Biology

UNIT-1-CELL
(Lecture-01)

Concepts Covered in the Class

• Introduction to Cell and Cell Theory
• Typ es of Cel ls: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
• Pl ant Cell vs Animal Cell
• S izes of Different Cell s
• Prokaryotic Cell S tructure (Cell Envelope,
App endages, Plasmids, Inclusion Bodies)
• Gram S taining
• Eukaryotic Cell Organelles (Ribosomes,
Endomembrane S ystem, Mitochondria, Pl astids,
Cytoskel eton, Nucl eus, Microbodies)
• Cell Membrane and Transp ort
• Cell Wall
• Chromosomes
• Cell Cycl e and its Phases ( Interp hase and M -Phase)
• Mitosis (Prop hase, Metap hase, Anap hase, Telop hase,
Cytokinesis)
• S ignificance of Mitosis

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• Meiosis ( Meiosis I and Meiosis II)
• S ignificance of Meiosis
• Introduction to Biomol ecul es and El emental Anal ysis
• Chemical and Ash Anal ysis

• Primary and Secondary Metabolites

• Amino Acids and Proteins

• Carbohydrates
• L ipids
• Nucl eic Acids

• Metabolism and Typ es of Bonds

• Enz ymes ( Action, F actors Affecting Activity,

Cl assification, Co -factors)

INTRODUCTION TO CELL
• A cell is the fundamental structural and functional
unit of life.
• U nicellul ar organisms are cap able of independent
existence and performing essential life functions.
Anything l ess than a compl ete cell cannot ensure
independent living.

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Overview of scientists
• Anton Von Leeuw enhoek (1674): First saw and
described a live cell.
• Robert Brown ( 1831): Discovered the nucl eus.
• Cel l Theory: F ormul ated by S chl eiden ( 1838) and
S chw ann (1839) .
• Rudol f Virchow ( 1855): Modified the theory stating
that new cells form from pre -existing cells ( Omnis
cellula-e cellula ). Excep tion: Virus.

OVERVIEW OF CELL (GENERAL ASPECTS)

• Cytop l asm: Main arena of cell ul ar activities; a semi -
fluid matrix keeping the cel l in a living state.
• Eukaryotic cells have membrane -bound organelles.
Prokaryotic cells l ack them.
• Ribosomes are universall y p resent membranel ess
organelles. Centrosome is membranel ess, found in
animal cell s, and help s in cell division.

TYPES OF CELLS
• Prokaryotic Cell s: Primitive/not w ell -defined nucl eus.
U niversal 70S ribosomes ( 50S + 30S ).

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• Eukaryotic Cel ls: True/w ell -defined nucleus.
Cytopl asmic 80S ribosomes (60S + 40 S).
Mitochondria and chloropl asts have 70S ribosomes.

PLANT CELL VS ANIMAL CELL

• Pl ant Cell: Has a cell w all , large central vacuole ( up
to 90 % vol ume), and p l astids/chl orop l asts. L acks
centrioles/centrosomes.
• Animal Cell : Lacks cell w al l , pl astids, and a central
vacuol e. Has centriol es/centrosomes.

SIZES OF DIFFERENT CELLS

• Mycop l asma (PPL O ): S mall est cell; 0. 3 µm length
(S ize 0.1 µm).
• Bacteria: 3-5 µm length.

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• O strich egg: Largest isol ated singl e cell.
• Human RBC: 7.0 µm diameter.
• Nerve cell s: L ongest cells in humans.
• Virus: 0 .0 2-0. 2 µm.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
• K ingdom Monera (bacteria, blue -green algae,
mycopl asma). Mul tipl y rapidly.
• Genomic DNA is single, circul ar, and naked.
• Pl asmid DNA: Extra-chromosomal , small circul ar DNA
that p rovides unique traits like antibiotic resistance.

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SHAPES OF BACTERIAL CELLS
• Coccus: Round.
• Bacillus: Rod-shap ed ( forms endospores).
• Vibrio: Comma-shap ed.
• S pirill um: Sp ring -l ike ( has flagell a).

Mesosome
• F ormed by the extension/infol ding of the pl asma
membrane into the cell.
• F orms vesicles, tubul es, and lamel l ae.
• F unctions: DNA replication and distribution, cel l w all
formation, respiration, and secretion.

