TG: @Chalnaayaaar

Nucleus and Nuclear Force

Part -01

Nucleus
(i) Central core of every atom.
(ii) Discovered by Rutherford in -scattering experiment.
(iii) The order of nuclear size = 10–15 m or fm while the order of atomic size = 10–10 m or Å
(iv) Protons and neutrons, together referred as nucleons.
A
(v) A nuclide is represented by ZX
Z = atomic number = p (no. of protons)
A = mass number = total no. of nucleons = n + p
(vi) Atomic masses are generally represented by atomic mass unit (u)
mass of C12 atom
1u = = 1.66 × 10–27 kg
12
mp = 1.6726 × 10–27 kg = 1.00727 u
mn = 1.6749 × 10–27 kg = 1.00866 u
me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg = 0.00055 u

Types of Nuclei
(i) Isotope : same Z
(ii) Isobar : same A
(iii) Isotone : same (A – Z)

Properties of Nuclei
Size of Nucleus : (Order is fermi)
As the number of nucleons in nucleus increases its size also increases and relation between its radius
and mass number is R  A1/3
R = R0A1/3
Here R0 is a constant and its value R0 1.2 fm.
Volume of Nucleus
Volume  R3 (But R  A1/3) or volume  A
Mass of Nucleus
Its mass is quite small compare to gm or kg. Therefore it is measured in another unit - amu
(Atomic Mass Unit)
Mass of an nucleus of mass number A is ≈ Amp  amu or mass of an nucleus, m  A

 Digital [1]

 TG: @Chalnaayaaar

Nuclei – Part-01

Density of Nucleus ()

mass Amp Amp 3mp
=  = = 2.3 1017 kg /m3
volume 4 R3 4 R 3A 4R03
3 3 0
It means  is independent of A. Density of nuclei of all types of element is same and its order is 10 17
kg/m3 or 1014 g/cm3

Forces acting inside the nucleus

There are three forces interacting between nucleons, these are
(i) Gravitational force - weakest force of nature
(ii) Electrostatic repulsive (Colombian) force → only works between proton. This is stronger than
gravitational force.
(iii) Nuclear force → strongest interaction that holds nucleons together to form nuclei and it is powerful
enough to overcome the electric repulsion of proton and proton.

Features of Nuclear Force (Fn)

1. The strongest force in the universe.
2. Works only between the nucleons.
3. Very short range : only upto size of nucleus (3 or 4 fermi). More than this distance, nuclear force is
almost zero.
4. Very much depends upon distance :– Small variation in distance may cause of large change in
nuclear force while electrostatic force remains almost unaffected.
5. Independent of charge :– Interacts between n–n as well as between p–p and also between n–p.
6. Spin dependent :– It is stronger between nucleons having same sense of spin than between nucleons
having opposite sense of spin.
7. It is not a central force: – Definition of central force (Fc) : Whose line of action always passes through
a fixed point and its magnitude depends only on distance, if medium is same.
K
Fc = (  rˆ ) is central force.
rn
Electrostatic and gravitational forces are central forces.
8. Nature: – (i) Attractive – If distance is greater than 0.8 fm or above.
(ii) Repulsive – If distance is lesser than 0.8 fm.

Illustration 1.
Calculate mass no. of that nucleus whose radius is half of Ge72.
Solution.
r  A1/3
r
1/3
2 = A   1 = A A =9
 
r  72  8 72

 Digital [2]

 TG: @Chalnaayaaar

Nuclei – Part-01

Illustration 2.
12
Find the density of 6 C
Solution.
Mass of nucleus  12mP = 12 × 1.66 × 10–27 kg {mP = mass of proton}
M 12 1.66  10–27 kg
= = = 2.4  1017 kg m–3
4 3 4  3
R  1.2 10–15(12)1/3  m3
3 3

 Digital [3]

