Solution full note

Solutions
 Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures

Mixture: are combinations of two or more substances in which the individual substances keep their
own properties. Components of mixtures (unlike those of compounds) can have variable proportions,
can be separated physically, and retain their properties.
Mixtures are part of your daily life. The air you breathe the food you eat, most of the medications you
use, the skin and hair products such as body lotion and shampoo, etc. are all mixtures. There are two
types of mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
Homogeneous Mixture:
 Has a uniform composition throughout.
 No visible boundaries between components.
 Also called a solution (e.g., saltwater, air, brass).
Heterogeneous Mixture:
 Has a non-uniform composition.
 Contains physically distinct parts with different properties.
 Has at least two visible phases (e.g., sand and water, pizza).

 Suspensions, Solutions, Colloids

A. Suspensions
 Heterogeneous mixtures where solid particles are spread throughout a liquid
without dissolving.
 Particles are large, settle on standing, and can be separated by filtration (e.g.,
muddy water).
B. Solutions
Solutions are all around us. The air we breathe and much of what we drink for example, soda, coffee,
and tea, and the fluids in our body are all solutions. A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute
dissolved in a solvent. Because of dissolution of solute in solvent, the particles in solution are of the
size of individual atoms, molecules or ions. The solvent part of the solution is usually a liquid but can
be a gas or a solid.
Generally, the major component of the solution is called solvent, and the minor component is called
solute. If both components in a solution are 50%, the term solute can be assigned to either
component. When a gaseous or solid material dissolves in a liquid, the gas or solid material is called
the solute. When two liquids dissolve in each other, the major component is called the solvent and
the minor component is called the solute.
Note that all solutions are homogeneous mixtures but not all homogeneous mixtures are solutions.
Properties of Solutions
A solution has a single uniform phase and has no visible boundaries because the components are
individual atoms, ions, or molecules. These components do not settle upon standing or separate by
filtration.
→The particles of a solution are very small that they can pass through the pores of even fine filter
paper. So, solute cannot be separated from the solvent by filtration.
→The solutions are very stable; the components do not separate, neither coagulates upon standing.
Types of Solutions
 Solution full note

Although we usually think of solutions as liquid, they can exist in all three physical states: solid, liquid,
and gas.
i. Gaseous solutions: Gaseous solutions are usually described as gas-gas solutions where both solute
and solvent are gases. The atmosphere is a gaseous solution that consists of nitrogen, oxygen, argon,
carbon dioxide, water (in the form of vapor), methane, and some other minor components. The
major component (Nitrogen) is regarded as a solvent and the other components are regarded as
solute. Other example is natural gas (See unit 6 for details).
ii. Liquid solutions: Solids, liquids and gases dissolve in a liquid solvent to form liquid solutions. Some
examples include carbonated beverage (gas and liquid), alcoholic beverage (liquid in liquid), and sea
water (solid in liquid). Note that in liquid solutions the solute can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas but the
solvent is always a liquid.
iii. Solid solutions: Many alloys, ceramics, and polymer blends are solid solutions.
Solid solutions have no restriction on the state of the solute but the solvent has to be solid. Alloys are
solid-solid solutions. Dental filling solution is a good example of liquid (mercury)-solid (silver) solution.
Other examples of solid solutions include wax, and H2 in Pd (gas in solid; used for hydrogen storage).

C. Colloids

A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture where insoluble particles of one or more substances

are uniformly suspended in another substance.
 Properties of Colloids
a) Appearance vs Reality
Appears homogeneous to the naked eye, but is actually heterogeneous when examined closely.
b) Particle Size
Particle size range: 1 nm to 100 nm in [Link] than particles in a true solution, but
smaller than those in a suspension.
c) Filtration
Particles can pass through filter paper → cannot be separated by filtration.
d) Phases in a Colloid
Two phases:
 Dispersed phase: The substance present in smaller proportion.
 Dispersing medium: The substance present in larger proportion.
e) Stability
Colloids are quite stable → particles do not separate over time.
f) Light Scattering – Tyndall Effect
 Colloidal particles scatter a beam of light passing through them. This makes the path of
light visible (e.g., dust in air, milk in water). Known as the Tyndall Effect. Not observed
in true solutions. In suspensions, Tyndall effect disappears as particles settle down

