MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I)

Gaurav Dwivedi
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus.
 Module 14
Infinite Sequences and Series
 CHAPTER 10
Infinite Sequences
and Series

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In this module, we are going to learn about Infinite series
and their convergence. We’ll discuss the following topics:

Sequences
Infinite Series and Tests of Convergence
Power Series
Taylor & Maclaurin Series

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 Section 10.1
Sequences [Self Study]

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Sequence
A function whose domain is the set of natural numbers
(f : N → R) is called a sequence of real numbers. We
write f (n) = an , then the sequence is denoted by
{a1 , a2 , . . .} or by {an }∞
n=1 or simply by {an }. We call an
th
the n term of the sequence or the value of the
sequence at n.

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Examples
{n} = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n, . . .}
1  1 1
n = 1, 2 , 3 , . . . , n1 , . . .

(−1)n+1 = {1, −1, 1, −1, . . . , (−1)n+1 , . . .}
1
= 0, 12 , 32 , . . . , 1 − n1 , . . .
 
1− n

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Convergent Sequence
A sequence {an } is said to converge to a number L, if
for every positive number ϵ, however small, we can find a
positive integer N (depending on ϵ) such that

|an − L| < ϵ, ∀n > N.

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 If no such number L exists, the sequence is said to
diverge.
If {an } converges to L, then we write lim an = L
n→∞
or simply an → L.
The number L is called limit of the sequence.
A sequence can not converge to more than one limit
i.e., Limit of a sequence is unique.

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Graphical Representation

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Graphical Representation

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Examples

1
The sequence n converges to the number 0.
The sequence {n} diverges.
n o
(−1)n
The sequence n converges to the number 0.

The sequence 1 + n1 converges to the number 1.



The sequence {(−1)n } diverges.

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Algebra of Limits

Theorem
Let {an } and {bn } be two convergent sequences. Then
1 lim kan = k lim an

2 lim(an ± bn ) = lim an ± lim bn

3 lim(an .bn ) = lim an . lim bn

 
4 lim abnn = lim an
lim bn , if bn ̸= 0 for all n and lim bn ̸= 0.

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Sandwich (or Squeeze) Theorem

Theorem
Let {an }, {bn }, and {cn } be sequences of real numbers.
If an ⩽ bn ⩽ cn for all n ⩾ N and if
lim an = lim cn = L, then lim bn = L.
2
Question. Find lim sin2n n (If exists).
2
Sol. 0 ⩽ sin2n n ⩽ 21n . Since lim 21n = 0, so an application
2
of Sandwich theorem gives lim sin2n n = 0.

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Theorem
Let {an } be a sequence of real numbers. If an → L and
if f (x) is a function that is continuous at x = L and
defined at all an , then f (an ) → f (L).

Example
Find lim cos n1 (If exists).
Sol. Let an = n1 . Then lim an = lim n1 = 0. Since cos x
is continuous at x = 0 and defined at an = n1 for all n, so

1
lim cos = cos(0) = 1.
n
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Theorem
Suppose that f (x) is a function defined for all x ⩾ n0
and that {an } is a sequence of real numbers s.t.
an = f (n) for n ⩾ n0 , then

lim f (x) = L ⇒ lim an = L.

x→∞ n→∞

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 ln n
Question. Find lim .
ln 2n
Sol.
1
ln n n
lim = lim 2 , by L’Hôspital’s rule
ln 2n 2n
= 1.

Hence lim lnln2n

n
= 1.

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Bounded Sequence
A sequence {an } is said to be bounded from above if
there exists a number M1 such that

an ⩽ M1 , ∀ n.

The number M1 is called an upper bound for {an }.

Similarly, a sequence {an } is said to be bounded from
below if there exists a number M2 such that

an ⩾ M2 , ∀ n.

The number M2 is called a lower bound for {an }.

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Bounded Sequence
A sequence {an } is said to be bounded if there exists a
number M such that

|an | ⩽ M, ∀ n.

The number M is called a bound for {an }.

Examples
 n
The sequence n+1 is bounded below by 12 and
bounded above by 1.
The sequence 21n is bounded below by 0 and


bounded above by 12 ·
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Monotonic Sequence

A sequence {an } is called a nondecreasing sequence, if

an ⩽ an+1 for all n. The sequence is nonincreasing, if
an ⩾ an+1 for all n. The sequence is monotonic if it is
either nondecreasing or nonincreasing.
Examples
n

The sequence n+1 is nondecreasing.
1
The sequence 2n is nonincreasing.

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Theorem
A bounded monotonic sequence is convergent.

Example
The sequence 1 − 21n is monotonic (nondecreasing)

and bounded (as |an | ⩽ 1), therefore it is convergent.

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 Section 10.2
Infinite Series

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Infinite Series
∞
P P
For a sequence {an }, an or simply as an is called
n=1
an infinite series. The number an is called the nth term
of the series.
Examples
1 + 21 + 13 + · · · + 1
n + · · · (Harmonic Series)
1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + · · · + (−1)n+1 + · · ·
1 1 1
1+ 22 + 32 + ··· + n2 + ···

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Sequence of Partial Sums
P
Consider the series an . The sequence {Sn }, defined by

Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an , ∀ n

is called the sequence of partial sums of the series.

