Text Analysis Guide

Analytical Framework
When analysing a text for an EOI oposición examination, follow this four-layer structure:

I. Genre – What kind of text is this? (e.g., news article, editorial, poem,
advertisement)
II. Text Type(s) – What is it doing? What's its communicative function?
(argumentative, narrative, descriptive, expository, instructive, dialogic)
III. Function(s) – What is its communicative purpose? (Jakobson's six functions:
referential, emotive, conative, phatic, metalingual, poetic)
IV. Rhetorical Devices – How does it achieve its effect? (structural features,
register, cohesion, figures of speech, syntax, lexis)

Important: Be selective in your analysis. Identify the most salient features for the
specific text rather than mechanically covering every category.

I. Genre Analysis Guide – What to Focus On

News Article
→ Inverted pyramid structure (most important info first), the 5 Ws (who, what, when,
where, why, how) in the lead, objectivity and factual tone, short paragraphs, reported
speech and direct quotations, explicit time and place markers, third-person
perspective, formal register, headline and subheadings

Editorial/Opinion Piece
→ Clear thesis or stance stated early, argument structure with supporting evidence,
persuasive and evaluative language, first-person perspective often used, rhetorical
questions, emotive language, modality (should, must, might), counter-arguments
acknowledged and refuted, call to action in conclusion

Advertisement
→ Persuasive and promotional language, rhetorical appeals (ethos/pathos/logos),
imperative verbs, second-person address (you), superlatives and positive adjectives,
brand names and slogans, multimodal elements (image-text interaction), target
audience considerations, brevity and impact

Short Story Extract

→ Narrative voice and point of view (first/third person, omniscient/limited),
characterisation through dialogue and description, plot development and structure,
descriptive language and sensory details, dialogue and speech representation, tense
usage (typically past tense), literary devices (metaphor, symbolism), setting and
atmosphere
Poem
→ Form and structure (sonnet, free verse, stanzas), metre and rhythm (iambic
pentameter, etc.), rhyme scheme (ABAB, etc.), sound patterns (alliteration, assonance,
consonance), imagery and figurative language, enjambment vs end-stopping, white
space and line breaks, compression of language, symbolism

Play/Drama Extract
→ Dialogue structure and character interaction, stage directions and their function,
dramatic techniques (soliloquy, aside, dramatic irony), conflict and tension,
characterisation through speech, register variation between characters, subtext and
implied meaning, performative aspects

Academic Essay/Article
→ Formal register and objective tone, clear thesis statement, paragraph structure (topic
sentences), evidence and citations, hedging language (may, might, appears to),
nominalisation, passive constructions, logical connectors (however, furthermore),
technical vocabulary, impersonal constructions

Recipe
→ Two-part structure (ingredients list + method), imperatives (chop, heat, stir), precise
measurements and quantities, chronological sequencing, present tense or
imperatives, technical culinary vocabulary, clarity and conciseness, numbered or
bulleted steps, time and temperature specifications

Review (Film/Book/Restaurant)
→ Evaluative language (excellent, disappointing, mediocre), criteria for judgement
clearly stated or implied, balance of summary/description and personal opinion,
comparative language, star ratings or scores, recommendation (or not), first-person
perspective, specific examples to support claims

Interview
→ Question-and-answer format, turn-taking structure, interviewer/interviewee roles,
direct speech, topic initiation and management, follow-up questions, politeness
strategies, repair and clarification, opening and closing phases, sometimes includes
contextual introduction

Speech/Oratory
→ Direct address to audience (ladies and gentlemen, my friends), rhetorical devices
(anaphora, tricolon, antithesis), emotive and persuasive language, repetition for
emphasis, rhetorical questions, inclusive pronouns (we, us, our), rhythm and cadence,
call to action, quotations and allusions

Instructions/Manual
→ Imperative verbs (press, turn, insert), numbered or bulleted steps,
chronological/logical sequencing, second-person address (you) or imperative
constructions, warnings and cautions, clear and unambiguous language, present
tense, visual aids (diagrams, illustrations), conditional clauses (if... then...)