 Types of Colloids
 Solution full note

 The Solution Process

We have noted previously that gases mix freely. But the formation of liquid and solid solutions
requires overcoming the solute-solute and solvent-solvent inter-particle forces of attraction before
the mixing step. Because the solute as well as the solvent particles are held to each other by
intermolecular forces in liquid and solid state. The solution process thus involves three basic steps;
i. breaking up the solute-solute inter-particle forces
ii. breaking up the solvent-solvent inter-particles forces
iii. formation of solute-solvent interaction.
Thus, the extent of dissolution of a solute in a solvent is governed by intermolecular forces. The
energy change associated with the dissolution process and entropy (the increase in disorder) that
result when molecules of the solute and solvent mix to form a solution are the forces driving the
solution process.
Note that: the formation of a solution from a solute and a solvent is a physical process, not a chemical
change.
Liquid Solutions and Inter-particle Forces of Attractions
1. solute-solute attractions (requires energy, endothermic).
2. solvent-solvent attractions (requires energy, endothermic).
3. solute-solvent attractions (releases energy, exothermic).
 Solution full note

 "Like dissolves like" rule: Substances with similar intermolecular forces dissolve in each other.
 Ionic and polar compounds dissolve in polar solvents; nonpolar compounds dissolve in nonpolar
solvents.
 Polarity is determined by electronegativity differences and molecular shape.
→ Intermolecular forces (weakest to strongest):
 Dispersion forces
 Dipole-induced dipole
 Dipole-dipole
 Hydrogen bonding
 Ion-dipole
 Ion-induced dipole
Solutions of Ionic Solids in Water
→Many ionic compounds are soluble in water, but not all.
→Soluble ionic compounds exist as hydrated cations and anions in solution.
→Examples: KCl is soluble, AgCl is insoluble, Ca(OH)₂ is slightly soluble.

Hydration of Na+ and Cl- ions as NaCl dissolves in water

The Solubility Rules for Ionic Solids

Solubility Rules:
 All common salts of Group 1A elements and ammonium are soluble.
 All common acetates, nitrates, and most perchlorates are soluble.
 All common chlorides, bromides, and iodides are soluble except those of Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, Cu⁺, and
Hg₂²⁺. Fluorides are soluble except Pb²⁺ and Group 2A.
 Most hydroxides are only slightly soluble. Group 1A hydroxides are soluble; Group 2A
hydroxides are slightly soluble; transition metal and Al³⁺ hydroxides are insoluble.
 All sulfates are soluble except Ba²⁺, Sr²⁺, Pb²⁺, Ca²⁺, Ag⁺, and Hg²⁺.
Except rule 1, carbonates, sulfides, oxides, and phosphates are insoluble.
Solution of Liquids in Liquid
 When two liquids mix to form a solution:
→The liquid in lower concentration is the solute
→The liquid in higher concentration is the solvent
 Solution full note

 Miscible liquids: Can mix completely (e.g., ethanol and water)

 Immiscible liquids: Cannot mix (e.g., oil and water)
 Miscibility depends on similar polarity.
Energy Changes in Solution Process
→Dissolution: Process of solute dissolving in solvent to form a solution.
→Rate of dissolution: Speed at which dissolution occurs.
Factors affecting rate:
 Inter-particle forces (most important)
 Surface area of solid solute
 Temperature
 Pressure (for gaseous solutes)
 Stirring or agitation
Energy Changes in Solution Process
 The overall energy change during dissolution.
 Exothermic Process (ΔH< 0): More energy is released in step 3 than is absorbed
in steps 1 and 2. The solution gets warm (e.g., NaOH dissolving in water).
 Endothermic Process (ΔH > 0): More energy is absorbed in steps 1 and 2 than is
released in step 3. The solution gets cold (e.g., NH₄NO₃ dissolving in water).
Factors Affecting the Rate of Dissolution:
 Inter-particle forces (most important).
 Surface area of the solute (increasing it speeds up dissolution).
 Temperature (increasing it usually speeds up dissolution).
 Stirring or agitation.

