MODULE V

AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
SYLLABUS
Over view of the Automation System - Architecture of Industrial Automation
Systems, Different devices used in Automation Actuators, definition, types,
selection. Pneumatic, Hydraulic, Electrical, Electro-Pneumatic and valves ,
shape memory alloys

QUESTION BANK
1. What you mean by shape memory alloys? Explain in detail
2. What is actuator? Why Actuators are used in Automation Functions?
3. What are the applications of shape memory alloys
4. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of shape memory alloys
5. Define valve? Explain with help of diagram
6. What are the classification of automation actuator? Different types of actuators
with different characteristic and their importance’s in automation
7. Define automation
8. Draw and explain architecture of automation
9. Explain levels of automation and control in manufacturing.
10. Explain in detail about mechanical, pneumatic actuactors

Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is performed with

minimum human assistance. Automation or automatic control is the use of various control
systems for operating equipment such as machinery, processes in factories, boilers and
heat treating ovens, switching on telephone networks, steering and stabilization of ships,
aircraft and other applications and vehicles with minimal or reduced human intervention
Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is accomplished without
human assistance. It is implemented using a program of instructions combined with a
control system that executes the instructions, To automate a [Link] is required,
both to drive the process itself and to operate the program and control system. Although
automation can be applied in a wide variety of areas, it is most closely associated with the
manufacturing industries.

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BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN AUTOMATED SYSTEM

Power for Automation

An automated system is used to operate some process, and power is required to drive the
process as well as the controls. The principal source of power in automated systems is
electricity.
Process refers to the manufacturing operation that is performed on a work unit.
Controller unit. Modern industrial controllers are based on digital computers, which
require electrical power to read the program of instructions, make the control calculations,
and execute the instructions by transmitting the proper commands to the actuating
devices.

Program instructions
The actions performed to an automated process arc defined by a program of
[Link] the manufacturing operation involves low, medium, or high
production each part or product style made in the operation requires one or more
processing steps that are unique to that style, These processing steps are performed
during a work cycle. The particular processing steps for the work cycle are specified in a
work cycle program

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Control system
The control element of the automated system executes the program of instructions. The
control system causes the process to accomplish its defined function. which for our purpose is
to carry out some manufacturing [Link] controls is an automated system can be either
closed loop or open loop. A closed loop control system, also known as a feedback control
system. is one in which the output variable is compared with an input parameter, and any
difference between the two is used to drive the output into agreement with the input

ADVANCED AUTOMATION FUNCTIONS

 safety monitoring,
 maintenance and repair diagnostics,
 error detection and recovery.
 complete stoppage of the automated system
 sounding an alarm
 reducing the operating speed of the process
 taking corrective actions to recover from the safety violation
Maintenance and repair diagnostics
 Maintenance and repair diagnostics refers to the capabilities of an automated
system to assist in the identification of the source of potential or actual
malfunctions and failures of the system. Three. modes of operation are typical of a
modern maintenance and repair diagnostics subsystem
 Status monitoring
 Failure diagnostics
 Recommendation of repair procedure.

Architecture of Automation System: The Automation Pyramid

 Industrial automation systems are very complex having large number of devices
with a number of technologies working in synchronization. In order to know the
performance of the system we need to understand the various parts of the system.
 Industrial automation systems are organized hierarchically. Various components in
an industrial automation system can be explained using the automation pyramid.
 Here, various layers represent the wideness (in the sense of no. of devices), and
fastness of components on the time-scale.

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 
 Sensors and Actuators Layer: This layer is closest to the processes and machines,
used to translate signals so that signals can be derived from processes for analysis
and decisions and hence control signals can be applied to the processes. This forms
the base layer of the pyramid also called ‘level 0’ layer.
 Automatic Control Layer: This layer consists of automatic control and monitoring
systems, which drive the actuators using the process information given by
sensors.
 Supervisory Control Layer: This layer drives the automatic control system
by setting target/goal to the controller. Supervisory Control looks after the
equipment, which may consist of several control loops. This is called as ‘level 2’
layer.
 Production Control Layer: This solves the decision problems like production
targets, resource allocation, task allocation to machines, maintenance management
etc. This is called ‘level 3’ layer. Here most of the operations are performed by
humans with the aid of tools that help people to perform the production control
functions.
 Enterprise Control Layer: This deals less technical and more commercial
activities like management of supply, demand, cash flow, product marketing etc.
This is called as the ‘level 4’ layer.
The lowest level is faster in the time scale and the higher levels are slower. The
aggregation of information over some time interval is taken at higher [Link] level 2
upward, it is not true that computer based automation is needed/present for functioning the
performing on that level, some functions may be done by human being All the layers are
connected by various types of communication systems.
■ Device level. This is the lowest level in our automation hierarchy. It includes the
actuators, sensors, and other hardware components that comprise the machine level.
■ Machine level. Hardware at the device level is assembled into individual machines.
Examples include CNC machine tools and similar production equipment, industrial
robots, powered conveyors, and automated guided vehicles.
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 ■ Cell or system level. This is the manufacturing cell or system level, which operates
under instructions from the plant level. A manufacturing cell or system is a group of
machines or workstations connected and supported by a material handling system,
computer. and other equipment appropriate to the manufacturing process. Production
lines arc included in this level
■ Plum level. This is the factory or production systems level. It receives instructions
from (he corporate iuforrnation system and translates them into operational plans for
production.
■ Enterprise level. This is the highest [Link] of the corporate information
systern

Actuators
Actuation systems convert the input signals computed by the control systems into forms
that can be applied to the actual process and would produce the desired variations in the process
physical variables.
Convert the controller output, which is essentially information without the power, and
in the form of electrical voltages (or at times pneumatic pressure) in two ways.
Firstly, it converts the form of the variable into the appropriate physical variable, such
as torque, heat or flow. Secondly, it amplifies the energy level of the signal manifold to be able
to causes changes in the process variables.
In industrial control systems, an actuator is a hardware device that converts a controller
command signal into a change in a physical parameter. The change in the physical parameter
is usually mechanical such as position or velocity change.
The controller command signal is usually low level, and so an actuator may also include
an amplifier to strengthen the signal sufficiently to drive the actuator.
With the increasing utilization of automated machinery/systems, there has also been a
rise in the demands for actuators, which play a vital role in the automation process.
Actuators, which are responsible for moving, controlling or positioning a mechanism
or system, make the working of automated equipment seamless and easy
There are several areas wherein actuators play a crucial role in automated systems.

