Linux Command Reference

Complete DevOps Edition

Covers: System • Files • Permissions • Networking • Monitoring • Scripting • Services

Sections marked ★ NEW contain topics added for DevOps readiness

1. System Information & Boot
1.1 Basic System Info
whoami Display current username

who Show logged-in users, reboot time & date

uname Display OS / kernel details

uname -r Show kernel version

uname -a Show ALL info: OS, kernel, hostname, architecture (most

useful in DevOps)

hostname Show system hostname

hostname -I Show IP address assigned to the host

date Display current date & time

uptime How long the system has been running

uptime -s Show system start time

history Show command history

last Show last login users

last reboot List all system reboot history

last -x shutdown List all system shutdown history

1.2 Package Management

sudo apt install Install a package (new version)

sudo apt remove Remove a package

sudo apt update Refresh local package database

sudo apt upgrade Upgrade all installed packages

sudo reboot Reboot the system

sudo shutdown now Shutdown immediately (use 'now' flag)

sudo shutdown -h now Halt and shutdown immediately

1.3 Help & Documentation

help Built-in shell command guide

man Manual documentation pages

man -k Search manual pages by keyword

1.4 Key Concepts

• Kernel — Bridge between hardware and software; core of the OS that controls hardware.
• Shell — Lets users interact with the OS using commands (bash, sh, zsh).
• Terminal — Where you type Linux commands.
• Root directory (/) — Top-level directory of the filesystem.
• Home directory (~) — User's personal folder (e.g. /home/username).
• Root user — Administrator account with full system privileges.
• Swap space — When RAM is full, a dedicated partition or swap file on disk is used as virtual RAM.
• Internal commands — Built into the shell (cd, pwd, echo). No separate file needed.
• External commands — Stored as separate programs (ls, cp, grep).
• Alias — Shortcut for commands. e.g. alias ll='ls -l'
• $PATH variable — Tells the system where to find executable commands. Use: echo $PATH
2. File & Directory Management
2.1 Navigation
pwd Print Working Directory — see where you are

cd Change to directory

cd or cd ~ Go to home directory

cd .. Go one level back (parent folder)

cd ../.. Go two levels back

cd - Go to the last directory you were in

cd . Stay in current directory

2.2 Listing Files

ls List current directory (simplest form)

ls -l Long listing — 7 columns (most used)

ls -lh Long listing in human-readable format (KB, MB, GB)

ls -lt Sort by time — latest to oldest

ls -lrt Sort by time — oldest to latest (reverse)

ls -a Show all files including hidden (dot files)

ls -s List by size

ls -d */ List only directories

2.3 Creating & Deleting Files

touch Create a file

touch Create multiple files

touch / Create a file inside another directory

rm Delete a file

rm Delete multiple files

rm -f Force delete without prompt

2.4 Creating & Deleting Directories

mkdir Create a directory

mkdir Create multiple directories

mkdir / Create directory inside another directory

mkdir -p / Create parent + child directory at once

rmdir Delete an empty directory

rm -r Delete directory recursively

rm -rf Force delete directory recursively (use with caution!)

2.5 Move & Copy

mv Rename a file or directory

mv Move file or directory

 mv Move multiple files to a directory

cp Copy file

cp -r Copy directory recursively

cp -i Ask before overwriting

cp *.txt Copy all .txt files using wildcard

2.6 Find Command (Private Investigator)

Syntax: find | f=file d=dir l=link

find -empty Find all empty files/dirs/links

find -empty -type f Find empty files only

find ! -empty -type f Find non-empty files

find . -name '*.txt' Find files ending with .txt

find . -type f -name 'abc*' Find files starting with abc

find . -perm 777 Find files with 777 permission

find . -user Find files by owner

find . -type f -size +2k Files greater than 2KB

find . -type f -size +2k -size -4k Files between 2KB and 4KB

find . -mmin -10 Files modified less than 10 mins ago

find . -cmin -10 Files changed less than 10 mins ago

find . -amin -10 Files accessed less than 10 mins ago

find . -mtime +2 Files modified more than 2 days ago

find . -mtime +2 -exec rm {} \; Delete files older than 2 days

find . -maxdepth 2 -name '*.log' Search only 2 levels deep

Size units: c=bytes k=KB M=MB G=GB | Time flags: -mmin(modified) -cmin(changed) -amin(accessed)

2.7 Links
Hard Link — An additional name for an existing file. Both share the same inode (index node). Changes in original reflect
in link. Works even if original is renamed or deleted.

ln Create a hard link

Soft Link (Symbolic Link) — A pointer to a file. Does NOT share the same inode. Breaks if original is renamed or
deleted.

ln -s Create a soft/symbolic link

inode = index node — stores metadata: file size, owner, permissions, timestamps.