 TG: @Chalnaayaaar

Einstein's Mass - Energy Relation

Part -02

Einstein's mass energy equivalence

According to Einstein, mass can be converted into energy and energy into mass. This relation is given
by -
E = mc2
Here E = total energy associated with mass m ; c2 = used as a conversion coefficient

 Digital [1]

 TG: @Chalnaayaaar

Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy

Part -03

Mass defect
(i) Mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of masses of its constituent nucleons. This difference is
called mass defect.
(ii) If observed mass of nucleus ZXA be M, mass of proton is Mp and mass of neutron is Mn then
mass defect = m = [ZMp + (A – Z)Mn] – M.
(iii) If M is taken as mass atom of ZXA instead of mass of nucleus then
m = [Z(Mp + Me) + (A – Z)Mn] – Matom

Binding energy (Eb)

(i) Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy required to split it into its nucleons (free).
(ii) Eb = m.c2
(iii) It is always positive and numerically equal to the energy equivalent of mass defect (or equal to the
energy liberated when it was formed)

Illustration 1.
The mass defect in a nuclear fusion reaction is 0.05%. What amount of energy will be liberated in one
kg fusion reaction?
Solution.
0.05
Mass defect = m = 0.05% of 1 kg = kg = 5 × 10–4 kg
100
Energy liberated = (m)c2 = (5 × 10–4) (9 × 1016)J = 45 ×1012 J

Illustration 2.
What is energy released by fission of 1 gm U235?
Solution.
NA
Number of atom in 1 gm of U235 =
235
NA 6.023 1023
Energy released = × 200 MeV = × 200 MeV = 5 × 1023 MeV
235 235
= (5 × 1023) (1.6 × 10–13 J) = 8 × 1010 J
8 1010
= 6
kWH = 2.22 × 104 kWH
3.6 10

 Digital [1]

 TG: @Chalnaayaaar

Nuclei – Part-03

Illustration 3.
235
What is the power output of 92 U reactor if it takes 30 days to use up 2 kg of fuel and if each fission
gives 185 MeV of usable energy?
Solution.
235 6.02 1023  2 103
Number of atoms in 2 kg of 92 U = = 5.12 1024
235
Therefore, energy released in 30 day = 5.12 × 1024 × 185 MeV = 1.51 × 1014 J
1  51  1014
 Energy released per second = = 58.4 MW
30  24  60  60

Illustration 4.
Obtain the binding energy of a nitrogen nucleus ( N) in MeV from the following data.
14
7

mH = 1·00783u, mn = 1·00867 u, mN = 14·00307 u

Solution.
Mass defect m = 7mp + 7mn – mN = 7 × 1·00783 + 7 × 1·00867 – 14·00307 = 0·11243 amu
Binding energy = m × 931 MeV = 0·11243 × 931 MeV = 104·67 MeV

 Digital [2]

 TG: @Chalnaayaaar

Binding Energy per Nucleon and its Curve

Part -04

𝚫𝚬𝐛
Binding Energy per Nucleon [ ]
𝐀
Binding energy per nucleon (MeV)

10 56
16
O
32
S Fe 100
Mo 127
12 I
8 C 197
An
4
He 14 18O 184
W 238
U
6 N
6
Li
4
3
H
2
2
H
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Mass number (A)
Figure: The binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number.

(i) The value of binding energy per nucleon decides the stability of a nucleus. It is obtained by dividing
binding energy by the mass number of given nucleus.
(ii) The following figure shows the binding energy per nucleon plotted against the mass number of
various atoms nuclei
Greater the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the nucleus.
56
(iii) It is maximum for isotope of iron – 26Fe and is 8.8 MeV/nucleon. It is the most stable nucleus.
(iv) For Uranium, binding energy per nucleon is about 7.7 MeV/nucleon and it is unstable.
(v) The medium size nuclei are more stable than light or heavy nuclei.