 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process

1. Solubility and Dynamic Equilibrium

Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a given amount of
solvent (usually 100 g or 100 mL) at a specific temperature.
 The dissolution process is dynamic. When you add a solid to a solvent:
Dissolution: Solute particles leave the crystal and enter the solution.
Crystallization: Dissolved solute particles in solution collide with the crystal and re-
join it.
 Solution Equilibrium is reached when the rate of dissolution equals the rate of
crystallization. At this point, the amount of dissolved solute remains constant.
 Solution full note

Figure Illustrates the formation of saturated solution.

(a) excess solid added to a solvent
(b) The solute starts to dissolve
(c) The solute continues to dissolve
(d) No more solute is dissolving indicating that the process has reached a dynamic
equilibrium where the rate of dissolution is equal to the rate of crystallization.
2. Types of Solutions Based on Saturation

Unsaturated Solution:

 Contains less solute than the maximum amount that can be dissolved.
 More solute can be added and it will dissolve.
Saturated Solution:
 Contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute at equilibrium.
 If you add more solute, it will not dissolve and will remain as a solid.
Supersaturated Solution:
 Contains more solute than a saturated solution under normal conditions. This
is a meta-stable state.
 It is usually created by dissolving solute at a high temperature and then
cooling it slowly without disturbance.
 It is unstable. Adding a tiny "seed" crystal or agitating the solution will cause
the excess solute to rapidly crystallize out, leaving a saturated solution.
3. Factors Affecting Solubility
Nature of Solute and Solvent (Inter-particle Forces):
The "like dissolves like" rule is the primary factor. Polar/ionic solutes dissolve in polar
solvents (e.g., NaCl in water), and nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents (e.g., oil in
benzene).
Temperature:
 For most solids in liquids: Solubility increases with temperature.
 For gases in liquids: Solubility decreases with temperature. (This is why
warm soda goes "flat" faster, as CO₂ escapes).

Pressure:
 Solution full note

 Has a negligible effect on the solubility of solids and liquids.

 For gases in liquids: Solubility increases with increasing pressure.
 This is described by Henry's Law: C = kP
C = Concentration (Solubility) of the gas
k = Henry's Law constant (depends on gas, solvent, temperature)
P = Partial pressure of the gas above the solution

Henry’s Law: Relating Pressure to the Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid

The quantitative relationship between pressure and the solubility of a gas is described quantitatively
by Henry’s law, which is named for its discoverer, the English chemist, William Henry (1775 – 1836):
C ~P or C = kP
where C is the concentration of dissolved gas at equilibrium, P is the partial pressure of the gas, and k
is the Henry’s law constant, which must be determined experimentally for each combination of gas,
solvent, and temperature. Although the gas concentration may be expressed in any convenient units,
we will use molarity here. The units of the Henry’s law constant are therefore mol/([Link]) = M/atm.

The partial pressure of a gas can be expressed as concentration by writing Henry’s Law as
P = C/k
Since partial pressure and concentration are directly proportional, if the partial pressure of a gas
changes while the temperature remains constant, the new concentration of the gas within the liquid
can be easily calculated using the following equation:
C1 /P1 =P2 /C2
Where C1 and P1 are the concentration and partial pressure, respectively, of the gas at the initial
condition, and C2 and P2 are the concentration and partial pressure, respectively, of the gas at the
final condition.

 Ways of Expressing Concentration of Solutions

Concentration is a measure of the amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.

1. Percent by Mass (% w/w)

Mass of solute per 100 mass units of solution.
Formula:

Use: Common for solids dissolved in liquids. It is unitless.

2. Percent by Volume (% v/v)

Volume of solute per 100 volume units of solution.

Formula:
 Solution full note

Use: Common for liquids dissolved in liquids (e.g., alcohol in water).

3. Mass/Volume Percent (% w/v)

Mass of solute (in grams) per 100 mL of solution.
Formula:
% (w/v) = (Mass of Solute (g) / Volume of Solution (mL)) × 100%

Use: Common in medical and pharmaceutical applications (e.g., saline solution is 0.9%
w/v NaCl).