 Process Industries: Control the operation of various equipment in an industry.

 Solar: The industry utilizes several types of actuators including ball screw and ACME
actuators to automate the functioning of various solar tracking devices, solar power
concentration equipment, photovoltaic device, and photovoltaic concentration
equipment, among several others.
 Military: These military actuators are basically equipped in tanks, cannon carriers,
airplanes, fighter planes, helicopters, ships, and robots, because they offer complete
movement. Actuators for the military industries are ruggedly built to withstand harsh
environmental conditions, extreme weathers, and severe attacks.
 Satellite: The use of several linear and rotational actuators help automate the working
of several equipment. These include dish antennas, sensors, earth-imaging equipment,
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 and so on. Specially designed and high quality satellite actuators are sought after for
precise positioning and motion control for the industry.
 Construction: The industry depends on high speed automated machines/systems to
carry out several dangerous and tedious tasks. Actuators of varied types are used in these
systems, because they are known to delivering powerful movements to heavy duty
machineries like loading trucks, towing trucks, and cranes. Actuators for the construction
industry are built to offer durable, reliable and long-lasting performance

Hydraulic Actuating System

It uses fluid power to produce mechanical force. Fluid power is technology that deals
with the generation, control and transmission of forces responsible for movement of
mechanical element.
The fluid used in hydraulic actuator is highly incompressible so that pressure applied
can be transmitted instantaneously to the member attached to it.
Hydraulics is based on Pascal’s law which states that when there is an increase in
pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is an equal increase at every other point in the
container. Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished and
equally throughout the fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of the confining vessel
at right angles to its interior surfaces. In simple words intensity of pressure in fluid is equal in
all direction. Hydraulic actuators are used where high speed and large forces are required.

Various components of Hydraulic Actuators are given in brief below:

Pump: Hydraulic power generation system. Pump pressurizes fluid to the level required by
an actuating system.
Valve: Controls the direction, pressure, flow rate of hydraulic fluid. It basically acts as a
regulating system.
Actuator: Converts the fluid pressure into mechanical movement either linear or
rotary. Pipes: Used to connect various elements of actuating system with each other.
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Accumulator, Reservoir and Filter: Filter is used to filter the hydraulic fluid to prevent
damage to system components by contaminants. Reservoir & accumulator is use for storage
purposes.
Sensors: Crucial part of any automation process. Provide some kind of feedback signal
to evaluate the end result by controller.
Control Device: Control whole actuating system by providing signals. (Microcontroller or PLC
are popularly used)

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 Hydraulic Actuators, as used in industrial process control, employ hydraulic pressure
to drive an output member. The fluid used in hydraulic actuator is highly incompressible so
that pressure applied can be transmitted instantaneously to the member attached to it.
A hydraulic actuator consists of a cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic power to
facilitate mechanical operation. The mechanical motion gives an output in terms of linear,
rotary or oscillatory motion. Because liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a hydraulic
actuator can exert considerable force.
Principle Used in Hydraulic Actuator System
Pascal’s Law:
Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished and equally
throughout the fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of the confining vessel at right
angles to its interior surfaces.
Amplification of Force:
Since pressure P applied on an area A gives rise to a force F, given as,
F = P×A
Thus, if a force is applied over a small area to cause a pressure P in a confined fluid,
the force generated on a larger area can be made many times larger than the applied force that
crated the pressure. This principle is used in various hydraulic devices to such hydraulic press
to generate very high forces.
Hydraulic Actuators are of three types

 Linear Actuator
 Single Acting cylinder
 Double Acting cylinder
 Rotary Actuator
 Oscillatory Actuator
Linear Actuator: Single Acting Cylinder
In single acting cylinder actuator, there is only one opening for the fluid to enter and
leave. The forward motion is due to the hydraulic pressure of the fluid entering through the
opening, while the reverse motion is due to the spring.

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Double Acting Cylinder
In double acting cylinder actuator, there are two openings for the fluid to enter and
leave. The forward motion is due to the hydraulic pressure of the fluid entering through one
opening, while the reverse motion is due to the hydraulic pressure of the fluid entering through
one opening.

Rotary Actuator
In rotary actuator, the linear motion of fluid inside the pipe is converted into rotary
motion by a hydro motor.

Components of Hydraulic Actuation Systems

Hydraulic Fluid
 Hydraulic Fluid transmit the fluid power from the reservoir to the actuator cylinder.
 Hydraulic fluid must be essentially non-compressible to be able to transmit power
instantaneously from one part of the system to another.
 It should lubricate the moving parts to reduce friction loss and cool the components so
that the heat generated does not lead to fire hazards.
 It also helps in removing the contaminants to filter.
 The other desirable property of oil is its lubricating ability.
 The fluid also acts as a seal against leakage inside a hydraulic component.

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  The most common liquid used in hydraulic systems is petroleum oil because it is only
very slightly compressible.