2.8 Disk & Storage

★ NEW Added for DevOps
lsblk List block devices (disks and partitions)

fdisk -l Detailed disk partition info

mount Mount a filesystem

umount Unmount a filesystem

cat /etc/fstab View permanent mount configuration

/etc/fstab defines filesystems that are automatically mounted at boot.
3. File Viewing
3.1 cat — Display File Content
cat Display file content

cat -n Display with line numbers

cat -b Line numbers only where content is present

cat -s Suppress multiple blank lines to single blank line

cat Display multiple files together

3.2 head — Display First Lines

Displays first 10 lines by default.

head Display first 10 lines

head -n 40 Display first 40 lines

head -n -10 Display all lines EXCEPT last 10

head View multiple files

3.3 tail — Display Last Lines

Displays last 10 lines by default.

tail Display last 10 lines

tail -15 Display last 15 lines

tail -n +10 Display all lines except first 10 (from line 10 onwards)

tail -f /var/log/syslog Live log monitoring (follows file in real-time)

3.4 Head & Tail Combined Patterns

# Print first & last line
head -1 [Link] && tail -1 [Link]

# Print lines 11 to 20 (exclude last 5, exclude first 10)

head -n -5 [Link] | tail -n +10

# Print lines 5 to 15
head -n 15 [Link] | tail -n 11

3.5 more & less — Page-by-Page Viewing

more View file page by page (older, can't scroll up easily)

less Advanced pager — scroll up/down, search, doesn't load all

into memory
less key controls: Space=next page b=scroll up /word=search g=top G=bottom q=quit

3.6 locate & updatedb — Fast File Search

locate Fast file search using a pre-built database

updatedb Update the locate database

diff Show exact line differences between two files

4. Output & Redirection
4.1 echo Command
echo Display a message on the terminal

echo > Write text to file (OVERWRITES existing content)

echo >> Append text to file (keeps existing content)

echo -e "Hello\nWorld" Use -e for special characters like \n (newline)

4.2 Redirection Operators

★ NEW Added for DevOps
command > file Redirect stdout to file (overwrite)

command >> file Redirect stdout to file (append)

command 2> file Redirect stderr to file

command 2>&1 Redirect stderr to stdout (combine both)

command &> file Redirect both stdout AND stderr to file

command > /dev/null Discard output completely (the black hole)

command < file Use file as input to command

4.3 Pipe Operator |

Connects the OUTPUT of one command to the INPUT of another. Data flows left to right.

head | tail -1 Display exactly the 10th line

head -20 | tail -5 Display lines 16 to 20

head -9 | tail -1 Display exactly the 9th line

cat file | tail -2 Display last 2 lines

ls | wc -l Count number of files in directory

ps -aux | grep nginx Find a specific process

4.4 tee Command

Used with pipe: reads input and copies to terminal AND one or more files simultaneously.

ls | tee [Link] Show ls output on screen AND save to file

cat [Link] | tee [Link] Copy content of f1 to f2 (replaces f2)

tail -5 [Link] | tee -a [Link] Append last 5 lines of [Link] to [Link]

tree | tee -a Append tree output to file

5. File Editing — vi Editor
5.1 vi Modes
Command Mode (Normal) — Default when file opens. Keys act as commands, not typed text.
Insert Mode — Type text normally. Press i to enter, Esc to exit.
Last Line Mode (:) — Enter by pressing : in command mode. Used to save, quit, search.
Note: If file exists, vi opens it. If not, vi creates and opens it.

5.2 Command Mode (Esc)

i Enter Insert mode at cursor

dd Delete current line

5dd Delete 5 lines from cursor

yy Copy (yank) current line

p Paste copied/deleted line

u Undo last action

gg Go to top of file

G Go to bottom of file

77G Go to line 77

A Move to end of current line (insert mode)

x Delete character under cursor

/ Search forward for pattern (n for next)