4. Parts Per Million (ppm) and Parts Per Billion (ppb)

Used for very dilute solutions.
Formulas:

For dilute aqueous solutions: 1 ppm ≈ 1 mg/L

5. Mole Fraction (X)

The ratio of the number of moles of one component to the total number of moles in the
solution.
Formula:

Note: Usually a solution composed of solute and solvent. So Xsolute + Xsolvent = 1,

6. Molarity (M)

The number of moles of solute per liter of solution.

Formula:
 Solution full note

The units of molarity are therefore moles per liter of solution (mol/L), abbreviated as M.

 Pros: Most common unit for chemical calculations involving reactions in solution.
 Cons: Depends on temperature (volume changes with temperature).

7. Molality (m)
The number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
Formula:

Note that molality includes the quantity of solvent, not solution. Molality has two
advantages over molarity for precise work:
" Effect of temperature. Molal solutions are based on masses of components, not volume. And since
mass does not change with temperature, neither does molality.
" Effect of mixing. Unlike volumes, masses are additive: adding 500 g of one solution to 500 g of
another does give 1000 g of final solution.
8. Normality (N)
The number of gram equivalent weights of solute per liter of solution.
Formula:
Normality (N) = (Number of Gram Equivalents) / (Liters of Solution)
 Solution full note

Relation to Molarity: N = M × z

 z depends on the reaction:

 For Acids: Number of H⁺ ions provided per molecule.
 For Bases: Number of OH⁻ ions provided per molecule.
 For Salts: Total positive (or negative) charge of the cations (or anions).

 Preparation of Solutions
A. Preparing a Solution from a Solid Solute
To make a solution of known molarity.
Steps:

1. Calculate: Mass of solute = Molarity (M) × Volume (L) × Molar Mass (g/mol).

2. Weigh: Accurately measure this mass on a balance.

3. Dissolve: Transfer the solid to a volumetric flask and add a small amount of solvent to
dissolve it. Swirl to help dissolution.

4. Dilute to the Mark: Carefully add more solvent until the bottom of the meniscus
reaches the calibration mark on the neck of the flask.

5. Mix: Cap the flask and invert it several times to ensure a uniform solution.

6. Label: Always label the flask with solute, concentration, date, and name.

B. Preparing a Solution from a Liquid Solute (Concentrated Stock)

To make a solution of known molarity from a concentrated liquid (e.g., an acid).
Steps:

1. Calculate Volume of Stock: Use the formula Mstock × Vstock = Mdilute × Vdilute.
 Solution full note

2. Measure: Use a graduated cylinder or pipette to measure the required volume of the
concentrated solution.
3. Add to Water: CAUTION: Always add the acid to water, not water to acid. Pour the
concentrated solution slowly into a volumetric flask already partially filled with water.
This prevents violent splattering due to the exothermic reaction.
4. Dilute to the Mark: Add water to reach the final volume and mix thoroughly.

C. Dilution of Solutions
 The process of making a solution less concentrated by adding more solvent.
 The number of moles of solute remains constant during dilution.

Dilution Formula:

M₁ = Molarity of the concentrated (stock) solution

V₁ = Volume of the stock solution used
M₂ = Molarity of the diluted solution
V₂ = Final volume of the diluted solution
 Solution full note

Example2: To prepare 500 mL of 0.10 M HCl from a 2.0 M stock

solution: (2.0 M) × V₁ = (0.10 M) × (0.500 L)
V₁ = 0.025 L = 25 mL
You would measure 25 mL of the 2.0 M stock and dilute it with water to a total volume of 500 mL.
 Solution Stoichiometry

 Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

 Solution Stoichiometry applies this concept to reactions where the reactants and/or
products are dissolved in a solution.
 The key to these calculations is using Molarity (M) as a conversion
factor between volume and moles:
Moles of Solute = Molarity (M) × Volume of Solution (L)

General Problem-Solving Steps

For any solution stoichiometry problem, follow these steps:

1. Write the Balanced Molecular Equation: This provides the essential mole ratios
between reactants and products.
2. Find Moles from Molarity and Volume: Convert the given volume and
concentration of one substance into moles using n = M × V.
3. Use Mole Ratios: Use the coefficients from the balanced equation to find the
moles of the desired substance.
4. Convert to Desired Units: Convert the resulting moles into the required final units
(grams, liters, particles, etc.).
Types of Solution Stoichiometry Problems
a) Mole-Mole Calculation (Solution-Solution)
Find the concentration or volume of one solution needed to react completely with
another.