Letter to the Editor

→ Formulaic opening (Dear Sir/Madam, Dear Editor), reference to previous article or
issue, argumentative structure, first-person perspective, persuasive language, request
for publication or action, closing formalities, concise length, current/topical subject
matter

Biography/Memoir
→ Chronological or thematic organisation, first-person (memoir) or third-person
(biography), past tense dominance, anecdotes and specific incidents, reflective
language, character development over time, dates and historical markers, descriptive
passages, personal voice and style

Blog Post
→ Informal/conversational tone, first-person perspective, direct address to readers,
shorter paragraphs for screen reading, hyperlinks to sources or related content,
personal opinion and experience, comments section interaction, topical or timely
subject matter, catchy title/headline

Scientific Report/Research Article

→ IMRAD structure (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion), passive voice,
technical terminology, nominalisation, hedging language, citations and references,
formal register, objective tone, data presentation (tables, graphs), hypothesis and
findings clearly stated

Feature Article
→ Human interest angle, narrative or anecdotal opening, descriptive and evocative
language, longer form than news articles, personal stories or case studies, scene-
setting, quotes from multiple sources, thematic rather than inverted pyramid structure,
engaging conclusion

Product Description (E-commerce)

→ Persuasive and promotional language, bullet points highlighting features, technical
specifications, second-person address, present tense, positive adjectives, benefit-
focused language (what it does for you), price and availability information, call to action
(buy now, add to basket)

Social Media Post

→ Extreme brevity, informal register, hashtags and @ mentions, emojis, present tense,
first-person perspective, conversational tone, abbreviations and initialisms, direct
audience engagement (questions, polls), multimodal (text + image/video)
II. Text Types
1. The argumentative text type: The argumentative text type deals with
controversial subjects and expresses a clear opinion. Comments, interviews,
leading articles and letters to the editor are common argumentative text forms.
2. The descriptive text type: The descriptive text type presents the physical
characteristics of people, objects and/or processes. The presentation can be
either based on exact observation and objective information (= technical
description), or it can give a suggestive mental picture based on the writer's
subjective impressions (= impressionistic description).
3. The instructive text type: The instructive text type aims at influencing the
reader's or listener's behaviour by advising or instructing him or her. A
characteristic of instruction is the use of commands or recommendations and
the present tense group of verbs. Rules and regulations are common text forms
belonging to the type of instruction.
4. The expository text type: In the expository text type the writer or speaker
analyses and explains some relatively complex subjects, mostly in an objective
and precise way. Dictionary definitions, entries in reference books, keyword
outlines and summaries are common text forms belonging to the expository text
type.
5. The narrative type of texts: The narrative text type presents actions or events in
some kind of temporal order. Novels, short stories and reports are common text
forms belonging to the text type narration.
6. Dialogic Texts: Dialogic texts are written representations of dialogues. Dialogic
or dialogical texts are characterised or constituted by the interactive, responsive
nature of dialogue rather than the single-mindedness of monologue. The
elements of dialogic texts are: participants and participants' main purposes to
establish and exchange information. Its structure is marked by: • An opening
phase in which contact is started. • A central phase in which the main business
is transacted. • A closing phase in which the encounter is brought to an end.

III. Jakobson's Six Functions of Language

Roman Jakobson identified six functions of language, each emphasizing a different
element of the communication process. Most texts combine multiple functions, but
typically one function dominates. Identifying the dominant function(s) helps you
understand the text's primary purpose.

1. Referential/Denotative Function
Focus: Context/subject matter – conveying information about the world
Linguistic markers: Third-person pronouns, declarative sentences, factual vocabulary,
objective tone, present/past tense, specific details
Example: "The temperature reached 32°C yesterday. Rainfall measured 15mm in the
city centre."
Dominant in: News articles, scientific reports, encyclopaedia entries, textbooks,
weather forecasts
Text type alignment: Expository, narrative (when factual)

2. Emotive/Expressive Function
Focus: Sender/speaker – expressing personal feelings, attitudes, or emotions
Linguistic markers: First-person pronouns (I, we), interjections (Oh! Alas!),
exclamations, evaluative adjectives, emotive vocabulary, personal opinions
Example: "I absolutely detest this policy! It makes me furious that they haven't listened
to our concerns."
Dominant in: Diaries, personal letters, opinion pieces, editorials, social media posts,
memoirs
Text type alignment: Argumentative (when expressing stance), narrative (personal),
descriptive (impressionistic)

3. Conative Function
Focus: Receiver/addressee – influencing, persuading, or commanding the audience
Linguistic markers: Imperatives (Buy! Listen! Consider!), second-person pronouns
(you, your), vocatives (Dear Reader, Ladies and Gentlemen), rhetorical questions,
modal verbs (should, must)
Example: "Don't miss this opportunity! Subscribe now and save 50%. You deserve the
best."
Dominant in: Advertisements, instructions, recipes, political speeches, commands,
calls to action
Text type alignment: Instructive, argumentative (persuasive)