Illustration 1.
Explain nuclear fission & fusion on the basis of binding energy of nucleus.
Solution.
Binding energy per

In fission : nucleus A breaks into B & C B C

A
nucleon

In fussion : P & Q fuse to result in nucleus R

R
In both cases the net B.E. increases resulting in
Q
energy release. P
Mass number

 Digital [1]

 TG: @Chalnaayaaar

Nuclear Fission and Chain Reaction

Part -05

Nuclear Fission
Splitting of a heavy nucleus (A > 230) into two or more lighter nuclei when struck by a neutron.
In this process certain mass disappears which is obtained in the form of energy (enormous amount)
A + n → excited nucleus → B + C + Q
Hahn and Strassmann done the first fission (fission of nucleus of U235).
When U235 is bombarded by a neutron it splits into two fragments and 2 or 3 secondary neutrons and
releases about 200 MeV energy per fission (or from single nucleus)
Fragments are uncertain but each time energy released is almost same.
Possible reactions are -
U235 + 0n1 → Ba + Kr + 30n1 + 200 MeV
or U235 + 0n1 → Xe + Sr + 20n1 + 200 MeV
and many other reactions are possible.
(i) The average number of secondary neutrons is 2.5.
(ii) Nuclear fission can be explained by using " liquid drop model" also.
(iii) The mass defect Dm is about 0.1% of mass of fissioned nucleus
(iv) About 93% of released energy (Q) is appear in the form of kinetic energies of products and about 7%
part in the form of  - rays.

Nuclear Chain Reaction

The equation of fission of U235 is 92U
235
+ 0n1 → 56Ba144 + 36Kr89 + 30n1 + Q
These three secondary neutrons produced in the reaction may cause of fission of three more U235 and
give 9 neutrons, which in turn, may cause of nine more fission of U235 and so on.
Thus a continuous 'Nuclear Chain reaction' would start.
If there is no control on chain reaction then in a short time (≈ 10–6 sec.) a huge amount of energy will
be released. (This is the principle of 'Atom bomb')
If chain reaction is controlled then produced energy can be used for peaceful purposes. For example
nuclear reactor (Based on fission) generates electricity.

Natural Uranium
It is mixture of U235 (0.7%) and U238 (99.3%)
U235 is easily fissionable, by slow neutron (or thermal neutrons) having K.E. of the order of 0.03 eV.
To improve the quality, percentage of U235 is increased to 3%. The improved uranium is called
'Enriched Uranium' (97% U238 and 3% U235)

 Digital [1]

 TG: @Chalnaayaaar

Nuclei – Part-05

Losses of Secondary Neutrons

Leakage of neutrons from the system
Due to their high K.E. some neutrons escape from the system.
Absorption of neutrons by U238
U238 is not fissionable by these secondary fast neutrons. But U238 absorbs some fast neutrons.

Critical Size (or mass)

In order to sustain chain reaction in a sample of enriched uranium, it is required that the number of
lost neutrons should be much smaller than the number of neutrons produced in a fission process. For
it the size of uranium block should be equal or greater than a certain size called critical size.

rate of productionof neutrons

Reproduction factor (K) =
rate of loss of neutrons
(i) If size of Uranium used is 'Critical' then K = 1 and the chain reaction will be steady or sustained (As in
nuclear reaction)
(ii) If size of Uranium used is 'Super critical' then K > 1 and chain reaction will accelerate resulting in a
explosion (As in atom bomb)
(iii) If size of Uranium used is 'Sub Critical' then K < 1 and chain reaction will retard and ultimately stop.

Illustration 1.
238 238 237 1
Show that the nucleus 92 U emitting a proton through the decay process 92 U →91 Pa + 1H can not
proceed spontaneously.
Mass of uranium = 238.05079 a.m.u.
Mass of paladium = 237.05121 a.m.u.
Mass of proton = 1.00783 a.m.u.
Solution.
Here Q = (238.05079 – 237.05121 – 1.00783)c2 = (– 0.00825u)c2
As the Q for this process is negative, the decay can not proceed spontaneously.