Example : Finding the concentration of NaOH that reacts with an equal volume of 0.104
M H₂SO₄.
 Solution full note

 Balanced Equation: H₂SO₄ + 2NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O

 Mole Ratio: 1 mole H₂SO₄ : 2 moles NaOH
 Since volumes are equal (V_NaOH = V_H₂SO₄), they cancel out.
 Calculation: M_NaOH / 0.104 M = 2 / 1 ⇒ M_NaOH = 0.208 M

b) Mole - Mass Calculations

Find the mass of a solid product formed from a given volume and concentration of a
reactant.
Example : What mass of Mg(OH)₂ is produced from 45 mL of 0.63 M Mg(NO₃)₂?
 Balanced Equation: 2NaOH + Mg(NO₃)₂ → Mg(OH)₂ + 2NaNO₃
 Moles of Mg(NO₃)₂ = 0.63 mol/L × 0.045 L = 0.02835 mol
 Mole Ratio: 1 mol Mg(NO₃)₂ : 1 mol Mg(OH)₂
 Moles of Mg(OH)₂ = 0.02835 mol
 Mass of Mg(OH)₂ = moles × molar mass = 0.02835 mol × 58.32 g/mol ≈ 1.65 g

c) Mass - Volume Calculations

Find the volume of a solution required to react with a given mass of a solid reactant.
Example : What volume of 0.0995 M Al(NO₃)₃ reacts with 3.66 g of Ag?
 Balanced Equation: 3Ag(s) + Al(NO₃)₃(aq) → 3AgNO₃(aq) + Al(s)
 Moles of Ag = 3.66 g / 107.87 g/mol ≈ 0.0339 mol
 Mole Ratio: 3 mol Ag : 1 mol Al(NO₃)₃
 Moles of Al(NO₃)₃ needed = 0.0339 mol Ag × (1 mol Al(NO₃)₃ / 3 mol Ag) = 0.0113 mol
 Volume of Al(NO₃)₃ = moles / Molarity = 0.0113 mol / 0.0995 mol/L ≈ 0.114 L

d) Volume-Volume Calculations
Find the volume of one solution required to react with a given volume of another.
Example : What volume of 0.35 M AgNO₃ is needed to react with 55 mL of 0.24 M NaCl?
 Balanced Equation: NaCl(aq) + AgNO₃(aq) → NaNO₃(aq) + AgCl(s)
 Moles of NaCl = 0.24 mol/L × 0.055 L = 0.0132 mol
 Mole Ratio: 1 mol NaCl : 1 mol AgNO₃
 Moles of AgNO₃ needed = 0.0132 mol
 Volume of AgNO₃ = 0.0132 mol / 0.35 mol/L ≈ 0.0377 L = 37.7 mL

E) Mole - Volume Calculation

 Solution full note

F) Mole - Number of Particles

Reactions in Solution
1. Molecular Equations

A Molecular Equation shows the complete formulas of all reactants and products as if they
were molecules. It does not show what is actually happening at the ionic level.
Physical states (s, l, g, aq) are included.
Example:
AgNO₃(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO₃(aq)

2. Ionic Equations
To understand the actual chemical change, we write an Ionic Equation.
Rules:
1. Write all soluble strong electrolytes (like soluble ionic compounds and
strong acids) as dissociated ions.

2. Write all other substances (insoluble solids, weak electrolytes, gases, and
molecular compounds) in their molecular form.

Example from the Molecular Equation above:

Reactants:
AgNO₃(aq) dissociates into Ag⁺(aq) + NO₃⁻(aq)
NaCl(aq) dissociates into Na⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq)
Products:
AgCl(s) is insoluble, so it remains AgCl(s)
 Solution full note

NaNo₃(aq) is soluble, so it dissociates into Na⁺(aq) + NO₃⁻(aq)

Complete Ionic Equation:
Ag⁺(aq) + NO₃⁻(aq) + Na⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq) → AgCl(s) + Na⁺(aq) + NO₃⁻(aq)

Net Ionic Equations

The Net Ionic Equation shows only the species that are actually involved in the reaction.
Spectator Ions are ions that appear unchanged on both sides of the complete ionic
equation. They do not participate in the reaction.
How to write a Net Ionic Equation:
1. Write the balanced molecular equation.
2. Write the complete ionic equation.
3. Cancel out the spectator ions from both sides.