The Fluid Delivery Subsystem

It consists of the components that hold and carry the fluid from the pump to the actuator.
It consists of reservoir, filter, line, fittings and seals, pump, motor, accumulator etc.
Reservoir
It holds the hydraulic fluid to be circulated and allows air entrapped in the fluid to
escape. This is an important feature as the bulk modulus of the oil, which determines the
stiffness of hydraulic system, deteriorates considerably in the presence of entrapped air
bubbles. It also helps in dissipating heat.

Filter
The hydraulic fluid is kept clean in the system with the help of filters and strainers. It
removes minute particles from the fluid, which can cause blocking of the orifices of servo-
valves or cause jamming of spools.
Line

 Pipe, tubes and hoses, along with the fittings or connectors, constitute the conducting
lines that carry hydraulic fluid between components.
 Lines convey the fluid and also dissipate heat.

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  Lines are one of the disadvantages of hydraulic system that we need to pay in return of
higher power to weight ratio. They need return path
 In contrast, for Pneumatic Systems, no return path for the fluid, which is air, is needed,
since it can be directly released into the atmosphere.
There are various kinds of lines in a hydraulic system.
 The working lines carry the fluid that delivers the main pump power to the load.
 The pilot lines carry fluid that transmit controlling pressures to various directional and
relief valves for remote operation or safety.
 Drain lines carry the fluid that inevitably leaks out, to the tank.

Fittings and Seals

 Various additional components are needed to join pipe or tube sections, create bends
and also to prevent internal and external leakage in hydraulic systems.
 Although some amount of internal leakage is built-in, to provide lubrication, excessive
internal leakage causes loss of pump power since high pressure fluid returns to the tank,
without doing useful work.
 External leakage, on the other hand, causes loss of fluid and can create fire hazards, as
well as fluid contamination.
 Various kinds of sealing components are employed in hydraulic systems to prevent
leakage.

Hydraulic Pumps
The pump converts the mechanical energy of its prime-mover to hydraulic energy by
delivering a given quantity of hydraulic fluid at high pressure into the system. Generically, all
pumps are divided into two categories, namely, hydrodynamic or non-positive displacement

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and hydrostatic or positive displacement. Hydraulic systems generally employ positive
displacement pumps only.

Hydrostatic or Positive Displacement Pumps: These pumps deliver a given amount of

fluid for each cycle of motion, that is, stroke or revolution. Their output in terms of the volume
flow rate is solely dependent on the speed of the prime-mover and is independent of outlet
pressure notwithstanding leakage. There are various types of pumps used in hydraulic systems
such as Gear Pumps, Vane Pumps, Piston Pumps, Radial Piston Pumps etc.
Motors
Motors work exactly on the reverse principle of pumps. In motors fluid is forced into
the motor from pump outlets at high pressure. This fluid pressure creates the motion of the
motor shaft and finally go out through the motor outlet port and return to tank. All three variants
of motors, already described for pumps, namely Gear Motors, Vane Motors and Piston motors
are in use.
Accumulators
Unlike gases the fluids used in hydraulic systems cannot be compressed and stored to
cater to sudden demands of high flow rates that cannot be supplied by the pump. An
accumulator in a hydraulic system provides a means of storing these incompressible fluids
under pressure created either by a spring, or compressed gas. Any tendency for pressure to drop
at the inlet causes the spring or the gas to force the fluid back out, supplying the demand for
flow rate.
There are two types of accumulators: Spring-Loaded Accumulators, Gas Charged
Accumulator
Cylinders
Cylinders are linear actuators, that is, they produce straight-line motion and/or force.
Cylinders are classified as single-or double-acting with the graphical symbol for each type.
There are two types of cylinders such as Single Acting Cylinder and Double-Acting
Cylinder

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Advantages of Hydraulic Actuator Systems
 Variable Speed and Direction: The actuator (linear or rotary) of a hydraulic system,
can be driven at speeds that vary by large amounts and fast, by varying the pump
delivery or using a flow control valve. A hydraulic actuator can be reversed instantly
while in full motion without damage. This is not possible for most other prime movers.
 Power-to-weight ratio: Hydraulic components, because of their high speed and pressure
capabilities, can provide high power output with vary small weight and size.
 Stall Condition and Overload Protection: A hydraulic actuator can be stalled without
damage when overloaded, and will start up immediately when the load is reduced. The
pressure relief valve in a hydraulic system protects it from overload damage. During
stall, or when the load pressure exceeds the valve setting, pump delivery is directed to
tank with definite limits to torque or force output.
 Hydraulic actuators are rugged and suited for high-force applications. They can produce
forces 25 times greater than pneumatic cylinders of equal size. They also operate in
pressures of up to 4,000 psi.
 Hydraulic motors have high horsepower-to-weight ratio by 1 to 2 hp/lb greater than a
pneumatic motor.
 A hydraulic actuator can hold force and torque constant without the pump supplying
more fluid or pressure due to the incompressibility of fluids
 Hydraulic actuators can have their pumps and motors located a considerable distance
away with minimal loss of power.
Drawbacks
 Hydraulics will leak fluid. Like pneumatic actuators, loss of fluid leads to less
efficiency. However, hydraulic fluid leaks lead to cleanliness problems and potential
damage to surrounding components and areas.
 Hydraulic actuators require many companion parts, including a fluid reservoir, motors,
pumps, release valves, and heat exchangers, along with noise-reduction equipment.
This makes for linear motions systems that are large and difficult to accommodate.