The nth term Sn of the sequence is called nth partial sum

of the series.

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Convergent Series
P
A series an is said to be convergent iff the sequence
{Sn } is convergent. If {Sn } converges
P to a real number
L, then we say that the series an converges to L and
the sum of the series is L.
A series which is not convergent is called divergent.

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Question. Find a formula for the nth partial sum of
1
P
n(n+1) and use it to determine if the series converges
or diverges. If the series converges, find its sum.
1
Sol. Here an = n(n+1) = n1 − n+1
1
. So
     
1 1 1 1 1
Sn = 1 − + − + ··· + −
2 2 3 n n+1
1
=1− .
n+1
Thus
P 1lim Sn = 1 and hence series converges and
n(n+1) = 1.

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There are two well known series which will be used quite
often:
P n−1
1 The geometric series: ar , a ̸= 0.
P 1
The p-series: np , p ∈ R.
2

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Theorem
P n−1
The geometric series ar Pwith a ̸= 0, is
a
(i) convergent if |r| < 1 and arn−1 = 1−r .
(ii) divergent if |r| ⩾ 1.
Proof. We’ll prove the theorem by using the definition of
convergence. We have

2 n−1 a(1 − rn )
Sn = a + ar + ar + · · · + ar = , r ̸= 1.
1−r

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(i) First we consider the case when |r| < 1, in this case
a
rn → 0 as n → ∞. Therefore, Sn → 1−r as n → ∞,
and hence the GS is convergent. Also, its sum in this
a
case is 1−r . (ii) Now we consider the case when |r| ⩾ 1.
Again we split this case as |r| > 1 and |r| = 1.
Let we first consider |r| > 1: Then r > 1 or r < −1.
For r > 1: We have rn → ∞ as n → ∞ and hence
Sn also tends to ∞ or −∞ (depending on the sign
of a).
For r < −1: rn oscillates between ∞ and −∞ and
hence lim Sn does not exist.
Therefore, GS is divergent in this case.
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Finally consider |r| = 1: Then r = 1 or r = −1.
If r = 1, then GS becomes a + a + · · · , so that
Sn = na; this tends to ∞ or −∞ as n → ∞
(depending on the sign of a); and hence GS is
divergent in this case also.
If r = −1, then GS becomes a − a + a − a + · · · , so
that (
0, if n is even
Sn =
a, if n is odd.
Since a is not zero, Sn does not tend to a unique
limiting value and hence GS is divergent in this case
also.
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 ∞
e n
P

Question. Check if the series π is convergent.
n=0
∞
e e n
P

Sol. Here r = π < 1, therefore π is convergent
n=0
and ∞  
X e n 1 π
= e = .
n=0
π 1− π π−e

∞
enπ
P
Question. π ne .
n=0
∞
eπ enπ
P
Sol. Here r = πe > 1 (How ?), therefore π ne is
n=0
divergent.
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Necessary Condition

Theorem
P
If an converges, then lim an = 0.
Proof. We have

a1 = S1
an = Sn − Sn−1 for n = 2, 3, 4, . . .

If the given series converges then Sn → L. Therefore,

lim an = lim(Sn − Sn−1 ) → L − L = 0.

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The nth term test for divergence
P
If lim an fails to exist or is different from zero, then an
is divergent.
∞
en
P
Question. en +n .
n=0
n
Sol. Here lim an = lim ene+n = lim 1+1 nn = 1 ̸= 0,
e
∞ n
e
P
therefore en +n is divergent.
n=0

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 P 1
Q:56 ln 3n .
Sol. Here lim an = lim ln 31n = lim(ln 1 − ln 3n ) =
P 1
− lim n ln 3 = −∞ ≠ 0, therefore ln 3n is divergent.
P 2n +4n
Q:64 3n +4n . n
( 2 ) +1
2n +4n
Sol. Here lim = lim 43 n = 1 ̸= 0, therefore
3n +4n
P 2n +4n ( 4 ) +1
3n +4n is divergent.

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Theorem
P P
If an and bn are two convergent series having sums
A and B respectively, then
P P P
(an ± bn ) = an ± bn = A ± B.
P P
kan = k an = kA (for any real number k).

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 Section 10.3
The Integral Test

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 P
If an is a series of nonnegative terms, i.e., an ⩾ 0 for
all n, then Sn ⩽ Sn+1 for all n. Thus the sequence {Sn }
is nondecreasing.

Corollary
P
A series an of nonnegative terms converges iff Sn is
bounded from above.

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Theorem (The Integral Test)
P
Let an be a series of positive terms. Let f (x) be a
positive, continuous and decreasing function for all
x ⩾ N for some N ; and let f (n) = an for all n. Then
∞
P R∞
the series an and the integral N f (x) dx both
n=N
converge or both diverge.