Chromatophores
• Membranous extensions into the cytopl asm
containing pigments for p hotosynthesis (e. g. , Blue -
green al gae).

Inclusion Bodies
• Membranel ess storage structures.
• Exampl es: Phosp hate granul es, Gl ycogen granules,
Cyanop hycean granules.
• Gas vacuol e: Provides buoyancy to bacteria ( not a
true vacuol e).

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CELL ENVELOPE
• Tightl y bound 3 -l ayered structure acting as a
p rotective unit.
• Gl ycocal yx (O utermost): Can be a l oose slime l ayer
( retains moisture) or a thick/tough cap sul e (p rovides
p rotection from immune systems and desiccation).
• Cel l w all: Rigid, p rovides shap e and structural
supp ort.
• Cel l membrane: Inner -most, fl exibl e, selectively
p ermeabl e.

GRAM STAINING
• Technique by Christian Gram based on the cell
envelope.
• Gram -p ositive: Retains stain ( e. g. , S trep tococcus).
• Gram -negative: Does not retain stain ( e. g. , E. col i).

RIBOSOME
• Discovered by George Pal ade (1953). S mall est
organelle.
• Pol ysome/Pol yribosome: When many ribosomes sit on
a singl e mRNA strand to make proteins.

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SURFACE STRUCTURES
• F l agell a: Used for motil ity. Made of fl agellin p rotein.

Parts: Fil ament (l ongest), Hook, Basal body.

• Pili: El ongated tubul ar structure made of special

PIL IN p rotein. U sed for fertility/conjugation.

• F imbriae: Bristl e-like structures for anchorage/grip.

• Note: Pili and Fimbriae have no rol e in motil ity.

EUKARYOTIC CELL
• Has extensive comp artmentalisation and a comp lex

cytoskeleton.

CELL MEMBRANE
• Detailed structure studied on human RBCs in 1950s

( 52% protein, 40 % l ipid).

• L ip ids: Arranged in a bil ayer. Phosp holipids have a

p ol ar hydrop hil ic head ( outside) and non -p ol ar

hydrop hobic tail (inside).

• Proteins: Cl assified as Perip heral ( easil y extracted,

surface) and Integral (p artiall y or totall y buried).

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FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
• Prop osed by Singer & Nicolson (1972).
• Quasi -fluid nature of lipids enabl es the l ateral
movement of proteins w ithin the bil ayer (fluidity).
• Chol esterol is found onl y in animal cells and acts as
a stabil iser.

FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE

• S ecretion, endocytosis, cell grow th, cell division, and
formation of intercel lul ar junctions.

TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANE

• Passive Transport: No ATP required. Downhill movement.
(Simple diffusion for neutral molecules, Facilitated
diffusion for polar molecules, Osmosis for water).

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• Active Transport: Needs ATP/pump. Uphill movement
against the concentration gradient (e.g., Na+/K+ pump).

CELL WALL
• Non -living, rigid boundary.
• Al gae: Made of cell ulose, gal actans, mannans, CaCO3.
• Plants: Made of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, proteins.
• Middle L amell a: Cal cium -pectate cement l ayer
hol ding neighbouring cell s together.
• Pl asmodesmata: Cytopl asmic strands connecting
adjacent cells.

CELL ORGANELLES
• Endomembrane S ystem: Functions are coordinated.
Incl udes Endopl asmic reticulum, Gol gi compl ex,
L ysosomes, and Vacuoles. (Mitochondria,
chl oropl asts, and peroxisomes are not incl uded).

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

• Reticul ar network in the cytopl asm.
• Rough ER ( RER): Contains ribosomes; active in
p rotein synthesis and secretion.
• S mooth ER ( SER): No ribosomes; synthesiz es lip ids
and steroid hormones.

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GOLGI COMPLEX (GC)
• Discovered by Camil l o Golgi ( 1898).
• Made of thin, fl at, disc -like structures call ed
cisternae (0. 5 -1 µm diameter).
• Has a Convex/cis/forming face and a
Concave/trans/maturing face.
• Packages materials, forms l ysosomes, and is the
imp ortant site for gl ycoprotein and gl ycolip id
formation ( Gl ycosyl ation).