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 Pneumatic Actuating System
 Devices used for converting pressure energy of compressed air into the mechanical
energy to perform useful work.
 Actuators are used to perform the task of exerting the required force at the end of the
stroke or used to create displacement by the movement of the piston.
 The pressurized air from storage is supplied to pneumatic actuator to do work.
 The air cylinder is a simple and efficient device for providing linear thrust or straight
line motions.
 Pneumatic actuator consists of a piston and rod moving inside a closed cylinder.
 This actuator can be sub-divided into two types based on the operating principle: single
acting and double acting.
The principle is based on the concept of pressure as force per unit area.
If we imagine that a net pressure difference is applied across a diaphragm of surface
area A, then a net force acts on the diaphragm given by F= A(P1-P2).
P1-P2 = pressure difference (Pa)
A = diaphragm area (m2)
F = force (N)
If we need to double the available force for a given pressure, it is merely necessary to
double the diaphragm area.
Very large forces can be developed by standard signal-pressure ranges of 3 to 15 psi
(20 to 100 kPa).
Many types of pneumatic actuators are available, but perhaps the most common are
those associated with control valves.

Widely used in automation filed because of its low weight and compact size.

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Control of pneumatics system is slightly difficult as compare to hydraulic system because of
compressed air governing equations of pneumatics are nonlinear in nature.
More used in automation industry as discrete device such as gripper

Types of Pneumatics Actuators are:

 Linear Actuator or Pneumatic cylinders

 Single acting cylinder
 Double acting cylinder
 Rotary Actuator or Air motors
 Limited angle Actuators
Single Acting Cylinder
 Cylinders have single air inlet line- One working port.
 Forward motion of the piston is obtained by supplying compressed air to working port
while return motion of piston is obtained by spring placed on the rod side of the
cylinder.
 Used where force is required to be exerted only in one direction such as clamping,
feeding, sorting, locking, ejecting, braking etc.
 Available in short stroke lengths [maximum length up to 80 mm] due to the natural
length of the spring.
 Single acting cylinders require only about half the air volume consumed by a double
acting cylinder for one operating cycle.

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Double Acting Cylinder

 Cylinders have two air inlet lines- Two working ports- one on the piston side and the
other on the rod-side.
 To achieve forward motion of the cylinder, compressed air is admitted on the piston
side and the rod side is connected to exhaust.
 During return motion supply air admitted at the rod side while the piston side volume
is connected to the exhaust.
 Force is exerted by the piston both during forward and return motion of cylinder.
 Double acting cylinders are available in diameters from few mm to around 300 mm and
stroke lengths of few mm up to 2 meters.

Limited Angle Actuators

Components of Pneumatic Actuating System

Compressor: Acts as power source for pneumatic system.
Air Treatment Unit: Consist of Filter Regulator Lubricator(FRL) unit which comprises of
filter to filter the compressed air, a pressure regulator to regulate a flow of compressed air and
a lubricator to lubricate air.
Valve: Controls the direction and regulates the air flowing to actuating system
Actuator: Convert the pneumatic force or compressed air pressure into mechanical fore or
movement.

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Pipes: Used to connect various elements of actuating system with each other.
Sensors: It act as feedback element for a controller in pneumatic system.
Controller: Monitors whole system to provide required output.
Applications
 Tied rod cylinders,
 Rotary actuators, grippers,
 Rod-less actuators with magnetic linkage or rotary cylinders,
 Rod-less actuators with mechanical linkage,
 Pneumatic artificial muscles,
 Speciality actuators that combine rotary and linear motion (frequently used for
clamping operations)
 Vacuum generators.
Advantages
 High force rating
 Pneumatic actuators generate precise linear motion by providing accuracy, for example,
within 0.1 inches and repeatability within .001 inches.
 Pneumatic actuators typical applications involve areas of extreme temperatures. A
typical temperature range is -40°F to 250°F.
 In terms of safety and inspection, by using air, pneumatic actuators avoid using
hazardous materials. They meet explosion protection and machine safety requirements
because they create no magnetic interference due to their lack of motors.
 In recent years, pneumatics has seen many advances in miniaturization, materials, and
integration with electronics and condition monitoring.
 The cost of pneumatic actuators is low compared to other actuators.
 Pneumatic actuators are also lightweight, require minimal maintenance, and have
durable components that make pneumatics a cost-effective method of linear motion.
Drawbacks
 Pressure losses and air’s compressibility make pneumatics less efficient than other
linear-motion methods. Compressor and air delivery limitations mean that operations
at lower pressures will have lower forces and slower speeds. A compressor must run
continually operating pressure even if nothing is moving.
 To be truly efficient, pneumatic actuators must be sized for a specific job. Hence, they
cannot be used for other applications. Accurate control and efficiency requires
proportional regulators and valves, but this raises the costs and complexity.
 Even though the air is easily available, it can be contaminated by oil or lubrication,
leading to downtime and maintenance. Companies still have to pay for compressed air,
making it a consumable, and the compressor and lines are another maintenance issue.

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 Electromechanical/Electrical Actuating System
 This type of actuators converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
 There are different ways to achieve this conversion. Includes all motors, responsible for
moving or controlling a mechanism.
 One of the popular method which is used by many electromechanical actuators is by
generating magnetic field in which “when current carrying conductor is placed in
magnetic field it experiences mechanical force” - Lorentz’s Law of Electromagnetic
Force. This generated force will further be converted into mechanical motion.
 DC and AC motors, solenoids, voice coils, Active materials (piezoelectric,
electrostrictive etc.) and MEMS.

Solenoid
 A solenoid is an elementary device that converts an electrical signal into mechanical
motion, usually rectilinear.
 Consists of a coil and plunger. The plunger may be freestanding or spring loaded.
 The coil will have some voltage or current rating and may be dc or ac.
 Solenoid specifications include the electrical rating and the plunger pull or push force
when excited by the specified voltage.
 Are used when a large, sudden force must be applied to perform some job.