Illustration 2.
11
The radionuclide 6 C decays by + emission. Write symbolically this decay process.

Given that m ( C) = 11.011434 u

11
6

m ( B) = 11.009305 u
11
6

me = 0.000548 u, 1u = 931.5 MeV/c2

Calculate the Q-value.
Solution.
Equation of b+-decay of 6C11 ; 6C11 ⎯→ 5B11 + +10 +  + Q
Q-value of reaction = mc2
( ) ( )
= m 6 C11 − 6me − m 5 B11 + 5me − me  c2

( ) ( )
= m 6 C11 − m 5 B11 − 2me  c2
= 11.011434 − 11.009305 − 2 0.000548 uc2
= [0.001033] uc2 = 0.001033 × 931.5 MeV = 0.962 MeV

 Digital [2]

 TG: @Chalnaayaaar

Nuclei – Part-05

Illustration 3.
Calculate the percent increase in mass of an electron accelerated by a potential difference of 500 kV.
Solution.
Kinetic energy of electron = 500 keV & Rest mass energy of electron = 511 keV
Total energy = mc2 = m0c2 + KE = (511 + 500) keV
m − m0 500
Percent increase in mass = × 100 = × 100 = 97.8 %
m0 511

 Digital [3]

 TG: @Chalnaayaaar

Nuclear Reactor and Fast Breeder Reactor

Part -06

Nuclear Reactor (K = 1)
Its main constituents are -

Nuclear Fuel
Commonly used are U235, Pu239.
Pu239 is the best.
But Pu239 is not naturally available and U235 is used in most of the reactors.

Moderator
Its function is to slow down the fast-secondary neutrons. Because only slow neutrons are capable for
the fission of U235. The moderator should be light and it should not absorb neutrons. Commonly,
Heavy water (D2O, molecular weight 20 gm.) are used.

Control rods
They have the ability to capture the slow neutrons and can control the rate of chain reaction at
any stage.
Boron and Cadmium are best absorber of neutrons.

Coolant
A substance which absorb the produced heat and transfers it to water for further use. Generaly coolant
is water at high pressure

Fast Breeder Reactors

The atomic reactor in which fresh fissionable fuel (Pu239) is produced along with energy.
Fuel : Natural Uranium.
During fission of U235, energy and secondary neutrons are produced. These secondary neutrons are
absorbed by U238 and U239 is formed. This U239 converts into Pu239 after two beta decay. This Pu239 can
be separated, its half life is 2400 years.
238 2 −

92 U + 0 n1 → 92U239 ⎯⎯ → 94Pu239 (best fuel of fission)

This Pu239 can be used in nuclear weapons because of its small critical size than U235.

 Digital [1]

 TG: @Chalnaayaaar

Nuclear Fusion

Part -07

Nuclear Fusion
It is the phenomenon of fusing two or more lighter nuclei to form a single heavy nucleus.
A + B → C + Q (Fusion)
The product (C) is more stable then reactants (A and B).
and mc < (ma + mb)
and mass defect m = [(ma + mb) – mc] amu
Energy released is E = m × 931 MeV/amu
The total binding energy and binding energy per nucleon C both are more than of A and B.
E = Ec – (Ea + Eb)
Fusion of four hydrogen nuclei into helium nucleus -
4(1H1) → 2He4 + 2 +0 + 2 + 26 MeV
(i) Energy released per fission >> Energy released per fusion
 200   26 
(ii) Energy per nucleon in fission = − 0.85MeV  << energy per nucleon in fusion = 4 − 6.5MeV 
 235   

Required condition for nuclear fusion

(a) High Temperature
Which provide kinetic energy to nuclei to overcome the repulsive electrostatic force between them.
(b) High Pressure (or density)
Which ensure frequent collision and increases the probability of fusion.
These condition exist in the sun and in many other stars. The source of energy in the sun is nuclear
fusion, where hydrogen is in plasma state and protons fuse to form helium nuclei.

 Digital [1]