LYSOSOME
• S ingl e membrane -bound suicidal bag.
• Contains hydrol ytic enz ymes ( lip ase, p rotease,
amyl ase, nuclease) active at acidic p H ( 4 -5).
• Helps in intracellul ar and extracell ul ar digestion.

VACUOLE
• S ingl e membrane known as Tonopl ast.
• S tores w ater, sap, excretory w aste.
• Contractile vacuol e in Amoeba helps in
excretion/osmoregul ation.

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MITOCHONDRIA
• S ausage-shaped or cylindrical. Double membrane
structure.
• Inner comp artment forms infol dings call ed cristae to
increase surface area.
• S ite of aerobic respiration ( produces ATP). K now n as
the p ower house of the cel l.
• Contains single circul ar dsDNA and 70 S ribosomes.
Divides by fission.

PLASTID
• F ound in p l ants and eugl enoids.
• Leucoplast: Colourless, stores food (Amyloplast - Starch,
Elaioplast - Fats/Oils, Aleuroplast - Proteins).

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• Chromopl ast: Col oured, contains carotene and
xanthop hyl l.

CHLOROPLAST
• Green -col oured, doubl e membrane -bound.
• S troma contains fl attened sacs call ed thyl akoids
arranged in stacks (grana).
• Contains enz ymes for carbohydrate/p rotein synthesis,

ds circul ar DNA, and 70 S ribosomes.

CYTOSKELETAL
• Netw ork of fil amentous proteinaceous structures
( microfil aments, microtubul es, intermediate

fil aments).

• Provides mechanical supp ort, motility, and shape

maintenance.

CILIA AND FLAGELLA

• Hair-like outgrow ths emerging from basal bodies.
• Core is called the axoneme, showing a 9+2
arrangement of microtubules.

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CENTRIOLE AND CENTROSOME
• Centrosome consists of 2 cylindrical membranel ess
centrioles perpendicul ar to each other.
• S how s a 9+0 arrangement (p erip heral triplets and a
central p roteinaceous hub).
• F orms the basal body of cilia/fl agell a and the sp indle
ap p aratus during cell division.

NUCLEUS
• Double membrane envel ope with nuclear p ores that
p romote bidirectional transp ort of RNA and proteins.

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• Nucl eol us: Membranel ess, sp herical site for active
ribosomal RNA ( rRNA) synthesis.
• Nucl eopl asm: Contains chromatin ( DNA + basic
histone proteins + non -histone p roteins + RNA).

CHROMOSOMES
• K inetochore: Proteinaceous disc on sides of the
centromere (p rimary constriction) w here sp indl e
fibers attach.
• S econdary constriction: Non-staining region p resent
in some chromosomes giving a satell ite ap pearance.
• Cl assification:
o Metacentric: Middl e centromere ( V -shap e).
o Sub-metacentric: Slightly away from middle (L-shape).
o Acrocentric: Close to the end ( J -shap e).
o Tel ocentric: Terminal centromere ( i -shape).

MICROBODIES
• S ingl e membrane -bound vesicl es.
• Peroxisome: Contains enzymes for peroxide metabolism.
• Gl yoxysome: Converts fats into carbs.
• S p haerosome: S tores lip ids.

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WHY CELLS DIVIDE?
• Cell grow th disturbs the nucleo -cytopl asmic ratio.
Cell division restores it.

IMPORTANCE OF CELL DIVISION

• Grow th and Rep roduction.

CELL CYCLE
• The sequence of events by w hich a cell duplicates its
genome, synthesiz es cell constituents, and divides.
• Duration varies (e. g. , Human cel l 24 hrs, Yeast 90
mins).

PHASES OF CELL CYCLE

• Interp hase: Resting/p rep aratory p hase ( >95% time).
S ub -p hases:
o G 1 Phase: Max cel l grow th, organelles duplicate.
o S Phase: DNA replication/synthesis. DNA content
doubles (2C to 4C), but chromosome number remains
the same. Centriole duplicates in cytoplasm.
o G 2 Phase: Protein ( tubul in) is made, cell grow th
continues.