Solenoid is used to change the gears of a two-position transmission as shown below.

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 Electrical Motors
 Electrical motors are devices that accept electrical input and produce a continuous
rotation as a result.
 Motor styles and sizes vary as demands for rotational speed (revolutions per minute, or
rpm), starting torque, rotational torque, and other specifications vary.
 Most common control situation is where motor speed drives some part of a process, and
must be controlled to control some variable in the process- e.g.: the drive of a conveyor
system
 There are many types of electrical motors, each with its special set of characteristics-
dc motor, ac motor, stepping motor etc.

Components of Electric Motor

 Electric Motor- Electric motors has wide applications in the industrial as well as in
automation sector and popularly used in robotics application because of its high speed
of response, finer speed control capability. The magnetic field of stator interacts with
magnetic field of rotor to produce rotating torque. There are two basic types of electric
motor - AC & DC motor which consist of basic element such as
 Stator– It is stationery outer part of motor made up of permanent magnet or coli
winding.
 Rotor – It is rotating part of motor made up of permanent magnet or ferromagnetic coil.
 Armature–Rotor winding that generates rotor magnetic field.
 Field Coil – Part of stator which generates stator magnetic field.
 Air Gap – Small gap between stator and rotor where two magnetic fields interact with
each other to generate mechanical torque.

Block Diagram of Motor Based Electrical Actuator System

DC Motor
The rotation of a dc motor is produced by the interaction of two constant magnetic fields.

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Many dc motors use an electromagnet instead of a PM to provide the static field. The coil used
to produce this field is called the field coil. This kind of dc motor is called a wound field motor.
There are different types of wound field DC motor based on the way in which the field winding
is connected.

 Series Field DC motors: This motor has large starting torque but is difficult to speed
control. Good in applications for starting heavy, non-mobile loads and where speed
control is not important, such as for quick-opening valves.
 Shunt Field DC motors: This motor has a smaller starting torque, but good speed-
control characteristics produced by varying armature excitation current. Good in
applications where speed is to be controlled, such as in conveyor systems.
 Compound Field DC motors: This motor attempts to obtain the best features of both of
the two previous types. Generally, starting torque and speed-control capability fall
predictably between the two pure cases.
Applications of DC Motor
 The use of dc motors in control systems ranges from very low energy, delicate control
applications, to heavy-duty control operations in elevators and vehicles.
 In general, PM types are used for motors of less than 10 hp (7.5 kW) and wound field
types for units up to about 100 to 200 hp (75 to 150 kW).
 Control of the speed and torque of these large machines requires very high power dc
electricity. Such power is derived from the power electronics devices.
 In general, three-phase ac power is rectified using switching technology to produce the
required high-voltage, high-current dc electricity.
 Control is often made possible by variation of the voltage amplitude.
AC Motors
The basic operating principle of ac motors still involves the interaction between two
magnetic fields. In this case, however, both fields are varying in time in consonance with the
ac excitation voltage. Therefore, the force between the fields is a function of the angle of the
rotor but also the phase of the current passing through the coils.

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 There are two basic types of ac motors, synchronous and induction. The primary motor
for application to the control industry is the induction motor.
Synchronous Motor
 In a synchronous motor the ac voltage is applied to the field coils, called the stator in
an ac motor.
 This means the magnetic field is changing in time in phase with the impressed ac
voltage.
 The armature, called the rotor for ac motors, is either a permanent magnet or a dc
electromagnet, and possesses a fixed magnetic field.
 Synchronous motors can be operated using single-phase ac but such units are used for
only very low power (0.1 hp) and suffer from very low starting torque.
 When operated from three-phase, ac synchronous motors can be operated at very high
power, up to 50,000 hp.

Induction Motors
 Induction ac motors are characterized by a rotor which is neither a PM nor a dc excited
electromagnet.
 Instead current induced in a coil wound on the rotor generates the interacting magnetic
field of the rotor.
 This current is induced from the stator coils.
 Single-phase induction motors are used for applications of relatively low power, say
less than 5 hp (< 3.7 kW). Such motors are typical of those found in household
appliances, for example.
 For higher power we use three-phase ac excitation. Such motors are available up to
10,000 hp.

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Stepping Motor
 The stepping motor has increased in importance in recent years because of the ease with
which it can be interfaced with digital circuits.
 A stepping motor is a rotating machine that actually completes a full rotation by
sequencing through a series of discrete rotational steps.
 Each step position is an equilibrium position in that, without further excitation, the rotor
position will stay at the latest step.
 Thus, continuous rotation is achieved by the input of a train of pulses, each of which
causes an advance of one step.
 It is not really continuous rotation, but discrete, stepwise rotation.
 The rotational rate is determined by the number of steps per revolution and the rate at
which the pulses are applied.
 A driver circuit is necessary to convert the pulse train into proper driving signals for
the motor.

 Most common stepper motor does not use a PM, but rather a rotor of magnetic material
(not a magnet) with a certain number of teeth.
 This rotor is driven by a phased arrangement of coils with a different number of poles
so that the rotor can never be in perfect alignment with the stator.
 The direction of rotation of stepper motors can be changed just by changing the order
in which different poles are activated and deactivated.

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 Electro-Pneumatic Actuator
Electro pneumatics is now commonly used in many areas of Industrial low cost
automation. They are also used extensively in production, assembly, pharmaceutical, chemical
and packaging systems.
There is a significant change in controls systems. Relays have increasingly been
replaced by the programmable logic controllers in order to meet the growing demand for more
flexible automation.
Electro-pneumatic control consists of electrical control systems operating pneumatic
power systems. In this solenoid valves are used as interface between the electrical and
pneumatic systems. Devices like limit switches and proximity sensors are used as feedback
elements.

