Electrical: Module 3: Lecture Notes3 [Link] 3d.
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Supply Arrangements
Protective Equipment
BS.88, HBC Fuses
The familiar re-wirable fuse [BS.3036], consists of a thin wire held between the terminals of a porcelain or bakalite holder
and has limited breaking capacity [Type S1 = 1kA, S2 = 2kA, S3 = 4kA - Breaking Capacity is the ability of a circuit
protective device to successfully interrupt the flow of current in a short-circuit situation, without causing damage to itself or
its housing. It is usually quoted as a maximum short-circuit current capacity or a fault level in MVA given from [Link]
.Ishort-circuit].
If a very large current flows the fuse wire melts very rapidly and a large amount of energy is suddenly released. The energy
can be large enough to cause serious damage to the fuse carrier. It was found that some of this energy could be absorbed
by surrounding the fuse wire with inert fibrous or granular material.
This then led to the development of the cartridge fuse and ultimately to the HRC (high rupture capacity) and HBC (high
breaking capacity) fuses. Actually, the term HRC can be applied to all fuses with a breaking capacity greater than 33kA
and the term HBC is intended for higher breaking capacity fuses, such as BS.88 tested up to 80kA. However, many people
use either term to imply either fuse and it is therefore generally safer to refer to any protective device by its BS number.
[N.B. The size of a fuse or circuit breaker refers to its rated full-load current capacity not its breaking capacity, nor its
physical dimensions].
Click Here for Illustration of High-Current Level Fault.
[Note the high temperature of the arc and the violent expansion of the air as it is heated].
Essentially the fuse consists of a tubular body manufactured from high grade ceramic and designed to withstand the
mechanical and thermal forces of heavy current interruption. The body then contains specially designed fusible elements,
usually of silver or an associated alloy, to ensure non-oxidation and hence non-deterioration during life. The elements are
typically flat but very thin, almost 'foil' section to ensure a large surface area through which they can dissipate heat on
normal load conditions and hence remain cooler than the equivalent re-wirable fuses in operation. To ensure very rapid
fuse operation under heavy fault current conditions, apart from making the fuse element very thin, several smaller elements
are used in parallel, rather than one single heavier unit. This way each element has a very low thermal inertia and can thus
respond with very rapid melting times, typically 1 to 2 milliseconds, under short-circuit conditions. In addition, to assist in
the control of the arc which forms when the elements part, each element has a number of reduced sections along its
length to promote the growth of several smaller arcs, rather than one larger arc. This has the effect of increasing the total
arc voltage-drop and hence offers a higher resistance to the passage of current through the fuse. Additionally, the
temperature of each of the smaller arcs is liable to be lower that one large main arc, making them easier to control.
The fuses are filled with a granulated quartz or silica [fine white sand], so that the elements are surrounded and operate in
close proximity to the high purity granulated silica filling, which being a good conductor of heat, further helps to conduct
heat away from the elements under their normal load conditions. When a heavy fault occurs and each element melts, the
resultant arc causes vaporisation of the fuse element material and fusion then occurs between the vapour and the filling
powder, and this process rapidly conducts heat away from the arc thus reducing electron energy and mobility thereby
increasing arc resistance leading to rapid arc extinction. The process is almost akin to quenching the arc.
To contain the silica and enable electrical connections to be made, the ceramic body is sealed by plated brass end-caps
which are pressed onto the body and to which copper tags are riveted [for strength] and soldered [for conductivity] to make
the required connections to the fuse holder or carrier.
Alternative ways to reduce element
cross-section to ensure multiple arc growth
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This high level of design technology results in a very rapid operation under heavy fault conditions [typically currents 30-40
times the fuse rating or higher], so rapid in fact that melting occurs within the first few milliseconds into the fault current and
thus an arc forms, and starts to be controlled even before the fault current can reach its first sinusoidal peak. This therefore
'cuts-off' the current, not allowing it to reach its maximum peak condition and thereby limits the thermal and magnetic
stresses [both proportional to I 2] passed into the circuit. This action is termed a current limiting action.
The time the fuse takes to melt is obviously termed the melting time and the sum of the melting and arcing times is the
total operating time which under heavy fault conditions is around 5 to 6 milliseconds.
