategies
(Bowker, 2007):

1. Start by citing the author’s name first

Ex. Diaz (2010) stated that….
According to Diaz (2010)….
2. Cite the author’s name in the middle or at the end of the statement
Ex. As indicated by Diaz (2010)….
Reading anxiety was defined by Diaz (2010)….
Reading anxiety is the….as stated by Diaz (2010).
3. Use different linking expressions or transitional devices to start a statement related
to the previous one.
Ex.
a. Being Specific
In particular…
Regarding…
In relation to…
With respect to…
More specifically…
In terms of…

b. Giving examples
For an instance…
Namely…
For example…
such as…
This can be illustrated by…

c. Clarifying
In other words…
Basically…
Namely…

d. Parallel ideas
Concurrently…
At the same time…
Simultaneously…
Equally…

e. Common points
Traditionally…
Typically…
Commonly…
Often…
Conventionally…

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 f. Acknowledging something but bringing up a different perspective
Although…
Even though…
Despite…
Notwithstanding…

g. Following a line of reason

Therefore…..
Consequently…
Hence…
Accordingly…
Subsequently…
To this end…
As a result...
As a corollary…

1. Summarize a point shared by different authors

Ex. Diaz (2010), Cruz and Po (2013) and Santos (2016) argued in their respective
studies that…

Quoting Authors’ Ideas

There are times when you do not have to summarize and paraphrase other
authors’ ideas when you use them in your paper; and you may use direct quotations
instead. When you do this, you have to enclose the direct quotations with quotation
marks (“ ”).

Ex. According to Natividad (2018), “Prospective teachers need to master

communicative competence to ensure effective instruction in their classrooms
later on.”

Direct quotations must be used minimally. You use direct quotations only when:

a. You cannot simplify the idea in your own words

b. You want to express the idea as authoritatively as possible
c. The original words need to be available for a particular purpose (laws, literary
piece excerpts)

Direct quotations should never stand alone as much as possible. They should always
be placed in the text as support to other points made or as support for other statements.

Ex. Communicative competency is regarded as a crucial ability for teachers; that is why
they should be trained for it as early as possible. According to Natividad (2018),

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 “Prospective teachers need to master communicative competence to ensure effective
instruction in their classrooms later on.”

As you can see in the given text, the direct quotation functioned as a support
for the claim given in the first sentence.

Tips for Including Quotations in the Academic Paper

1. Type every word as exactly as it is: wording, spelling and punctuation.

2. If there are errors in the original statement, do not correct them. Just place the Latin
term “sic” after the identified error/s to indicate that the words appeared as such in the
original text.
3. If you have to remove some parts from the quotation, replace them with the ellipses
(…). This can be done if there are parts of the quote that are unnecessary to your
purpose.

LESSON 3: PRESENTING YOUR PAPER

Objective

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. understand the requisites for oral presentation, and

b. perform an oral presentation using powerpoint.

Let’s Warm Up!

1. What are to be considered when preparing for oral presentation?

2. How many slides are needed for oral presentation?
3. How to make our powerpoint presentation effective?

In the tertiary level of education, students are expected to present their academic
works in different settings such as in the classroom, in conferences and other relevant
events. Generally, you may find these activities daunting because you have to
summarize a long report into a few minutes of presentation only. With careful preparation
however, the activity can be made easier. Furthermore, presenting your paper to the
public enables you to receive constructive feedback for improving your work.

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 According to McNair Scholars (2011), an oral presentation of an academic paper
should accomplish the following:

a. Show the importance of your work

b. State findings and analysis clearly
c. Stimulate others to ask questions, provide feedback or suggestions and develop an
interest in your topic

1. Preparing your draft

First of all, you have to keep in mind that to understand your work, your audience
will listen more to you rather than read what you show in your visual aids. That is why it
is important that you talk in such a way that your audience can easily follow you.

The Duke Writing Studio (2018) specified the following things that you should
remember to include in your talk:

✓ A brief introduction about yourself

✓ Thesis statement
✓ Rationale of your work
✓ Summarized body of your work
✓ Conclusion

2. Incorporating visuals

Visual components are meant to promote understanding of what you are saying
hence they should be presented as an aid and not a distraction to your discussion. Here
are some tips for you to consider in creating your visuals:

✓ Make sure that the background you use is simple and visually interesting. Also, avoid
backgrounds that make the text difficult to read.
✓ Text colors should contrast the background and keep them simple as well.
✓ Use fonts that are easy to read such as Times New Roman, Calibri or Arial. Use only
one font style all throughout your presentation. To ensure the readability of your text
observe these:

Titles: 44-point
Body: 22-point
✓ Avoid text heaviness. It is highly suggested that you create slides for each main point
of your discussion.
✓ Organize quantitative data in graphs or tables.

3. Presenting your work

The time allotment for your presentation is something that you have to consider.
After all, you need to address your topic directly and clearly in a matter of few minutes,
usually 10 to 20 minutes.

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 What students fear most in oral presentations is the prospect of questions about
their research. Nonetheless, if you understand your topic and what you did in your paper,
this is not really a problem. Moreover, you can always prepare and practice responses
to possible questions ahead of time.

Tips in addressing questions

✓ Listen attentively to the questioner. If possible, paraphrase the question to verify if

you understand what he/she is asking about:
“So you were asking if…”
“You would like to know if…”
✓ You do not have to answer right away. A short pause is acceptable because this
allows you to deliberate on how you will respond.
✓ If you cannot answer the question, be honest about it. There is nothing shameful
about not being able to answer some questions. You can simply say:
“Thank you for that question. Unfortunately I don’t have that information with me at
present.”
You can just offer to find out the answer and address it the next time

References

Aaron, Jane E. (2010). The Little Brown Compact Handbook with Exercises 7 th Ed.
Retrieved from [Link]

Baker, J., Brizee, A., & Velazquez, A. (2018). Writing a Research Paper. Retrieved from
[Link]

Bowker, N. (2007). Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing. Palmerston North, New
Zealand: Massey University.

Gillett, A. (2018, April 2). Features of Academic Writing. Retrieved from

[Link]

Hartley, J. (2008). Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Handbook. New York, NY:
Francis & Taylor.

Hecker, Diana and Nancy Sommer. (2011). A writers Reference 7 th [Link] from
[Link]

Kittlestad, Kit. Examples of Informative Essays. Retrieved

from[Link]

Koutraki, M. (2015). Section 4: Complexity & Formality as Features of Academic Writing [PDF].
Retrieved from

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[Link]
%204-Complexity%20%[Link]

McNair Scholars. (2011). How to Create an Oral Research Presentation [PDF]. Retrieved from
[Link]

Pardede, Parlindungan (2018). Research Component. Retrieved from

[Link]

Purdue Owl. (2018). Purdue OWL: Using Appropriate Language. Retrieved from
[Link]

Walden University. (2017). Walden University Writing Center. Retrieved from

[Link]

Whitaker, A. (2009, September). Academic Writing Guide 2010 A Step-by-Step Guide to Writing
Academic Papers [PDF]. Retrieved from
[Link]

White, R. C. (2009). Writing Guide 2: Writing a Research Paper (2nd ed.). Leicester, United
Kingdom: University of Leicester.

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