Electro Pneumatic control integrates pneumatic and electrical technologies, is more

widely used for large applications. In Electro Pneumatics, the signal medium is the electrical
signal either AC or DC source is used. Working medium is compressed air. Operating voltages
from around 12 V to 220 Volts are often used. The final control valve is activated by solenoid
actuation The resetting of the valve is either by spring [single Solenoid] or using another
solenoid [Double solenoid Valve]. More often the valve actuation/reset is achieved by pilot
assisted solenoid actuation to reduce the size and cost of the valve
Control of Electro Pneumatic system is carried out either using combination of Relays
and Contactors or with the help of Programmable Logic Controllers [PLC]. A Relay is often
used to convert signal input from sensors and switches to number of output signals [ either
normally closed or normally open]. Signal processing can be easily achieved using relay and
contactor combinations A Programmable Logic Controller can be conveniently used to obtain
the out puts as per the required logic, time delay and sequential operation. Finally, the output
signals are supplied to the solenoids activating the final control valves which controls the
movement of various cylinders.

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 In electro-pneumatic actuators, the current in the solenoid is converted into pressure
using the arrangement shown above. When an electrical actuating current of 4-20 mA is passed
through the solenoid, it attracts the flapper fixed on a pivot. So, when the solenoid is activated,
the flapper moves as per the magnitude of current through the solenoid, which will control the
opening of the nozzle. Depending on the opening and closing of nozzle, the pressure signal is
varied between 3-15 psi. When the electrical signal in the solenoid is 4 mA, the nozzle output
is minimum, thus the pressure signal is maximum (15psi). When the current signal in the
solenoid is maximum, i.e., 20 mA, the nozzle is opened to maximum leading to maximum fluid
flow through the nozzle and thus minimum pressure (3 psi) of the pressure signal.
The greatest advantage of electro pneumatics is the integration of various types of
proximity sensors [electrical] and PLC for very effective control. As the signal speed with
electrical signal, can be much higher, cycle time can be reduced and signal can be conveyed
over long distances.
In Electro pneumatic controls, mainly three important steps are involved:

 Signal input devices -Signal generation such as switches and contactor, Various types
of contact and proximity sensors
 Signal Processing – Use of combination of Contactors of Relay or using Programmable
Logic Controllers
 Signal Out puts – Out puts obtained after processing are used for activation of solenoids
indicators or audible alarms
Seven basic electrical devices used in electro pneumatic actuators are
 Manually actuated push button switches
 Limit switches
 Pressure switches
 Solenoids
 Relays
 Timers
 Temperature switches
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Push button switches: A push button is a switch used to close or open an electric control
circuit. They are primarily used for starting and stopping of operation of machinery. They also
provide manual override when the emergency arises. Push button switches are actuated by
pushing the actuator into the housing. This causes set of contacts to open or close.
Push buttons are of two types

 Momentary push button: return to their unactuated position when they are released
 Maintained contact or detent push button: Has a latching mechanism to hold it in the
selected position
The contact of the push buttons, distinguished according to their functions,
i. Normally open (NO) type
ii. Normally closed (NC) type
iii. Change over (CO) type.

Limit Switches: Any switch that is actuated due to the position of a fluid power component
(usually a piston rod or hydraulic motor shaft or the position of load is termed as limit switch.
The actuation of a limit switch provides an electrical signal that causes an appropriate system
response. Limit switches perform the same function as push button switches. Push buttons are
manually actuated whereas limit switches are mechanically actuated.

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 There are two types classification of Limit switches depending upon method of
actuations of contacts
i. Lever actuated contacts
ii. Spring loaded contacts
Pressure switches: A pressure switch is a pneumatic-electric signal converter. Pressure
switches are used to sense a change in pressure, and opens or closes an electrical switch when
a predetermined pressure is reached. Bellow or diaphragm is used to sense the change of
pressure. Bellows or Diaphragm is used to expand or contract in response to increase or
decrease of pressure. Figure 1.3 shows a diaphragm type of pressure switch. When the pressure
is applied at the inlet and when the pre-set pressure is reached, the diaphragm expands and
pushes the spring loaded plunger to make/break contact.
Solenoids: Electrically actuated directional control valves form the interface between the two
parts of an electro-pneumatic control.
The most important tasks of electrically actuated DCVs include.
 Switching supply air on or off
 Extension and retraction of cylinder drives
Electrically actuated directional control valves are switched with the aid of solenoids. They can
be divided into two groups:

 Spring return valves only remain in the actuated position as long as current flows
through the solenoid
 Double solenoid valves retain the last switched position even when no current flows
through the solenoid.
Relays: A relay is an electro magnetically actuated switch. It is a simple electrical device used
for signal processing. Relays are designed to withstand heavy power surges and harsh
environment conditions. When a voltage is applied to the solenoid coil, an electromagnet field
results. This causes the armature to be attracted to the coil core. The armature actuates the relay
contacts, either closing or opening them, depending on the design. A return spring returns the
armature to its initial position when the current to the coil is interrupted.
Timer or Time delay relays: Timers are required in control systems to effect time delay
between work operations. This is possible by delaying the operation of the associated control
element through a timer. Most of the timers we use is Electronic timers.
There are two types of time relay
i. Pull in delay (on –delay timer)
ii. Drop –out delay (off delay timer)
Temperature Switch: Temperature switches automatically senses a change in temperature and
opens or closes an electrical switch when a predetermined temperature is reached. This switch
can be wired either normally open or normally closed.
Temperature switches can be used to protect a fluid power system from serious damage when
a component such as a pump or strainer or cooler begins to malfunction.