Pre-Arcing:
Now the term melting only applies to fuses, circuit breakers don't melt [or they shouldn't], but all devices arc when they
break the circuit contact [this is a natural phenomena and dissipates the stored reactive energy in the circuit at the moment
of circuit interruption - and unfortunately under heavy current conditions there just happens to be a lot of energy]. Thus the
term 'pre-arcing' - the time before the fuse melts or the contacts in the circuit breaker separate - the time before any arcing
begins, is a much more 'universal' term.
This is how the fuse operates under heavy fault conditions, but how do we check for discrimination? Well actually, we need
to check it in two ways. Some circuit protective devices are not able to respond very quickly under all conditions of current
whilst others may have different time/current characteristics for their overload and short-circuit performance. Thus to ensure
that we get complete discrimination we have to check their operation across all times and all currents to which they are
likely to be exposed from normal load current right up to their prospective short-circuit current.
Now the range of operating currents and times is so large, ranging from a few amperes up to several thousand ampere,
and from several thousand seconds down to fractions of second, that to plot the fuse characteristic on normal graph paper
would require ridiculously massive graph paper [at 1 cm = 10A for example we would require graph paper 10 metres wide to
reach 10,000A!]. We therefore compress the current and time scales by using a logarithmic scale for both current and time
values.
Below for example are typical I/t (Current/Time) characteristics for 32A and 160A BS.88 fuses.
To achieve successful discrimination, the characteristics must not cross, for if they do, it would indicate that one device
was 'taking over' the time protection of the circuit at that point, i.e. that perhaps the larger [or major] fuse was now
operating faster than the smaller [or minor] and hence discrimination would be lost.
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But what happens to the discrimination under heavy fault conditions? - at times less than half a mains cycle, just where the
graph runs out?
Clearly the current flowing through the fuse under these conditions is not a sine wave, and it wouldn't be much use if it
was, for during these conditions we need to consider the energy within the fuse element, both before it melts and after.
Fault Energy and I2t
If we are checking discrimination between say two fuses as shown, we only need to compare them, not to measure their
absolute energy values. So in these cases we do not need to know the resistance of either fuse as it is not a common
parameter. The only parameters which are common to both fuses are current i or i2 to be precise and time t - no matter
which fuse operates, when one of them does the fault-current will be cut-off from the whole network.
Therefore the fuse element melts at a value of
which is a physical property of the material and which can be measured or calculated. For ease of use, the integral term
is written at I2t, where I is the equivalent rms value of the current over the integral period.
The value of which is integrated up to the moment of melting of the ruse is called the pre-arcing I2t and the value of
over the whole of the fusing period the total I2t.
It should be noted, that the total I2t x R is the heat-power generated in any external conductor, such as a cable or motor or
generator winding, and thus I2t is a measure of the damage which may be done by a short circuit. The total I2t is therefore
an important quantity and is called the let through I2t, which because it may be defined as the energy dissipated as heat
during a specific operation per ohm of resistance, is often called the 'specific energy' or 'Joule Integral' of the operation.
Thus discrimination can be assured if:
"The total I2t of the minor fuse is less than, the pre-arcing I2t of the major fuse"
which in plain English means that the smaller or minor fuse must complete its operation before the larger or major fuse
reaches its melting point.
Typical values quoted by the manufacturer are noted overleaf.
MEM Type S Fuses, I2t values at 415 volts
Current Rating Pre-arcing I2t Total I2t
(A) (A2s) (A2s)
2 0.9 1.7
4 4 12
6 16 59
10 56 170
16 190 580
20 310 810
25 630 1700
32 1200 2800
40 2000 6000
50 3600 11000
63 6500 14000
80 13 x 103 36 x 103
100 24 x 10 3 66 x 10 3
125 34 x 10 3 120 x 10 3
160 80 x 10 3 260 x 10 3
200 140 x 103 400 x 10 3
250 230 x 103 560 x 10 3
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315 360 x 10 3 920 x 10 3
355 550 x 10 3 1300 x 10 3
400 700 x 10 3 1400 x 10 3
450 800 x 10 3 1800 x 10 3
500 900 x 10 3 2300 x 10 3
630 2200 x 10 3 4500 x 10 3
700 2500 x 10 3 5000 x 10 3
800 4300 x 10 3 10000 x 10 3
Circuit Breakers
An alternative to a wire which melts when overloaded is a circuit-breaker. These are classified according to the insulation
material used to extinguish the arc formed when the contacts separate. Principal amongst the various types being air for
low voltage, and oil, vacuum or SF6 (Sulphur hexafluoride) for high voltage. Of the class of air-break circuit-breakers three
main subdivisions exist and these are:-
Miniature Circuit-Breakers (mcbs): BS EN 60898 (formally BS.3871
Moulded Case Circuit-Breakers (mccbs): BS.4752
Air Circuit-Breakers (ACBs): BS.4752
Miniature Circuit-Breakers
Three main varieties are available (a) Assisted Bimetallic, (b) Thermal and Magnetic and (c) Magnetic-Hydraulic, of which
the most common are the thermal magnetic.
