Specifications-Loads-Methods of Design
Specifications are written for the purpose of
protecting the public.
AISC (LRFD or ASD)– AASHTO – IBC - UBC
The main task of a structural engineer is to
accurately estimate the loads applied to a structure
during its service life.
Next problem is determination of the worst possible
combinations of these loads.
Design Loads
Dead Loads
Gravitational – Static- Constant magnitude
To be estimated in the 1st analysis (before design)
then compared with the estimated ones.
Include:
Own weight =(7850 kg/m3)*{(Area)*1m }≤200 kg/m
Wt. of steel skeleton (framing) < 100 kg/m2
Permanent loads: Walls – Slabs - Finishing – Plumbing –
Fixtures
Live Loads
Gravitational – Static or dynamic (change in
magnitude & position)
Moving LL: Trucks-Cranes-People
Movable LL: Furniture-warehouse –materials
Impact (I): 20% Motor-driven machinery
50% Reciprocating machinery
100% Elevator machinery
Live Loads
Apartments : 200 kg/m2
Public rooms: 500 kg/m2
Car Parking: 400 kg/m2
Office buildings: 500 kg/m2 (lobbies)
300 kg/m2 (offices)
Storage warehouses: 500 kg/m2 (light)
1000 kg/m2 (heavy)
Longitudinal braking forces (bridges- cranes)
Soil pressures on walls & footings
Live Loads
Hydrostatic pressures due to water: (dams – uplift
pressures on tanks & basements – interia forces of large
bodies of water during EQ).
Blast loads due to explosions
Thermal forces due to temp. change
Centrifugal forces caused by trucks/trains on curved
bridges/roller coasters
Environmental Loads
Rain – Snow – Wind – Temp. change - EQ
Rain is critical on flat roofs when there is ponding,
causing successive roof deflections.
Snow loads depend on the slope and character of the
roof surface:
50 kg/m2 for α = 45°
200 kg/m2 for α = 0°
Wind Loads
Magnitudes of WL vary with:
Geographical locations (exposure)
Heights above ground
Types of terrain surrounding the buildings
Proximity & nature of other nearby structures
W.L. acts uniformly & normally to surfaces
Critical on towers (tall & slender): H/B>5
If stiff floors & walls are provided in low-rise buildings, no
bracing is required.
Wind Loads
Wind ward:
Vertical surfaces are subjected to horizontal
pressure (inwards) forces.
Sloped surfaces are subjected to either normal
pressures or suctions depending on roof slope.
Flat surfaces are subjected to vertical suction
(outwards) forces.
Lee ward:
Vertical , flat and sloped surfaces are subjected
to normal suction forces due to –ve pressures
that cause vacuums.
Wind Loads
Lateral forces that increase with height of structure
Normal projection (H.P.)
2
qs(psf or kg/m ) = (W/2g).V
2 ….(Bernolli)
qs=wind stagnation pressure at the std. ht of 33 ft,i.e.
intensity of wind pressure acting horizontally (UBC 1997
–Table 16-F)
W=specific weight of air = 1.23 kg/m3
V=wind speed (mile/hr or km/hr)
Practically: q≈0.122V
2
Wind Loads
For inclined roofs: Pw(lb/ft2) = ce cq qs Iw
pw = design wind pressure (normal to the inclined roof
ce = coeifficient for :height – exposure –gust factor,
(UBC 1997 –Table 16-G)
cq = shape factor (windward or leeward), (UBC 1997 –
Table 16-H)
cq = 0.8(inward) vertical surface (w.w)
= 0.7 (outward) slopped surface (w.w), slope< 2:12
= 0.7 (inward) slopped surface (w.w), slope> 12:12
= 0.5(outward) vertical surface (L.w)
= 0.7(outward) inclined/flat surfaces (L.w.)
Iw = Importance factor, (UBC 1997 –Table 16-K)
Earthquake Loads
The horizontal component of the acceleration of the
ground surface motion is severe.
For regular buildings, the effect of ground motion is
approximated by a set of horizontal static loads @ each
level of the structure (Equivalent Static Force Method).
EQ lateral forces on a structure depend on:
Mass distribution of the structure-Type, stiffness & ductility of the
LFR system-Location-Soil type- purpose
For irregular buildings use Dynamic analysis.