? Search backward for pattern

5.3 Last Line Mode (:)

:wq Save and quit

:q! Quit WITHOUT saving

:set nu Show line numbers

:s/old/new/ Replace first occurrence on current line

:s/old/new/g Replace all occurrences on current line

:%s/old/new/g Replace all occurrences in entire file

:%s/old/new/gi Replace all — case insensitive

:5s/old/new/g Replace all occurrences on line 5

:5,$s/old/new/g Replace from line 5 to last line

:3s/old/new/ Replace first occurrence on line 3

% = entire file | s = search | g = global (all occurrences) | i = case insensitive | $ = last line
6. The Big Three Text Processors
6.1 grep — Search in Closed Files
Syntax: grep [options]

grep Search for pattern in file

grep -n Show line numbers with matches

grep -i Case-insensitive search

grep -v Invert — show lines NOT matching

grep -w Exact whole word match only

grep -o Show only the matching part (not full line)

grep -c Count total matching lines

grep -r Recursive search in directories

grep -l List filenames containing match only

grep -e -e Search multiple patterns

grep -n -i Line numbers + case insensitive

6.2 sed — Edit Closed Files (Streaming Editor)

Syntax: sed [options] 'command'

Print
sed -n '10p' file Print line 10

sed -n '5,10p' file Print lines 5 to 10

sed -n '4p;7p' file Print lines 4 and 7

sed -n '/pattern/ p' file Print lines matching pattern

sed -n '/pattern/ Ip' file Print matching lines — case insensitive

Delete
sed '3d' file Delete line 3

sed '1,5d' file Delete lines 1 to 5

sed '/pattern/ d' file Delete lines matching pattern

sed -e '3,10d' -e '14,20d' file Delete multiple ranges

Search & Replace

sed 's/old/new/' file Replace first match per line

sed 's/old/new/g' file Replace all matches per line

sed 's/old/new/2' file Replace only 2nd occurrence per line

sed 's/old/new/Ig' file Replace all — case insensitive

sed -i 's/old/new/g' file Save changes in-place to file

sed '5s/old/new/g' file Replace all matches on line 5 only

sed '2,6s/old/new/g' file Replace matches on lines 2 to 6

sed '6,$s/old/new/g' file Replace from line 6 to last line

sed -z 's/old/new/6' file Replace only 6th occurrence in whole file

 sed -e 's/a/b/g' -e 's/c/d/g' f Multiple replacements at once

6.3 awk — Data Extraction from Structured Files

Syntax: awk 'pattern { action }' filename | NR=Row Number NF=Number of Fields(columns) $NF=Last column

awk '{print $1,$3}' file Print 1st and 3rd column

awk '{print NR,$2}' file Print row number and 2nd column

awk '{print NF,$6}' file Print total columns and 6th column

awk 'END{print NR}' file Print total number of rows/lines

awk 'NF>0 {print $3}' file Print 3rd column — skip empty lines

awk '/pattern/' file Print all lines matching pattern

awk '/pattern/ {print}' file Print lines matching pattern (explicit)

awk -F',' '{print $1}' file Use comma as field separator (for CSV)

6.4 wc — Word Count

wc Show lines, words, and bytes count

wc -l Count lines only

wc -w Count words only

wc -m Count characters only

wc -c Count bytes only

wc -L Show length of longest line

6.5 sort, uniq, cut, tr — Supporting Tools

★ NEW Added for DevOps
sort Sort lines alphabetically

sort -r Sort in reverse order

sort -n Sort numerically

sort -u Sort and remove duplicates

uniq Remove consecutive duplicate lines

uniq -c Count occurrences of each line

sort file | uniq -c Count all duplicate lines (common pattern)

cut -d',' -f1 file Extract column 1 from comma-separated file

cut -d':' -f1 /etc/passwd Extract usernames from passwd file

tr 'a-z' 'A-Z' Convert lowercase to uppercase

tr -d '\n' Delete newlines

7. Permissions & Administration
7.1 User Management
sudo adduser Create a new user

sudo deluser Delete a user

sudo passwd Change user password

sudo su Switch to another user (exit to return)

sudo usermod -u Change user ID

sudo usermod -l Rename a user

sudo usermod -L Lock a user account

sudo usermod -U Unlock a user account

id Show user details including groups

groups Show which groups a user belongs to

cat /etc/passwd Check if user was created

7.2 Group Management

sudo addgroup Create a group

sudo delgroup Delete a group

sudo groupmod -n Rename a group

sudo usermod -aG Add user to group (keep other groups)

sudo gpasswd -d Remove user from group

cat /etc/group Check if group was created

7.3 File Permissions — chmod

Permissions: r(read)=4 w(write)=2 x(execute)=1 | 3 groups: user | group | others
ls -l first character: - = file d = directory l = symbolic link