Example (Continuing from above):

 Complete Ionic Equation: Ag⁺(aq) + ~NO₃⁻(aq)~ + ~Na⁺(aq)~ + Cl⁻(aq) →
AgCl(s) + ~Na⁺(aq)~ + ~NO₃⁻(aq)

 Net Ionic Equation: Ag⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq) → AgCl(s)

This net ionic equation clearly shows that the reaction is the combination of silver ions
and chloride ions to form solid silver chloride.

WORK SHEET
True or False (20 Questions)
Instructions: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is incorrect.
1. All homogeneous mixtures are solutions.
2. The particles in a suspension can pass through filter paper.
3. In a solution, the solute is always the component present in smaller amount.
4. The Tyndall effect is observed in true solutions.
5. Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures that appear homogeneous to the naked eye.
6. When NaCl dissolves in water, the process involves breaking ionic bonds.
7. The "like dissolves like" rule states that polar substances dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
8. All ionic compounds are soluble in water.
9. Solubility of gases in liquids increases with increasing temperature.
10. A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute at a given
temperature.
11. Supersaturated solutions are very stable and can last indefinitely.
12. Molarity is temperature-dependent because volume changes with temperature.
13. Molality is based on the mass of the solvent, not the solution.
14. When preparing dilute acid solutions, you should always add water to the acid.
15. During dilution, the number of moles of solute remains constant.
16. Spectator ions participate in the chemical reaction.
17. The net ionic equation shows all ions present in the solution.
18. Henry's Law states that the solubility of a gas is inversely proportional to its partial
pressure.
 Solution full note

19. All chlorides are soluble in water.

20. The dissolution process is a physical change, not a chemical change.
Part B: Fill in the Blanks (20 Questions)
Instructions: Complete each sentence with the appropriate word or phrase.
21. A mixture with uniform composition throughout is called a __________ mixture.
22. The three types of mixtures based on particle size are solutions, colloids, and __________.
23. In a colloid, the substance present in smaller proportion is called the __________ phase.
24. The scattering of light by colloidal particles is known as the __________ effect.
25. According to the __________ rule, substances with similar intermolecular forces dissolve
in each other.
26. The strongest intermolecular force is __________ bonding.
27. When NaOH dissolves in water, the process is __________ (exothermic/endothermic).
28. The solubility of most solid solutes in liquid solvents __________ (increases/decreases)
with increasing temperature.
29. A solution that contains less solute than the maximum amount that can be dissolved is
called __________.
30. Henry's Law constant (k) depends on the gas, solvent, and __________.
31. The concentration unit defined as moles of solute per kilogram of solvent is __________.
32. The number of gram equivalent weights of solute per liter of solution is called __________.
33. For an acid, the "z" value in N = M × z represents the number of __________ ions provided
per molecule.
34. When preparing a solution from a solid solute, a __________ flask is used for accurate
volume measurement.
35. The formula used for dilutions is __________.
36. In solution stoichiometry, molarity serves as a conversion factor between volume and
__________.
37. In a complete ionic equation, soluble strong electrolytes are written as __________.
38. Ions that appear unchanged on both sides of a complete ionic equation are called
__________ ions.
39. The net ionic equation for the reaction between AgNO₃ and NaCl is __________.
40. The process of a solute dissolving in a solvent to form a solution is called __________.
Part C: Multiple Choice Questions (40 Questions)
Instructions: Choose the best answer for each question.
41. Which of the following is a heterogeneous mixture?
A. Saltwater
B. Air
C. Brass
D. Sand and water
42. The particle size range for colloids is:
A. < 1 nm
B. 1 nm to 100 nm
C. 100 nm to 1000 nm
D. > 1000 nm
43. Which of the following mixtures can be separated by filtration?
A. Solution
 Solution full note