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Electro-pneumatic actuator can be briefed as below:

 Integrates pneumatic and electrical technologies, consists of electrical control systems

operating pneumatic power systems.
 The signal medium is the electrical signal either AC or DC source is used. Working
medium is compressed air.
 In this solenoid valves are used as interface between the electrical and pneumatic
systems. i.e.: The final control valve is activated by solenoid actuation.
 Operating voltages from around 12 V to 220 Volts are often used.
 Devices like limit switches and proximity sensors are used as feedback elements.
 More widely used for large applications.

Types of Actuators and Their Characteristics

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 Control Valves
 The control action in any control loop system, is executed by the final control element.
 The most common type of final control element used in chemical and other process
control is the control valve.
 A control valve is normally driven by a diaphragm type pneumatic actuator that throttles
the flow of the manipulating variable for obtaining the desired control action.
 A control valve essentially consists of a plug and a stem.
 The stem can be raised or lowered by air pressure and the plug changes the effective
area of an orifice in the flow path.
 When the air pressure increases, the downward force of the diaphragm moves the stem
downward against the spring.

Classification of Control Valves

Control valves are available in different types and shapes.
They can be classified in different ways based on

 Action
 Number of plugs
 Flow characteristics.
Classification of Control Valves based on Action
Air to Open: If the air supply fails, the control valve will be fully closed
Air to Close: If the air supply fails, the control valve will be fully open.

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 Control valves operated through pneumatic actuators can be either (i) air to open, or (ii)
air to close. They are designed such that if the air supply fails, the control valve will be either
fully open, or fully closed, depending upon the safety requirement of the process. For example,
if the valve is used to control steam or fuel flow, the valve should be shut off completely in
case of air failure. On the other hand, if the valve is handling cooling water to a reactor, the
flow should be maximum in case of emergency. The schematic arrangements of these two
actions are shown in Figure below. Valve A are air to close type, indicating, if the air fails, the
valve will be fully open. Opposite is the case for valve B.

Classification of Control Valves based on Number of Plugs

Control valves can also be characterized in terms of the number of plugs present, as single-
seated valve and double-seated valve. The difference in construction between a single seated
and double-seated valve are illustrated in Fig.

Here, only one plug is present in the control valve, so it is single seated valve. The
advantage of this type of valve is that, it can be fully closed and flow variation from 0 to 100%
can be achieved. But looking at its construction, due to the pressure drop across the orifice a
large upward force is present in the orifice area, and as a result, the force required to move the

29
valve against this upward thrust is also large. Thus this type of valves is more suitable for small
flow rates. On the other hand, there are two plugs in a double-seated valve; flow moves upward
in one orifice area, and downward in the other orifice. The resultant upward or downward thrust
is almost zero. As a result, the force required to move a double-seated valve is comparatively
much less.
But the double-seated valve suffers from one disadvantage. The flow cannot be shut off
completely, because of the differential temperature expansion of the stem and the valve seat. If
one plug is tightly closed, there is usually a small gap between the other plug and its seat. Thus,
single-seated valves are recommended for when the valves are required to be shut off
completely. But there are many processes, where the valve used is not expected to operate near
shut off position. For this condition, double-seated valves are recommended.
Classification of Control Valves based on Flow Characteristics
Flow Characteristics describes how the flow rate changes with the movement or lift of
the stem. The shape of the plug primarily decides the flow characteristics. The flow
characteristic of a valve is normally defined in terms of Inherent characteristics and Effective
characteristics. An inherent characteristic is the ideal flow characteristics of a control valve and
is decided by the shape and size of the plug. When the valve is connected to a pipeline, its
overall performance is decided by its effective characteristic.
Based on inherent/ideal characteristics, control valves are classified into three such as
Quick opening, Linear and Equal Percentage.

The shape of the plug decides, how the flow rate changes with the stem movement, or
lift when the pressure drop across the valve is assumed to be held constant. This classification
is basically done on relationship between the valve stem position and the flow rate through the
valve. As the stem and plug move with respect to the seat/orifice, the shape of the plug
determines the amount of actual opening of the valve.
Quick Opening Type: This type of valve is used predominantly for full ON/full OFF control
applications. The valve characteristics shows that a relatively small motion of the valve stem
results in maximum possible flow rate through the valve. Such a valve, for example, may allow
90% of maximum flow rate with only a 30% travel of the stem.

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Linear Type: This type of valve has a flow rate that varies linearly with the stem position. It
represents the ideal situation where the valve alone determines the pressure drop.
Equal Percentage Type: A very important type of valve employed in flow control has a
characteristic such that a given percentage change in stem position produces an equivalent
change in flow—that is, an equal percentage. Generally, this type of valve does not shut off the
flow completely in its limit of stem travel. Thus, Qmin represents the minimum flow when the
stem is at one limit of its travel. At the other extreme, the valve allows a flow Qmax as its
maximum, open-valve flow rate.

Directional Control Valves

In directional control valves, it is basically the directions of the flows that are controlled
and not the magnitudes.
Directional valves can be characterized depending on the number of ports, the number
of directions of flow that can be established, number of positions of the valve etc. They are
mainly classified in terms of the number of flow directions, such as one-way, two way or four-
way valves. Directional valves are often operated in selected modes using hydraulic pressure
from remote locations. Such mechanisms are known as pilots. Thus a valve that may be
blocking the flow in a certain direction in absence of pilot pressure, may be allowing flow,
when pilot pressure is applied.
Check Valve
In its simplest form, a check valve is a one-way directional valve. It permits free flow in one
direction and blocks flow in the other. It is analogous to the electronic diode. Symbol of check
valve is shown below. The direction of the arrow shows the direction for free flow.

In its simplest form of construction, a check valve is realized as an in-line ball and
spring.