Assisted Bimetallic and Magnetic-Hydraulic breakers are usually now only found on older installations, although the
method of operation is still quite common for Moulded-Case Circuit Breakers (MCCBs).
Often the breaker will take a relatively long time to control the fault current typically more than one-cycle of the mains. This
is because the moving contact has a relatively high mass and therefore a slow response time. Often the breaker contacts
will not even begin to separate before half a cycle.
Even with the aid of arc-control techniques, a breaker of this type and dimensions, the air has not got the same insulation
properties as the silica filling of an HBC fuse, thus the maximum breaking capacity of this type of device is theoretically
limited to a maximum of 25 kA, but in practice to an out 10 kA. In fact several breaking capacities are defined by the British
Standard (BS EN 60898), as shown in the table below and noted by their 'ICN' number which is their ability to control short-
circuits in 'thousands' of ampere.
Rated Short-Circuit Capacities
Device type Device designation Rated short-circuit
capacity kA
Semi-enclosed fuse to BS 3036 S1A 1
S2A 2
S3A 4
Cartridge fuse to BS 1361 16.5
type I 33.0
type II
General purpose fuse to BS 88
Part 2.1 50 at 415 V
Part 6 16.5 at 240V,
80 at 415 V
Circuit-breakers to BS 3871 M1 1
(Now replaced by BS EN 60898) M1.5 1.5
M3 3
M4.5 4.5
M6 6
M9 9
Circuit-breakers to BS EN 60898* ICN ICS
1.5 (1.5)
3.0 (3.0)
6 (6.0)
10 (7.5)
15 (7.5)
20 (10.0)
25 (12.5)
ICN is the rated short-circuit capacity (marked on the device) and is the maximum fault
current the device can safely interrupt. After a fault of this magnitude, the breaker may not
be serviceable.
ICS is the service short-circuit capacity and is the maximum fault current the breaker can
safely interrupt without loss of performance.
The significance of the power factor of the fault, is that the lower the power factor, the greater the degree of magnetic
energy stored in the system and so the greater is the energy of the arc which the breaker has to control. Thus as we get
closer to the main intake position, the impedance of the supply gets lower (less cabling) and so the short-circuit current
increases and the power factor decreases, [the transformer is a very inductive device]. It therefore makes sense to test
those breakers which are intended for heavy fault current operation, at the sort of power factors they are likely to face in
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practice.
Thermal-Magnetic mcb
Overload Operation
At overload values of current the bi-metal strip deflects in response to the heating effect of the current flow, which then
de-latches the circuit-breaker. Calibration is provided by the adjustment screw during manufacture.
Click for animation
Short-Circuit Operation
Under short-circuit conditions the rising fault current energises the solenoid and strongly attracts the plunger. The plunger
pushes the pin out of the bottom of the solenoid which hits the bi-metal strip and de-latches the breaker. At the same time
the top of the plunger strikes the moving contact with considerable kinetic energy thus forcing the contacts part. So that by
this action, the inertia of the moving contact mechanism is effectively eliminated and the time from initiation of the fault to
contact separation in minimised.
The resultant high energy arc is moved rapidly, under the influence of electromagnetic force, along arc runners into the arc
splitter pack. This contains a very large number of plates and requires a higher arc-voltage to maintain current flow than
the fault can provide, thus the pack causes a rapid reduction of the fault current to zero. With this style of 'magnetically-
assisted-break' operation, very short breaking times are possible - typically around 5-6 milliseconds, providing a current
limiting action.
Breaker Types
In addition to its breaking capacity, we also need to consider the response of the circuit-breaker to sudden, but not harmful,
current surges, such as starting currents.