# Octal mode examples:

sudo chmod 777 file # rwxrwxrwx — full permissions for all
sudo chmod 755 file # rwxr-xr-x — common for scripts/dirs
sudo chmod 644 file # rw-r--r-- — common for files
sudo chmod 600 file # rw------- — private files (SSH keys)

# Symbolic mode:
chmod u+x [Link] # Add execute for owner
chmod g-w [Link] # Remove write from group
chmod a=r [Link] # Set read-only for everyone
chmod o-rwx file # Remove all permissions from others

7.4 Ownership — chown & chgrp

Syntax: sudo chown [user][:group]

sudo chown Change file owner

sudo chown : Change group only

sudo chown : Change both user and group

sudo chown -R Change ownership recursively

sudo chgrp Change group ownership only

8. System Monitoring & Processes
8.1 Memory & Disk
free Quick snapshot of RAM usage (in KiB)

free -h Memory usage in human-readable format (MB/GB)

df Show available/free disk space on filesystems

df -h Disk free in human-readable format

du Show disk usage of files and directories

du -h Disk usage in human-readable format

du -h Disk usage for a specific directory

du -sh /* Disk usage summary for each root directory

8.2 CPU & Real-Time Monitoring

top Real-time CPU, memory, and process information

htop Interactive, prettier version of top (may need install)

lscpu Show detailed CPU information

iostat Show disk I/O performance

8.3 Process Management — ps

ps shows running processes at the moment the command is executed (snapshot, not live).

ps -aef All processes for all users — detailed format

ps aux All processes including background — user-oriented format

ps -fu Processes of a specific user

pgrep Get PID of a process by name

pidof Show process ID by exact name

8.4 Kill Processes

kill Send termination signal to a process

kill -9 Force kill (cannot be ignored)

kill $(pgrep nginx) Kill process by name in one command

killall Kill all processes with given name

8.5 Background & Job Control

★ NEW Added for DevOps
command & Run command in background

nohup command & Run command immune to hangups (survives logout)

jobs Show background jobs

bg Resume a stopped job in background

fg Bring background job to foreground

wait Wait for all background jobs to finish

lsof -i : Find what process is using a specific port

lsof -p Show files opened by a process

8.6 System Logs
journalctl View all system logs

journalctl -xe Detailed error logs

journalctl -u Logs for a specific service

journalctl -f Follow logs live (like tail -f)

tail -f /var/log/syslog Live logs — Ubuntu

tail -f /var/log/syslog | grep ERROR Live error monitoring pattern

/var/log/ is the main log directory. Key files: syslog, [Link], [Link], dmesg
9. Service Management — systemctl
★ NEW Critical DevOps topic — you will use this every day
systemd is the init system on modern Linux. systemctl is the command to manage services/daemons.

9.1 Service Control

systemctl start Start a service immediately

systemctl stop Stop a running service

systemctl restart Stop then start a service

systemctl reload Reload config without stopping service

systemctl status Check current status of service

9.2 Boot-Time Configuration

systemctl enable Auto-start service on system boot

systemctl disable Prevent service from starting on boot

systemctl is-enabled Check if service is enabled for boot

systemctl is-active Check if service is currently running

9.3 Listing & System State

systemctl list-units --type=service List all running services

systemctl list-units --failed List failed units

systemctl daemon-reload Reload systemd config after editing service files

systemctl poweroff Shutdown the system

systemctl reboot Reboot the system

# Common DevOps workflow: restart nginx and check status

sudo systemctl restart nginx
sudo systemctl status nginx

# Enable a service to start on boot AND start it now

sudo systemctl enable --now nginx
10. Cron Jobs — Task Scheduling
★ NEW Critical DevOps topic — used for automation and scheduled tasks

10.1 Crontab Commands

crontab -e Edit your cron jobs (opens in default editor)

crontab -l List current user's cron jobs

crontab -r Remove ALL cron jobs (use carefully!)

crontab -u -l List cron jobs for a specific user

10.2 Cron Syntax

# Format: minute hour day month weekday command
# 0-59 0-23 1-31 1-12 0-7
#
# Special characters:
# * = any/every value
# , = list of values (1,3,5)
# - = range (1-5)
# / = step values (*/5 = every 5)

# Examples:
0 2 * * * /scripts/[Link] # Every day at 2:00 AM
*/5 * * * * /scripts/[Link] # Every 5 minutes
0 0 * * 0 /scripts/[Link] # Every Sunday midnight
30 8 1 * * /scripts/[Link] # 1st of every month at 8:30 AM
0 9-17 * * 1-5 /scripts/[Link] # Every hour 9-5, Mon-Fri