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• G0 / Quiescent p hase: Cell s exit G1 p hase;
metabolicall y active but do not divide (e.g., heart
cells).
• M-p hase / Mitosis: Actual dividing p hase (<5%
time). Cal led Equational Division. Divided into
K aryokinesis and Cytokinesis.
• Mnemonics:
o PMAT (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase).

M-PHASE
• Prop hase: Centriol es start moving to opp osite p ol es.
DNA condenses. At the end, Nucleol us, Nucl ear
envelope, ER, and Gol gi disapp ear.
• Metap hase: Chromosomes align at the equator
( metap hasic pl ate). S pindl e fibers attach to
kinetochores. Best p hase to study chromosome
morphol ogy.
• Anaphase: Centromere spl its, chromatids sep arate
and move tow ards opp osite pol es. Best p hase to study
chromosome shap e.
• Tel op hase: Chromosomes decondense at p oles.
Nucl eol us, Nucl ear Envel ope, ER, and Gol gi reap pear.

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CYTOKINESIS: ANIMALS
• O ccurs by F urrow F ormation. The furrow deep ens
centrip etall y.

CYTOKINESIS: PLANTS
• O ccurs by Cell Pl ate Formation. Grows centrifugall y
and rep resents the middle l amell a.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS
• Grow th, rep air of injury, and repl acement of cells
( RBC, epidermis lining).
• Restores nucleo -cytopl asmic ratio.
• Col chicine is a mitotic p oison.

MEIOSIS
• Reductional Division. Maintains constant chromosome
number generation after generation.
• Invol ves tw o sequential cycl es ( Meiosis I and Meiosis
II) but onl y one cycl e of DNA rep lication. Resul ts in
4 hapl oid cells.

RECOMBINATION AND CROSSING OVER

• Creates variations useful for evol ution and survival.

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PHASES OF MEIOSIS
• Prop hase I: Lengthy and compl ex. Divided into 5 sub -
p hases:
o L ep totene: DNA condensation starts.
o Zygo tene: S ynapsis occurs; bival ent/tetrad and
synap tonemal complex formed.
o Pachy tene: Crossing over and recombination occur
( recombinase enz yme active).
o Dip l otene: S ynap tonemal complex dissolves, X-
shaped chiasmata become visible.
o Diakinesis: Terminalisation of chiasmata.
• Mnemonics:
o La Zara Paani De De (L ep totene, Zygotene,
Pachytene, Dipl otene, Diakinesis).
• Metap hase I: Bivalents al ign at equator.
• Anaphase I: Homol ogous chromosomes sep arate
(sister chromatids remain attached).
• Tel op hase I: Chromosomes reach p ol es. F ollow ed by
short Interkinesis.
• Meiosis II: Simil ar to mitosis, sep arates sister
chromatids.

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INTRODUCTION
• Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and
p hosp horus constitute >98% of living organisms.
• Macromolecules incl ude p roteins, nucleic acids, and
p ol ysaccharides.

ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS
• L iving organisms and Earth's crust have al most the
same el ements, but % composition is different ( C,
H, O , N are higher in living matter).

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• Tissue is grounded in Trichloroacetic acid to make a
sl urry.
• Acid sol ubl e p ool / Fil trate: Contains micro -molecules
( <80 0 Da) like amino acids, monosaccharides,
nucl eotides, inorganic ions.
• Acid insol ubl e p ool / Retentate: Contains
macromolecules (> 1000 Da) like p roteins,
p ol ysaccharides, nucl eic acids.

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• L ipids are micro -molecules but remain in the
insol ubl e pool because they form vesicl es from broken
cell membranes.

ASH ANALYSIS
• Destructive exp eriment to find inorganic elements.
Dry w eight is burnt to remove Carbon and Hydrogen
as gases, l eaving ash.

BIO-MICRO AND BIO -MACROMOLECULES

• Bio-micromol ecules: Siz e < 800 Da.
• Bio-macromol ecules: Siz e > 100 0 Da.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF A CELL

• Water ( 70 -90%), Proteins ( 10 -15%), Nucl eic acids
( 5-7%), Carbohydrates ( 3%), Lipids (2%), Ions
( 1%).

SECONDARY METABOLITES
• Primary Metabol ites: Identifiable functions in normal
p hysiol ogy (e.g. , amino acids).