Obviously with any type of breaker, the distance between the magnetic operating trips will affect the current values at
which magnetic operation takes over the protection of the circuit and these will be set during manufacture of each
particular device. However the user of the equipment will want some sort of variation in sensitivity and this has been
established by the BS. 'TYPE' number as follows:-
Magnetic Trip
Type Typical Applications
Current Range
1 2.7 to 4 In Domestic
B 3 to 5 In Little or no inductive switching surges
2 4 to7 In Commercial/ Industrial
C 5 to 10 In Inductive switching surges, e.g. control circuits,
3 7 to 10 In Highly inductive circuits, e.g. small motors, transformers, fluorescent lighting
10 to50 In Special Applications
4
Very highly inductive circuits with strong switching surges to be expected
D 10 to20 In
e.g. welding machines, X-ray equipment
Moulded Case and Air Circuit-Breakers
In essence a moulded case circuit-breaker (mccb) is no different from a miniature circuit-breaker in that it is a combination
of a switch and an over current protective device incorporated in an insulated case.
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400 A, Moulded Case Circuit Breaker.
Breaking Capacity, typically up to 50 kA.
They differ from mcb's in that the level of breaking capacity is much higher and on some models can be as high as 150kA,
although the norm is typically 25kA or 50kA depending upon the physical size of the breaker.
Obviously to achieve this level of fault interrupting ability, the mccb has to be built to a higher standard and requires a
much larger case size to contain and control the arc.
BS.4752 is the relevant standard, and manufacturers seem now much more aware of the need to protect a wide range of
currents by devices which are connected directly to the main incoming bus-bars, so it is not now unusual to find mccb's
with a current rating from 10A rating up to about 1600A.
As with mcb's, their design includes both thermal and magnetic trips, often exploiting the large dynamic forces that are
developed from a short-circuit current to help force the breaker contacts apart in as little as 2 milliseconds, thereby
establishing a 'current limiting' action. Some breaker manufacturers offer fixed sizes or current ratings, but many prefer to
offer a range of adjustment on both the overload and short-circuit trips [thermal and magnetic trips], to give flexibility in the
design and operation for a project.
Typical Current/Time Characteristics might include:-
Air Circuit Breakers
Air Circuit Breakers (acb's) are again no different in concept to miniature or moulded case, but are normally contained
within a metal housing rather than a moulded case. Once again we are dealing with an increase in current rating, physical
frame size and breaking capacity. ACB's typically vary in size from 800A to 6,300A with a maximum braking capacity around
150kA.
2,500 A Air Circuit Breaker.
Breaking Capacity 65 kA)
A typical time/current characteristic is shown below and as we can see, adjustment is again provided, often with two
magnetic detection units to assist in the process of discrimination.
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Discrimination and Circuit Breakers
In essence, discrimination is checked as before, by comparing current/time characteristics at all currents and times.
Unfortunately the situation is not quite so clear when it comes to current-limiting breakers. Many manufacturers still do not
publish their I2t withstand values and of course in any fault situation it is possible for the magnetic tripping mechanism of
the larger breaker to activate, even though it is the contacts of the smaller breaker which opens to clear the fault. With the
result that after the fault is cleared, both breakers have tripped. It is safer in these circumstances to ensure that the
instantaneous tripping current of the larger breaker is greater than the short-circuit current on the load-side of the smaller
breaker. Alternatively, the designer must rely on the manufacturer producing information, by way of tests, on the suitability
and degree of discrimination between two such circuit breakers within their range.
Short-Circuits vs. Overloads
At first, it might seem that the short-circuit duty on a cable was more onerous than the overload duty, but this is not the
case. If we take the I2t let through energy in both cases and compare a fuse on both overload and short-circuit the result is
somewhat surprising.
Take a 100A HBC fuse at an overload current of 200A and a short-circuit current of 2,000A. We have seen that the I2t value
passed by the ruse is some measure of the energy the cable has to withstand and by reference to the time/current
characteristic of this fuse we can determine these energy values.
From which we can determine fuse operating times of 1000 seconds for the 200A overload and 0.03 seconds for the 2,000A
short-circuit. This then gives fault energies of:
overload: 2002 x 100 = 40,000 x 103 A2s
short-circuit: 2,0002 x 0.03 = 120 x 103 A2s
from which we can see that the energy of an overload is much higher than the energy of a short-circuit, simply because the
fuse responds so very much faster under short-circuit conditions.
In summary therefore, for situations where we use one protective device, i.e. To cover both overload and short-circuit
protection, we only have to calculate the size of cable for overload protection. What we must of course do is ensure that the
fuse or circuit breaker can actually cope with the short-circuit current and then, that it discriminates with other protective
devices within the system.
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