10.3 Special Shortcuts

@reboot /scripts/[Link] # Run once at system startup
@hourly /scripts/[Link] # Run every hour
@daily /scripts/[Link] # Run every day at midnight
@weekly /scripts/[Link] # Run every week
@monthly /scripts/[Link] # Run every month

Cron output goes to mail by default. Redirect to log: command >> /var/log/[Link] 2>&1
11. Environment Variables
★ NEW Important for DevOps — config, secrets, and tool paths are all managed via env vars

printenv List all environment variables

env Similar to printenv — list all env vars

echo $VAR Print value of specific variable

echo $PATH Show all command search paths

export VAR=value Set environment variable for current session

unset VAR Remove/delete an environment variable

source ~/.bashrc Reload shell configuration file

source ~/.bash_profile Reload bash profile

# View common system variables

echo $HOME # Home directory path
echo $USER # Current username
echo $SHELL # Current shell in use
echo $HOSTNAME # System hostname

# Set a variable permanently (add to ~/.bashrc):

echo 'export MY_VAR=hello' >> ~/.bashrc
source ~/.bashrc
12. Networking & File Transfer
12.1 Connectivity Testing
ping Check if a host is alive/reachable

ping [Link] Test internet connectivity

ping [Link] Ping Google DNS directly

traceroute Trace network path to destination

nslookup DNS lookup — get IP from domain name

dig Detailed DNS query information

12.2 Network Information

ip addr Show IP addresses (modern command)

ifconfig Show network interfaces (older, may need install)

hostname Show system hostname

hostname -I Show IP address of the host

route -n Show routing table

ss -tuln Show listening ports (modern — preferred over netstat)

netstat -tuln Show listening ports (older, deprecated on some distros)

netstat -a Show all network connections and listening ports

lsof -i : Find what process is using a specific port

Prefer ss over netstat — netstat is deprecated in many modern Linux distros.

12.3 Telnet — Port Connectivity Test

Syntax: telnet | Port 80=HTTP Port 443=HTTPS Port 22=SSH

telnet [Link] 80 Test if port 80 on [Link] is open

telnet 443 Test HTTPS port connectivity

telnet 22 Test SSH port availability

12.4 SSH — Remote Access

ssh @ Connect to a remote server

ssh -i [Link] @ Connect using a specific key file (AWS/cloud)

ssh-keygen Generate an SSH key pair (id_rsa & id_rsa.pub)

ssh-copy-id @ Copy public key to remote server for passwordless login

ssh -L 8080:localhost:80 user@host Port forwarding — tunnel remote port to local

★ NEW SSH key-based auth — critical for DevOps/cloud access

# ~/.ssh/config — create aliases for frequent servers

Host myserver
HostName [Link]
User ubuntu
IdentityFile ~/.ssh/[Link]

# Then simply use:

ssh myserver

12.5 Firewall
★ NEW Added for DevOps

ufw status Check firewall status (Ubuntu)

ufw allow 22 Allow SSH port

ufw allow 80 Allow HTTP port

ufw enable Enable the firewall

iptables -L List all firewall rules

12.6 SCP — Secure Copy

scp = secured copy over SSH. Think: scp

scp @: Copy local file TO remote server

scp @: Copy file FROM remote server to local

scp -r @: Copy entire directory to remote (recursive)

12.7 rsync — Efficient File Transfer

More efficient than scp — only transfers new/changed files (incremental backup).

rsync -avz @: Sync local to remote server

rsync -avz @: Sync remote to local

Options: -a=archive(preserve permissions) -v=verbose -z=compression

12.8 wget & curl

wget Download a file from the internet

wget -O Download and save with custom filename

wget -c Resume an interrupted download

curl Fetch data from a URL (API testing, raw data)

curl -o Save curl output to a file

curl -I Fetch HTTP headers only

curl -X POST -d '{"key":"val"}' Send POST request (API testing)

wget = downloader (saves files). curl = communicator (talks to APIs, shows raw data).
13. Archiving & Compression
13.1 gzip / gunzip
gzip works on individual files only, NOT directories. Saved as .gz

gzip Compress a file (original file is replaced by .gz)

gunzip Decompress a .gz file

gzip -k Compress but KEEP original file intact

gzip -r Compress each file inside directory individually

zcat View contents of compressed file without extracting

gzip -l Show compression ratio and sizes

13.2 tar — Tape Archive

tar archives multiple files/dirs into one. Add -z to also compress with gzip.

