Campbell Biology: Concepts &
Connections
Tenth Edition, Global Edition
Chapter 6
How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy
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Cellular Respiration: Aerobic
Harvesting of Energy
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6.1 Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Provide Energy for Life
• Life requires energy.
• In almost all ecosystems, energy ultimately comes from the sun.
• In photosynthesis,
– the energy of sunlight is used to rearrange the atoms of carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H20),
– producing organic molecules, and
– releasing oxygen (O2).
• In cellular respiration,
– O2 is consumed as organic molecules are broken down toCO2 and H2O
and
– the cell captures the energy released as ATP.
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Figure 6.1 Connection between photosynthesis
and cellular respiration
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Figure 6.2 Breathing Supplies O2 for Use in Cellular
Respiration and Removes CO2
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6.3 Cellular Respiration Banks Energy in ATP Molecules
• Cellular respiration
– is an exergonic (energy-releasing) process that transfers energy
from glucose to form ATP and
– captures about 34% of the available energy originally stored in
glucose with the rest of the energy lost as heat.
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6.4 Connection: The Human Body Uses Energy from
ATP for All Its Activities
• Your body requires a continuous supply of energy.
• Cellular respiration provides energy for body maintenance and
voluntary activities.
• A balance of energy intake and expenditure is required to maintain a
healthy weight.
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6.5 Cells Capture Energy from Electrons “Falling”
from Organic Fuels to Oxygen
• How do your cells extract energy from fuel molecules? The answer
involves the transfer of electrons in chemical reactions.
• Electrons removed from fuel molecules (oxidation) are transferred to
NAD+ (reduction) to produce NADH
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6.5 Cells Capture Energy from Electrons “Falling”
from Organic Fuels to Oxygen
• NADH passes electrons to an electron transport chain. As electrons
“fall” from carrier to carrier and finally to O2, energy is released.
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Stages of Cellular Respiration
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6.6 Overview: Cellular Respiration Occurs in
Three Main Stages
• Stage 1: Glycolysis
– occurs in the cytosol, and breaks down glucose into two molecules
of a three-carbon compound called pyruvate.
• Stage 2: Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle
– take place in mitochondria, and complete the breakdown of
glucose to carbon dioxide, and
– supply the third stage of respiration with electrons.
• Stage 3: Oxidative phosphorylation involves electron transport and
chemiosmosis.
– NADH and a related electron carrier, FADH2, shuttle electrons to
electron transport chains embedded in the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
– Most of the ATP produced by cellular respiration is generated by
oxidative phosphorylation.
– The electrons are finally passed to oxygen, which becomes
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reduced to H2O.
Figure 6.6 Overview of the three stages of
cellular respiration
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6.7 Stage 1: Glycolysis Harvests Chemical Energy
by Oxidizing Glucose to Pyruvate
• ATP is used to prime a glucose
molecule, which is split in two.
• These three-carbon intermediates
are oxidized to two molecules of
pyruvate, yielding a net of 2 ATP
and 2 NADH.
• ATP is formed by substrate-level
phosphorylation, in which a
phosphate group is transferred from
an organic molecule to ADP.
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Energy Investment Phase
Glucose
Steps 1 – 3 Glucose is ATP
energized, using ATP. Step
1
ADP
P
2
P
ATP
3
ADP
Step 4 A six-carbon
intermediate splits into P P
two three-carbon
intermediates. 4
P G3P
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Copyright ©
Energy Payoff Phase
2 NAD+
Step 5 A redox reaction 5
generates NADH. – –
2 NADH 2 P
+ 2 H+
2 P P
2 ADP
6
2 ATP
Steps 6 – 9 ATP and 2 P
pyruvate are produced.
7
P
2
8
2 H2O
P
2
2 ADP
9
2 ATP
2
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6.9 Stage 2: The Citric Acid Cycle Completes the
Energy-Yielding Oxidation of Organic Molecules
• The oxidation of pyruvate yields
acetyl CoA, CO2, and NADH
• For each turn of the citric acid
cycle,
– two carbons from acetyl
CoA are added,
– 2CO2 are released, and
– 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 are
produced.
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Figure 6.10
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6.11 Stage 3: Visualizing the Concept: Most ATP
Production Occurs by Oxidative Phosphorylation
• In mitochondria, electrons
from NADH and FADH 2 are
passed down the electron
transport chain to O2, which
picks up H+ to form water.
• Energy released by these
redox reactions is used to
pump H+ into the
intermembrane space.
• In chemiosmosis, the H+
gradient drives H+ back
through the enzyme
complex ATP synthase in
the inner membrane,
synthesizing ATP.
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CYTOSOL
Outer
mitochondrial
membrane
INTERMEMBRANE
H+
SPACE
H+
H+ H+
H+ H+
H+ Rotor
H+ H+
Cyt c IV
H+ H+ ATP
III synthase
I
Inner Q
mitochondrial
membrane Internal H+
II – rod
Electron – – –
flow – – FADH2 FAD
NADH 1
O + 2 H+
NAD+ 2 2
H+ H2O ADP + P ATP
Electron Transport Chain Chemiosmosis
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
MITOCHONDRIAL
MATRIX
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6.12 Scientific Thinking: Scientists Have Discovered
Heat-Producing, Calorie-burning Brown Fat in Adults
• Mitochondria in brown fat can burn fuel and produce heat without
making ATP.
• Ion channels spanning the inner mitochondrial membrane
– allow H+ to flow freely across the membrane and
– dissipate the H+ gradient that the electron transport chain
produced, which does not allow ATP synthase to make ATP.
– All the energy from the burning of fuel molecules would be
released as heat.
• Until recently, brown fat in humans was thought to disappear after
infancy.
• Recent research indicates that brown fat may be present in most people
and when activated by cold, the brown fat of lean individuals is more
active (burns more calories).
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Figure 6.12 Activity level of brown fat of lean and
overweight/obese participants after cold exposure
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Fermentation: Anaerobic
Harvesting of Energy
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6.14 Fermentation Enables Cells to Produce ATP
Without Oxygen
• Fermentation is a way of harvesting energy that does not require oxygen.
• Under anaerobic conditions, muscle cells, yeasts, and certain bacteria
produce ATP by glycolysis.
• NAD+ is recycled from NADH whereas pyruvate is reduced to
– lactate (lactic acid fermentation) or
– alcohol and CO2 (alcohol fermentation).
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Figure 6.14
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6.15 Evolution Connection: Glycolysis Evolved
Early in the History of Life on Earth
• Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cells of nearly all organisms and
is thought to have evolved in ancient prokaryotes.
* The location of glycolysis within the cell also implies great antiquity. The pathway does not
require any of the membrane-enclosed organelles of the eukaryotic cell, which evolved more
than a billion years after the prokaryotic cell.
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Connections Between
Metabolic Pathways
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6.16 Cells Use Many Kinds of Organic Molecules as
Fuel for Cellular Respiration
• You obtain most of
your calories as
– Carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins.
• A cell can use all three
types of molecules to
make ATP.
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6.17 Organic Molecules from Food Provide Raw
Materials for Biosynthesis
• Cells use intermediates
from cellular respiration and
ATP for biosynthesis of
other organic molecules.
• Metabolic pathways are
often regulated by feedback
inhibition.
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