Earthquake Loads
Lateral forces due to horizontal ground acceleration
increase with the distance of the floor above the ground
because of the “Whipping (pounding) Effect” of the EQ.
Story Drifts (relative displacement of one story w.r.t.
floor above or below) should be limited in order not to
impair the stability of the structure. Added strength and
stiffness are required.
Design Method (ASD)
Two design methods for steel structures:
1. Allowable Strength Design, (ASD):
No load factors
Load Combinations:
i. D + L + I ……… (case I)
ii. D + L + I + W + EQ + … (case II)
Ra (Largest computed load in member) ≤
(Nominal strength of member)/FOS (Ω)
Or: stresses due to: Ra ≤ Ω Fy
Design Method (ASD)
In ASD, failure is assumed at the yield stress Fy, although
steel will not rapture at yield but large deformations may
cause instability.
A factor of safety (FOS) is used to account for:
Under-estimation of loads
Errors in analysis methods/modeling
Variations in material properties (E-Fy) due to creep, corrosion,
fatigue
Danger to life & property as a result to collapse
Design Method (ASD)
FOS = Load(stress) that causes failure
Load(stress) maximum allowed
Example:
If max. allowable stress in tension= 0.6Fy
FOS = Fy/(0.6Fy) = 1.67
The member has 67% reserve of strength
against yielding
Load & Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
2. Load & Resistance Factor Design, (LRFD):
Based on the theory of reliability & statistical
knowledge of load & material characteristics.
Load factors are applied to service loads.
Load factor reflects the uncertainty of that load.
The nominal strength of the member is reduced by a
resistance factor.
Ru ≤ φnRn
Ru = computed factored force in member
φn = Reduction factor < 1.0
Rn = nominal strength of member
Load & Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Load combinations (LRFD 2011):
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)
4. 1.2D + 1.0W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
6. 0.9D ± (1.0W or 1.0E) ……. For tall buildings
Different load combinations reflect 50 years recurrence
(return) for different transient (passing) loads.
Framing Systems
1. Beam – Girder –Column System
Used in multi-story buildings where beams & girders
are placed in 2 orthogonal directions
Spacing of columns ≤ 8m
Spacing of beams ≤ 4m
Simple (shear) beam-girder connections
Simple or Rigid (moment) girder-column connections
Stability depends on deck type & rigidity of connections
RC shear walls or Bracing systems may be used
Framing Systems
H ≈ L/15
Framing Systems
Framing Systems
Framing Systems
Framing Systems
Simple Steel Connections
Simple Steel Connections
Rigid Steel Connections
Rigid Steel Connections
Brace-Girder-Column Connection
Crane Girder – Bracket –
Column Connection
Brace-Girder Connection
Brace-Column Connection
Column-Base Connection
Circular Column Connection
Framing Systems
2. Frame or Truss System
Used in industrial buildings where frames and purlins
are placed in 2 orthogonal directions
Spacing of frames ≈ 4-8 m
Span of frame ≈ 40 m
Spacing of purlins ≤ 4m
Simple (shear) purlin-frame connections
Rigid (moment) frame connections
Bracing systems are used normal to frame direction
Framing Systems
H ≈ L/30 H ≈ L/25
Framing Systems
Framing Systems
Framing Systems
P’ = (as) q
TRUSSES
Trusses
Trusses
H ≈ L/25
Pj = [O.W. + L.L. + cover/cos α ± W.P./cos2 α]* s.a
Trusses
Span (L) ≤ 20m, S≈ 4-5m
Span (L)> 20m, spacing ≈ span/(4-5)
Panel distance a ≤ 2m
40° ≤ α ≤ 50° , to reduce gusset plate
Truss o.w. W(kg/m2) ≈ L*S/5 ….(H.P.)
Truss o.w.+purlins (≈40% of wt) +bracing
W(kg/m2) =(9+L2/150)* K/S
K=11 for glass & light wt. concrete slab,
15 for RC slab roof
Slope of upper chord 1:10 – 1:50 (rain intensity)
Trusses
Covering Material
Inclined projection (I.P.)
Cover wt. = volume*unit weight (γs)
6 mm Laminated glass (γglass= 2 t/m3)=12 kg/m2
12mm Laminated glass = 24 kg/m2
Corrugated Sheets ≈ 10 -15 kg/m2
Trusses
Live Loads
Trusses
Wind Loads