# Options: -c=create -x=extract -t=list -z=gzip -v=verbose -f=filename

tar -cvf [Link] file1 file2 dir1 # Create archive (no compression)
tar -czvf [Link] file1 dir1 # Create compressed archive
tar -xvzf [Link] # Extract compressed archive
tar -tvf [Link] # List contents without extracting
tar -czvf [Link] /etc /home # Archive multiple dirs
14. Shell Scripting Basics
★ NEW Critical DevOps skill — automate everything

14.1 Script Structure

#!/bin/bash
# The shebang line above tells the OS to use bash to run this script

# Make script executable:

chmod +x [Link]

# Run the script:

./[Link]
bash [Link]

14.2 Variables & Input

NAME='DevOps' # Assign variable (no spaces around =)
echo $NAME # Use variable with $
echo ${NAME} # Safer way to reference variable

read -p 'Enter name: ' USER_INPUT # Get input from user

echo "Hello $USER_INPUT"

14.3 Special Variables

$1, $2, $3 Positional arguments passed to script

$0 Name of the script itself

$# Number of arguments passed

$@ All arguments as separate words

$? Exit status of last command (0=success, non-zero=failure)

$$ PID of the current script/process

14.4 Conditionals
if [ $NAME == 'root' ]; then
echo 'You are root'
elif [ $NAME == 'admin' ]; then
echo 'You are admin'
else
echo 'Regular user'
fi

# File checks:
if [ -f /etc/hosts ]; then echo 'File exists'; fi
if [ -d /home ]; then echo 'Dir exists'; fi
if [ -z "$VAR" ]; then echo 'Variable is empty'; fi

14.5 Loops
 # For loop
for i in 1 2 3 4 5; do
echo "Number: $i"
done

# For loop over files

for file in /var/log/*.log; do
echo "Processing: $file"
done

# While loop
COUNT=0
while [ $COUNT -lt 5 ]; do
echo "Count: $COUNT"
COUNT=$((COUNT + 1))
done

14.6 Functions
greet() {
echo "Hello, $1!"
}

greet 'DevOps' # Call function with argument

# Check exit status after a command

if [ $? -eq 0 ]; then
echo 'Last command succeeded'
fi
15. DevOps Quick Reference — Common Patterns
★ NEW Real-world command combinations you'll use constantly

15.1 Process & Port Management

# Find and kill a process by name
kill $(pgrep nginx)

# Find what process is using port 8080

lsof -i :8080
ss -tuln | grep 8080

# Run a script and keep it running after logout

nohup ./[Link] > [Link] 2>&1 &

15.2 Log Analysis

# Watch logs live, filter for errors only
tail -f /var/log/[Link] | grep ERROR

# Count how many times each error appears

grep ERROR /var/log/[Link] | sort | uniq -c | sort -rn

# Find logs from last 5 minutes

find /var/log -name '*.log' -mmin -5

15.3 Disk & System Health

# Disk usage sorted by size (find what's eating disk space)
du -sh /* 2>/dev/null | sort -rh | head -20

# Check disk free space

df -h

# Check memory
free -h

15.4 File Search & Text Processing

# Find all .log files and search for 'ERROR' inside them
find /var/log -name '*.log' -exec grep -l 'ERROR' {} \;

# Extract unique IP addresses from a log file

grep -oE '[0-9]+\.[0-9]+\.[0-9]+\.[0-9]+' [Link] | sort | uniq -c | sort -rn

# Replace a config value in-place

sed -i 's/port=8080/port=9090/g' [Link]

15.5 Service & Deployment

# Restart a service and check if it came up
sudo systemctl restart nginx && sudo systemctl status nginx

# Enable service to start on boot AND start it now

sudo systemctl enable --now nginx

# Check if a port opened after starting a service

ss -tuln | grep ':80'

# Tail service logs in real-time

journalctl -u nginx -f
15.6 SSH & Remote Ops
# Copy SSH key to server for passwordless login
ssh-keygen -t rsa -b 4096
ssh-copy-id ubuntu@[Link]

# Sync local folder to remote server

rsync -avz ./app/ ubuntu@[Link]:/var/www/app/

# Run a command on remote server without interactive login

ssh user@host 'sudo systemctl restart app'

End of Linux Command Reference — DevOps Edition

Sections 9 (systemctl), 10 (cron), 11 (env vars), 14 (scripting), 15 (patterns) are newly added for DevOps.