4. Phatic Function
Focus: Contact/channel – establishing, maintaining, or closing communication
Linguistic markers: Greetings (Hello, Hi), formulaic expressions (How are you? Nice
weather!), conversation fillers (Well..., You know...), tag questions (isn't it?), closing
formulas (Goodbye, Take care)
Example: "Morning! Lovely day, isn't it? Well, I'd better be off. Take care!"
Dominant in: Greetings, small talk, interview openings/closings, phone conversations,
social media interactions
Text type alignment: Dialogic

5. Metalingual Function
Focus: Code/language itself – discussing, defining, or clarifying language
Linguistic markers: Definitions, metalinguistic verbs (means, refers to, is called),
quotation marks around words, clarifications (in other words, that is to say), linguistic
terminology
Example: "The word 'metaphor' derives from Greek and means 'to carry across.' When
we say 'time is money,' we're using a metaphor."
Dominant in: Dictionary entries, grammar books, glossaries, language lessons,
academic discussions about language
Text type alignment: Expository

6. Poetic Function
Focus: Message form – emphasis on aesthetic qualities and the artistry of language
itself
Linguistic markers: Rhyme, rhythm, metre, alliteration, assonance, parallelism,
wordplay, puns, creative syntax, unusual word combinations, foregrounding of sound
and structure
Example: "The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, the furrow followed free"
(Coleridge) / "Have a break, have a Kit Kat" (advertising slogan)
Dominant in: Poetry, literary prose, advertising slogans, song lyrics, creative writing
Text type alignment: All types can employ poetic function, but especially narrative
(literary) and descriptive

Quick Reference: Jakobson's Functions

Function Focus Key Markers Dominant Genres

Referential Context 3rd person, News, reports, textbooks

declarative, factual

Emotive Sender 1st person, Diaries, editorials, social

interjections, media
evaluative

Conative Receiver Imperatives, 2nd Ads, instructions, speeches

person, vocatives

Phatic Contact Greetings, formulaic Small talk, interview openings

expressions

Metalingual Code Definitions, linguistic Dictionaries, grammar books

terms

Poetic Message Rhyme, rhythm, Poetry, slogans, literary prose

wordplay, alliteration
IV. Rhetorical Devices Across Genres and Text Types
1. Structural Features
Inverted Pyramid
Definition: Information organised in descending order of importance; most newsworthy
facts first.
Example: "Three people died in a motorway crash this morning. The collision occurred
on the M1 near Leicester at 6:30am during heavy fog..."
Typical genres: News articles, press releases
Typical text type: Expository
Effect: Immediate delivery of key information; allows readers to grasp essential facts
quickly; enables editors to cut from the bottom without losing crucial details.

IMRAD Structure
Definition: Introduction, Methods, Results, And Discussion – standard scientific paper
organisation.
Structure:
• Introduction – States the research problem, reviews relevant literature, and
presents the hypothesis
• Methods – Describes the experimental procedure, materials, and data
collection techniques
• Results – Presents the findings objectively, often with tables and graphs
• Discussion – Interprets the results, relates them to the hypothesis, and
suggests implications
Typical genres: Scientific reports, research articles, lab reports, academic journals
Typical text type: Expository
Effect: Logical, replicable presentation of research; meets academic conventions;
allows readers to follow the scientific process systematically; enables peer review and
verification.

Chronological Order
Definition: Events presented in time sequence (past → present, or beginning → end).
Example: "First, preheat the oven. Then, mix the ingredients. Finally, bake for 30
minutes."
Typical genres: Narratives, biographies, instructions, recipes, historical accounts
Typical text types: Narrative, instructive
Effect: Clear progression; easy to follow; creates temporal coherence.

Thesis-Evidence-Conclusion
Definition: Argument structure: claim stated, supported with evidence, then reinforced
in conclusion.
Example: "School uniforms should be abolished [thesis]. Studies show no
improvement in behaviour [evidence]. Therefore, the policy serves no purpose
[conclusion]."
Typical genres: Academic essays, editorials, opinion pieces
Typical text type: Argumentative
Effect: Persuasive; establishes clear position; guides reader through logical reasoning.

4. Figures of Speech
Figures of speech are divided into two main categories: tropes (which change the
meaning of words) and schemes (which affect the structure or pattern of language).

A. Tropes (Figures that Change Meaning)

Tropes involve a deviation from the literal meaning of words. They change what words
mean through comparison, substitution, or exaggeration.