B. Colloid
C. Suspension
D. Both A and B
44. Which of the following is an example of a solid solution?
A. Seawater
B. Brass
C. Soda
D. Vinegar
45. The Tyndall effect is observed in:
A. True solutions
B. Colloids
C. Pure solvents
D. All of the above
46. Which intermolecular force is responsible for the high solubility of NaCl in water?
A. Dispersion forces
B. Dipole-dipole interactions
C. Ion-dipole forces
D. Hydrogen bonding
47. Which of the following compounds is most likely to dissolve in benzene (a nonpolar
solvent)?
A. NaCl
B. CCl₄
C. HCl
D. H₂O
48. According to solubility rules, which of the following is insoluble?
A. NaNO₃
B. K₂CO₃
C. AgCl
D. NH₄Cl
49. Which of the following hydroxides is soluble?
A. Fe(OH)₃
B. Cu(OH)₂
C. NaOH
D. Al(OH)₃
50. When NH₄NO₃ dissolves in water, the solution feels cold. This indicates that the dissolution
process is:
A. Endothermic
B. Exothermic
C. Neutral
D. Impossible to determine
51. Which factor does NOT affect the rate of dissolution of a solid in a liquid?
A. Temperature
B. Surface area
C. Pressure
D. Stirring
52. At dynamic equilibrium in a saturated solution:
 Solution full note