31
Pressure from the left moves the ball from its seat so to permit unobstructed flow. Pressure
from right pushes the ball tight on to the seat, and flow is blocked. In some valves a poppet is
used in place of the ball. In some other construction, the valve inlet and outlet ports are made
at right angles.

When flow is from left to right, valve is open

When flow is from right to left, the valve is closed

Pilot-operated Check Valves
Pilot-operated check valves are designed to permit free flow in one direction and to
block return flow, unless pilot pressure is applied. However, under pilot pressure, flow is
permitted in both directions. They are used in hydraulic presses as prefill valves – to permit the
main ram to fill by gravity during the “fast approach” part of the stroke. They also are used to
support vertical pistons which otherwise might drift downward due to leakage past the
directional valve spool.
With no pilot pressure, the valve functions as a normal check valve. Flow to bottom is
permitted but the reverse is blocked. If pilot pressure is applied, the valve is open at all times,
and flow is allowed freely in both directions.

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 The check valve poppet has the pilot piston attached to the poppet stem. A light spring
holds the poppet seated in a no-flow condition by pushing against the pilot piston. A separate
drain port is provided to prevent oil from creating a pressure build-up on the underside of the
piston. Reverse flow can occur only when a pressure that can overcome the pressure in the
outlet chamber is applied.
Possible application of the valve can be to permit free flow to the accumulator, while
blocking flow out of it. If the pilot is actuated the accumulator can discharge if the pressure at
the inlet port is lower than the accumulator pressure.
Relief Valves
Relief valves are used for regulation of pressure in hydraulic systems for protection of
equipment and personnel. The spring keeps the valve shut until a pressure set by an adjustable
spring tension is reached which pushes the spring up to relief the pressure by connecting the
inlet to the drain.

Symbol of relief valve

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 Shape Memory Alloys
Certain classes of metallic alloys have a special ability to memorize their shape at a high
temperature, and recover large deformations imparted at a low temperature on thermal
activation.The recovery of strains imparted to the material at a lower temperature, as a
result of heating, is called the Shape Memory Effect(SME).They can remember the parent
state with respect to the high [Link] is done with the metallic alloy at low
temperature, the moment it is taken back to high temperature, it will get back to the parent
shape Happens because of very regular crystal structure- most of the time a body
centred [Link] 1st observed in 1932 in Gold Cadmium Alloy. They were expensive and
not much large shape memory effect was seen in them
 Three types of SMA are currently popular
o Cu Zn Al
o Cu Al Ni
o Ni Ti- Commercially available as NiTiNOL. (NOL: Naval Ordinance
Laboratory)
 The shape memory alloys have two stable phases- the high temperature phase called
austenite (After English metallurgist William Chandler Austen) and the low temperature
phase called martensite (After German metallographer Adolf Martens)
 The martensite phase can be of two forms
o Twinned martensite
o Detwinned martensite
A phase transformation which occurs between these two phases upon heating/cooling is
the basis for the unique properties of the [Link] shape + Heat = Original Shape
The shape change involves a solid state phase change involving a molecular
rearrangement between martensite and [Link] cooling in the absence of applied
load, the material transforms from austenite to twinned martensite (No observable
macroscopic change occurs)If a mechanical load is applied to the material in twinned
martensite phase (at low temperature), it is possible to detwin the [Link]
releasing of the load, the material remains deformed.A subsequent heating of the
material to a temperature above the austenite finish temperature (Af) will result in a
reverse phase transformation (martensite to austenite) and will lead to complete shape
[Link] remembers the shape when it has austenitic [Link], if we need SMA
to remember and regain/recover certain shape, the shape should be formed when the
structure is [Link] un-deformed Martensite phase is the same size and shape as the
cubic Austenite phase on a macroscopic [Link] change in size or shape is visible in
shape memory alloys until the Martensite is [Link] high temperature causes the
atoms to arrange themselves into the most compact and regular pattern possible resulting
in a rigid cubic arrangement (austenite phase).They can be formed into various shapes like
bars, wires, plates and rings thus serving various functions

34
Phase Transformation in SMA

35
Hysteresis Curve of SMA

SME Temperatures
Ms: Temperature at which austenite begins to transform to martensite upon cooling
Mf: Temperature at which transformation of austenite to martensite is complete upon cooling
As: Temperature at which martensite begins to transform to austenite upon heating
Af: Temperature at which transformation of martensite to austenite is complete upon heating
Mf < Ms < As < Af

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Types of SME
One-way shape memory: The material always remembers the shape at Parent always
remembers the shape at Parent State (Austenite Phase). When the metal cools again it will
remain in the hot shape, until deformed again.
Two-way shape memory: The deformed shape is remembered during cooling, in addition to
the original shape being remembered during heating, i.e., memory is with both austenite and
martensite phases. The material remembers two different shapes: one at low temperatures, and
one at the high-temperature shape.
Advantages
Bio-compatibility
Diverse field of application
Good mechanical properties(strong, corrosion resistant)
Disadvantages
Expensive
Poor fatigue properties: Repeated use of shape memory effect leads to functional fatigue.
Overstress
Applications of Shape Memory Alloys
 The one well developed application of SMA is for simple and leak proof coupling of
pneumatic and hydraulic lines.
 The alloys have also been exploited in mechanical and electromechanical control
systems to provide a precise mechanical response to a small and repeated temperature
changes.
 Also used in a wide range of medical and dental applications like healing broken bones,
misaligned teeth etc.
 Various thermal actuators
 Biomedical
 Civil engineering of mega structures
 Self-expandable cardiovascular stent
 Blood clot filters
 Actuators for smart systems
 Flaps that change direction of airflow depending upon temperature (for air conditioners)
 Couplings
 Control of aerodynamic surfaces

37