Metaphor
Definition: Direct comparison stating one thing IS another (without 'like' or 'as').
Example: "Time is a thief." / "The government's ticking time bomb of debt."
Typical genres: Poetry, editorials, speeches, advertisements, literary fiction
Typical text types: Argumentative, narrative, descriptive
Effect: Creates vivid imagery; conveys complex ideas concisely; emotionally resonant.

Simile
Definition: Comparison using 'like' or 'as'.
Example: "Her smile was like sunshine." / "The economy grew as slowly as a glacier."
Typical genres: Poetry, literary fiction, feature articles, reviews
Typical text types: Descriptive, narrative
Effect: Creates clear, accessible comparison; enhances description; aids
visualisation.

Personification
Definition: Giving human qualities to non-human things.
Example: "The wind whispered through the trees." / "Inflation devoured savings."
Typical genres: Poetry, literary fiction, advertisements, feature articles
Typical text types: Descriptive, narrative, argumentative
Effect: Makes abstract concepts tangible; creates emotional connection; vivid imagery.

Hyperbole
Definition: Deliberate exaggeration for emphasis.
Example: "I've told you a million times!" / "The best coffee in the universe."
Typical genres: Advertisements, informal writing, speeches, reviews
Typical text types: Argumentative, descriptive
Effect: Emphasises point dramatically; memorable; creates humour or urgency.

Metonymy
Definition: Substituting the name of something with something closely associated with
it.
Example: "The Crown" (meaning the monarchy) / "The White House announced..."
(meaning the US President/administration) / "Hollywood" (meaning the film industry)
Typical genres: Journalism, political writing, literary fiction
Typical text types: Expository, argumentative, narrative
Effect: Creates conciseness; adds sophistication; evokes associations.

Synecdoche
Definition: Using a part to represent the whole, or vice versa.
Example: "All hands on deck" (hands = sailors) / "Nice wheels!" (wheels = car) /
"England won the match" (England = the English team)
Typical genres: Literary fiction, journalism, informal speech
Typical text types: Narrative, descriptive, expository
Effect: Creates economy of expression; adds variety; emphasises specific aspects.

Irony
Definition: Saying one thing but meaning the opposite; a contrast between expectation
and reality.
Example: "What a beautiful day!" (said during a storm) / "Clearly, cutting health funding
was a brilliant move." (meaning it was a terrible decision)
Typical genres: Satire, opinion pieces, literary fiction, reviews
Typical text types: Argumentative, narrative
Effect: Creates humour or criticism; engages informed readers; reveals contradictions.

Oxymoron
Definition: Combining two contradictory terms.
Example: "Deafening silence" / "Bittersweet" / "Cruel kindness" / "Living death"
Typical genres: Poetry, literary fiction, advertising
Typical text types: Descriptive, narrative
Effect: Creates paradox; provokes thought; emphasises complexity or contradiction.

Litotes
Definition: Understatement by denying the opposite; affirming something by denying
its contrary.
Example: "He is no fool" (meaning he is wise) / "Not bad" (meaning quite good) / "She's
not unkind" (meaning she is kind)
Typical genres: British English writing, formal writing, literary fiction, academic
discourse
Typical text types: Argumentative, expository, narrative
Effect: Creates understatement; sounds modest or ironic; typical of British reserve;
adds subtlety.

Paradox
Definition: A seemingly contradictory statement that reveals an underlying truth.
Example: "Ignorance is strength" (Orwell) / "Less is more" / "The only constant is
change" / "I can resist anything except temptation" (Wilde)
Typical genres: Poetry, philosophical writing, literary fiction, aphorisms
Typical text types: Argumentative, descriptive, narrative
Effect: Provokes thought; reveals deeper truth; challenges assumptions; memorable.

Synaesthesia
Definition: Describing one sense using words normally associated with another sense.
Example: "Loud colours" (sight described as sound) / "Warm tone" (sound described as
touch) / "Sweet melody" (sound described as taste) / "Soft light" (sight described as
touch)
Typical genres: Poetry, literary fiction, descriptive writing, wine/food reviews
Typical text types: Descriptive, narrative
Effect: Creates rich, multisensory imagery; adds depth to description; evocative and
unusual.

B. Schemes (Figures that Change Structure/Pattern)

Schemes involve the arrangement of words, sounds, or structures for effect. They don't
change meaning but create patterns that enhance delivery and memorability.