A. Dissolution stops completely

B. Crystallization stops completely
C. Rate of dissolution equals rate of crystallization
D. No solute particles are present in solution
53. A solution that contains more solute than a saturated solution under normal conditions is
called:
A. Unsaturated
B. Saturated
C. Supersaturated
D. Dilute
54. According to Henry's Law, if the partial pressure of a gas doubles, its solubility in a liquid:
A. Doubles
B. Halves
C. Remains the same
D. Quadruples
55. Which of the following statements about gas solubility is TRUE?
A. Gas solubility increases with increasing temperature
B. Gas solubility decreases with increasing pressure
C. Gas solubility increases with increasing pressure
D. Gas solubility is not affected by pressure
56. A solution contains 10 g of NaCl dissolved in 90 g of water. The mass percent of NaCl is:
A. 5%
B. 10%
C. 11.1%
D. 90%
57. A 2.0 M solution of H₂SO₄ contains:
A. 2 moles of H₂SO₄ in 1 kg of solvent
B. 2 moles of H₂SO₄ in 1 L of solution
C. 2 grams of H₂SO₄ in 1 L of solution
D. 2 moles of H₂SO₄ in 1 kg of solution
58. The molality of a solution is defined as:
A. Moles of solute per liter of solution
B. Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
C. Grams of solute per 100 mL of solution
D. Moles of solute per kilogram of solution
59. Which concentration unit is temperature-independent?
A. Molarity
B. Molality
C. % w/v
D. Normality
60. If the mole fraction of solute in a solution is 0.2, the mole fraction of solvent is:
A. 0.2
B. 0.5
C. 0.8
D. 1.0
61. The normality of a 0.5 M H₂SO₄ solution for acid-base reactions is:
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A. 0.25 N
B. 0.5 N
C. 1.0 N
D. 2.0 N
62. To prepare 500 mL of a 0.1 M NaCl solution, how many grams of NaCl are needed? (Molar
mass of NaCl = 58.44 g/mol)
A. 2.92 g
B. 5.84 g
C. 29.2 g
D. 58.4 g
63. How many mL of a 2.0 M HCl stock solution are needed to prepare 250 mL of 0.5 M HCl?
A. 12.5 mL
B. 25.0 mL
C. 62.5 mL
D. 100 mL
64. During dilution, which quantity remains constant?
A. Volume of solution
B. Mass of solvent
C. Moles of solute
D. Molarity
65. In solution stoichiometry, molarity is used as a conversion factor between:
A. Mass and volume
B. Volume and moles
C. Mass and moles
D. Volume and mass
66. How many moles of NaOH are present in 250 mL of 0.4 M NaOH solution?
A. 0.05 mol
B. 0.10 mol
C. 0.25 mol
D. 1.00 mol
67. What volume of 0.2 M HCl contains 0.05 moles of HCl?
A. 100 mL
B. 250 mL
C. 400 mL
D. 500 mL
68. According to the balanced equation: H₂SO₄ + 2NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O, how many moles
of NaOH are needed to react with 0.1 moles of H₂SO₄?
A. 0.05 mol
B. 0.1 mol
C. 0.2 mol
D. 0.4 mol
69. A molecular equation shows:
A. Only the ions involved in the reaction
B. Complete formulas of all reactants and products
C. Only the spectator ions
D. The net chemical change
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70. In a complete ionic equation, soluble ionic compounds are written as:
A. Molecular formulas
B. Separate ions
C. Precipitates
D. Gases
71. Which of the following is a spectator ion in the reaction between AgNO₃(aq) and NaCl(aq)?
A. Ag⁺
B. Cl⁻
C. Na⁺
D. None of the above
72. The net ionic equation for the reaction between HCl(aq) and NaOH(aq) is:
A. H⁺ + Cl⁻ + Na⁺ + OH⁻ → NaCl + H₂O
B. HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
C. H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O
D. Na⁺ + Cl⁻ → NaCl
73. Which of the following is NOT a step in the solution process?
A. Breaking solute-solute attractions
B. Breaking solvent-solvent attractions
C. Forming solute-solvent attractions
D. Breaking solute-solvent attractions
74. Which type of intermolecular force is the weakest?
A. Hydrogen bonding
B. Dipole-dipole
C. Dispersion forces
D. Ion-dipole
75. Two liquids that mix completely in all proportions are called:
A. Immiscible
B. Miscible
C. Saturated
D. Supersaturated
76. Which of the following pairs of liquids are immiscible?
A. Ethanol and water
B. Oil and water
C. Methanol and water
D. Acetic acid and water
77. The formula for calculating molarity is:
A. M = moles of solute / kg of solvent
B. M = moles of solute / L of solution
C. M = grams of solute / L of solution
D. M = moles of solute / kg of solution
78. A 0.9% (w/v) NaCl solution contains:
A. 0.9 g NaCl in 100 mL of solution
B. 0.9 g NaCl in 100 g of solution
C. 9 g NaCl in 100 mL of solution
D. 9 g NaCl in 100 g of solution
79. The concentration unit used for very dilute solutions is:
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A. Molarity
B. Molality
C. ppm
D. Normality
80. Which of the following statements about the Tyndall effect is FALSE?
A. It is observed in colloids
B. It is due to scattering of light
C. It is observed in true solutions
D. It makes the path of light visible
Answer Key
Part A: True or False
1. FALSE (All solutions are homogeneous mixtures, but not all homogeneous mixtures are
solutions)
2. FALSE (Suspension particles are large and cannot pass through filter paper)
3. FALSE (Solute is usually the minor component, but if both are 50%, either can be called
solute)
4. FALSE (Tyndall effect is not observed in true solutions)
5. TRUE
6. TRUE
7. FALSE (Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents)
8. FALSE (Some ionic compounds are insoluble, e.g., AgCl)
9. FALSE (Gas solubility decreases with increasing temperature)
10. TRUE
11. FALSE (Supersaturated solutions are unstable)
12. TRUE
13. TRUE
14. FALSE (Always add acid to water, not water to acid)
15. TRUE
16. FALSE (Spectator ions do not participate in the reaction)
17. FALSE (Net ionic equation shows only participating ions)
18. FALSE (Henry's Law states solubility is directly proportional to partial pressure)
19. FALSE (Chlorides of Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, Cu⁺, and Hg₂²⁺ are insoluble)
20. TRUE
Part B: Fill in the Blanks
21. homogeneous
22. suspensions
23. dispersed
24. Tyndall
25. like dissolves like
26. hydrogen
27. exothermic
28. increases
29. unsaturated
30. temperature
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31. molality
32. normality
33. H⁺ (hydrogen)
34. volumetric
35. M₁V₁ = M₂V₂
36. moles
37. dissociated ions
38. spectator
39. Ag⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq) → AgCl(s)
40. dissolution
Part C: Multiple Choice
41. D
42. B
43. C
44. B
45. B
46. C
47. B
48. C
49. C
50. A
51. C
52. C
53. C
54. A
55. C
56. B
57. B
58. B
59. B
60. C
61. C
62. A
63. C
64. C
65. B
66. B
67. B
68. C
69. B
70. B
71. C
72. C
73. D
74. C
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75. B
76. B
77. B
78. A
79. C
80. C
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