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• S econdary Metabol ites: No direct role in basic
grow th/reproduction. Economicall y imp ortant.
• Examples: Pigments (Carotenoids), Alkaloids (Morphine,
Codeine), Toxins (Ricin, Abrin), Drugs (Vinblastin).

AMINO ACIDS
• O rganic comp ounds containing an amino group and an
acidic group on the same alp ha -carbon.
• Based on amino/carboxyl groups, they are Acidic
( gl utamic acid), Basic (l ysine), or Neutral ( valine).
• Exist as Zw itter ions at neutral p H.

ESSENTIAL AND NON -ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

• Essential: Not made by our body, needed in diet.
• Non -essential : O ur body can make them.

PROTEIN
• Heterop ol ymers of amino acids linked by pep tide
bonds.
• S tructure levels: Primary ( straight chain sequence),
S econdary ( alpha -hel ix, beta -pl eated sheet), Tertiary
( 3D structure, imp ortant for biol ogical reactions),
Quaternary ( mul tip le subunits, e. g. , Haemogl obin).

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• Coll agen: Most abundant p rotein in the animal w orl d.
• RuBisCO: Most abundant protein in the biosp here.

CARBOHYDRATES
• Pol ysaccharides are long chains of sugars
( monosaccharides).
• S tarch: Helical secondary structure, hol ds I2 to give
blue col our.
• Cel l ul ose: Most abundant, p resent in pl ant cell w all s.
• Gl ycogen: S torage in animal s. Right end is reducing,
l eft end is non -reducing.
• Chitin: Comp lex homop ol ysaccharide in fungal w alls
and arthrop od exoskeletons.

LIPIDS
• Not strict macromol ecul es. S imp le fatty acids are
saturated ( single bond) or unsaturated ( double
bonds).
• Gl ycerol : Trihydroxy p rop ane.
• Esters of fatty acids w ith gl ycerol form
mono/di/trigl ycerides.
• O ils: Have l ower mel ting p oints ( e. g. , gingell y oil ).

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• Phosp hol ip ids: Contain p hosp horus, found in cell
membranes ( e.g. , L ecithin).
• Chol esterol: Derived lip id with 4 fused rings.

NUCLEIC ACID
• Discovered by Miescher (nucl ein). Polymers of
nucl eotides.
• Nucl eotide: Pentose S ugar + Nitrogenous Base +
Phosp hate group.
• Nucl eoside: S ugar + Nitrogenous Base.
• Purines: Adenine ( A), Guanine ( G).
• Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Uracil (U ), Thymine ( T).

METABOLISM
• S um total of all chemical reactions in the body.
• Catabolism: Breaks dow n l arge mol ecules, rel eases
energy.
• Anabolism: Buil ds mol ecul es, requires energy.

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TYPES OF BONDS
• Pep tide bond: L inks amino acids.

• Gl ycosidic bond: Links monosaccharides.

• Ester/Phosp hodiester bond: L inks p hosphate and

sugar in nucl eic acids.

ENZYMES
• Biocatal ysts made of p roteins ( excep t riboz yme).

• They increase the rate of reaction by l ow ering

activation energy.

• Active site: Pocket/crevice where substrate fits.

FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

• Temperature and p H: Enz ymes w ork in a narrow

op timum range. High temp denatures them; l ow temp

inactivates them.

• Concentration of S ubstrate: Vel ocity increases to a

maximum ( Vmax).

• Michael is and Menten's constant ( K m): S ubstrate

concentration w hen vel ocity is Vmax/2.

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ENZYME INHIBITION
• S pecific chemicals that bind and shut off enz yme
activity. Exampl es incl ude Comp etitive and
Noncompetitive inhibitors.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
• Cl assified into 6 cl asses.
• Mnemonics:
o OTHLIL (Oxidoreductases, Transferases, Hydrolases,
Lyases, Isomerases, Ligases).

CO-FACTORS
• Non -p rotein comp onents binding to an Apoenz yme to
form an active Hol oenz yme.
• Prosthetic group s: Tightl y bound ( e. g. , haem).
• C o-enz ymes: Loosel y bound organic comp ounds ( e. g.,
NAD/NADP).
• Metal ions: Form coordination bonds ( e. g. , zinc in
carboxypep tidase).

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