Anaphora
Definition: Repetition of word/phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.
Example: "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall
fight in the fields..." (Churchill)
Typical genres: Speeches, poetry, advertisements
Typical text types: Argumentative, descriptive
Effect: Creates rhythm and emphasis; memorable; builds emotional intensity.

Epistrophe
Definition: Repetition of word/phrase at the end of successive clauses.
Example: "When I was a child, I spoke as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a
child."
Typical genres: Speeches, poetry, sermons
Typical text type: Argumentative
Effect: Creates emphasis through repetition; builds to climax; reinforces key concepts.

Alliteration
Definition: Repetition of initial consonant sounds.
Example: "Peter Piper picked..." / "Drop-dead deals" / "Sensational summer sales"
Typical genres: Poetry, advertisements, headlines, slogans
Typical text types: Descriptive, argumentative (in ads)
Effect: Creates musicality; memorable; draws attention; emphasises words.

Assonance
Definition: Repetition of vowel sounds within words.
Example: "The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain" / "Hear the mellow wedding bells"
Typical genres: Poetry, song lyrics, literary prose
Typical text type: Descriptive, narrative
Effect: Creates internal rhyme and musicality; enhances mood; subtle sonic cohesion.

Tricolon (Rule of Three)

Definition: Three parallel elements (words, phrases, or clauses).
Example: "Government of the people, by the people, for the people" / "Blood, toil, tears
and sweat" / "I came, I saw, I conquered"
Typical genres: Speeches, slogans, advertisements, political writing
Typical text type: Argumentative
Effect: Rhythm; completeness; memorable; persuasive impact.

Antithesis
Definition: Contrasting ideas placed in parallel structure.
Example: "One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind" / "Ask not what your
country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country"
Typical genres: Speeches, poetry, opinion pieces
Typical text type: Argumentative
Effect: Highlights contrast; balanced; memorable; emphasises opposing ideas.

Parallelism
Definition: Repeated grammatical structures.
Example: "To err is human; to forgive, divine." / "We came, we saw, we conquered."
Typical genres: Speeches, poetry, formal writing
Typical text types: Argumentative, descriptive
Effect: Creates rhythm; balance; memorable; emphasises connection between ideas.

Chiasmus
Definition: Reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases (AB, BA pattern).
Example: "Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your
country" / "Never let a fool kiss you or a kiss fool you"
Typical genres: Speeches, poetry, aphorisms
Typical text type: Argumentative
Effect: Creates elegant balance; highly memorable; emphasises reversal of
relationship.

Rhetorical Question
Definition: Question asked for effect, not requiring an answer.
Example: "How long must we wait?" / "Is this the Britain we want for our children?"
Typical genres: Speeches, editorials, advertisements, opinion pieces
Typical text type: Argumentative
Effect: Engages reader/listener; implies obvious answer; prompts reflection.

Anadiplosis
Definition: Repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the next.
Example: "Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering." (Star Wars)
/ "For I have loved long, I crave reward / Reward me not unkindly" (Bacon)
Typical genres: Speeches, poetry, philosophical writing
Typical text types: Argumentative, narrative
Effect: Creates chain of logic; builds momentum; links ideas tightly; emphasises
progression.

Polyptoton
Definition: Repetition of the same root word in different grammatical forms.
Example: "Disturb his hours of rest with restless trances" / "Afflict him in his bed with
bedrid groans" / "Let there be chance him pitiful mischances" (The Rape of Lucrece)
Typical genres: Poetry, literary fiction, speeches
Typical text types: Descriptive, narrative, argumentative
Effect: Creates wordplay; emphasises concept through variation; adds complexity and
depth.
Quick Reference: Tropes vs Schemes
TROPES (Change Meaning) SCHEMES (Change Structure/Pattern)

• Metaphor • Simile • • Anaphora • Epistrophe • Alliteration •

Personification • Hyperbole • Assonance • Tricolon • Antithesis •
Metonymy • Synecdoche • Irony • Parallelism • Chiasmus • Rhetorical Question
Oxymoron • Litotes • Paradox • • Anadiplosis • Polyptoton
Synaesthesia

Key Principles for Text Analysis

• Be selective: Focus on the 3-4 most salient features present in the specific text.
• Link to function: Always explain HOW each device contributes to the text's
purpose.
• Genre guides analysis: Different genres prioritise different rhetorical devices.
• Use specific examples: Quote briefly from the text to support your
observations.
• Figures of speech aren't universal: They're central to poetry and speeches but
rare in news articles and academic writing.