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Let us apply the integral test to p-series:
Theorem
1
P
The p-series np is convergent for p > 1, and divergent
for p ⩽ 1.
Proof. For p ⩽ 0, the series is trivially divergent (as
lim an ̸= 0).
So we consider p > 0. Note that for p > 0 the function
f (x) = x1p is positive, continuous and decreasing when
x ⩾ 1. So we can apply integral test:

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 If p > 1, then
R∞ R∞ 1 h −p+1 ib
x 1
1 f (x) dx = 1 xp dx = limb→∞ −p+1 1 = p−1 .
Thus, the series converges in this case.
If 0 < p ⩽ 1. We split
R∞ 1
the case
If p = 1, we get 1 x dx = limb→∞ [ln x]b1 → ∞. So the
series is divergent.
If 0 < p < 1, then
R∞ R∞ 1 h −p+1 ib
x
1
f (x) dx = 1 xp
dx = lim b→∞ −p+1 → ∞.
1
Hence the p-series diverges in this case also.

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An Important Result
P1
The Harmonic series n diverges.

There
P 1 are various ways to show that harmonic series
n is divergent. This article contains 20 such
proofs.
The sum of harmonic series for n = 106 is
approximately 14.4.

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Question
Decide whether the series converges/diverges:
X 1
.
2n − 1

1
Sol. The function f (x) = 2x−1 is positive, continuous
and decreasing for all x ⩾ 1 (note that these three
conditions hold true for all x > 21 ). Now, we have
Z ∞
1 1
dx = lim [ln(2x − 1)]b1 → ∞.
1 2x − 1 2 b→∞
P 1
Hence by integral test the series 2n−1 is divergent.
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Question

n
P
n2 +1 ·
Sol. Consider the function f (x) = x2x+1 . Then we have
2
f ′ (x) = (x1−x ′
2 +1)2 . Thus f (x) ⩽ 0 when x ⩾ 1 and so

f (x) is decreasing for all x ⩾ 1. Thus f (x) is positive,

continuous and decreasing for all x ⩾ 1. Now we have
Z ∞
x 1
2
dx = lim [ln(x2 + 1)] → ∞.
1 x +1 2 b→∞
Hence by integral test the series is divergent.

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Questions

Which of the following series converge?

P1
P n1
n2
∞
1
P
n(ln n)p , p > 0.
2
Ans. Divergent, Convergent, converges for p > 1.

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 Section 10.4
Comparison Tests

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We’ll discuss two comparison tests:

The Direct Comparison Test (DCT)

The Limit Comparison Test (LCT)

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Theorem (The Direct Comparison Test)
P P
Let an and bn be two series with an ≤ bn for all
n ≥ N. Then
P P
(a) If bn converges, then an converges.
P P
(b) If an diverges, then bn diverges.

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Question

P1
Show that the exponential series n! is convergent.
1 n−1
Sol. Here, an = n! . We know that 2 ⩽ n! for all n.
Therefore, we have,
1 1
an = ⩽ n−1 = cn (say) for all n.
n! 2
P 1 1
Moreover, 2n−1 , being a geometric series with r = 2 ,
is convergent. Therefore, by DCT the exponential series
is convergent.

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Question

X ln n
n
Sol. Here an = lnnn ⩾ n1 for all n ⩾ 3. Since the series
P1 P ln n
n diverges, therefore by DCT n diverges.

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Question

X √n
n2 + 1
√ √
n
Sol. Here an = ⩽ n2n = n3/2
1
for all n. Since the
n2 +1
P 1 P √n
series n3/2
converges, therefore by DCT n2 +1
converges.

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Question

X n + 2n
n2 2n

Sol. For all n, we have

n + 2n n 2n 1 1 1 1
an = n 2 = 2 n + 2 n ⩽ n + 2 ⩽ n + 2 .
2 n n2 n2 n2 n 2 n
P 1 P 1
Now since both 2 n and n2 converge, therefore by
P n+2n
DCT n2 2n converges.

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Question

X 1
·
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n
1 2
Sol. Here an = 1+2+3+···+n = n(n+1) < n22 for all n. Since
P 1
the series n2 converges, therefore by DCT
1
P
1+2+3+···+n converges.

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Theorem (Limit Comparison Test)
Suppose an and bn are positive for all n ⩾ N . Then

(a) If lim abnn = c (finite and non zero), then both

P
an
P
and bn converge or diverge together.
(b) If lim abnn = 0, and
P P
bn converges, then an also
converges.
(c) If lim abnn = ∞, and
P P
bn diverges, then an also
diverges.

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Question
X 1
√ ·
n3 + 2

Sol. Here an = √n13 +2 . Consider bn = 1

n3/2
. Note that
P
bn is convergent. Now
√ 1
an n3 +2
lim = lim 1 = 1.
bn n3/2
P
Hence an is convergent, by LCT (a).

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Question
Xp p
( n4 + 1 − n4 − 1)

Sol. Here
p p
an = n4 +1− n4 − 1
√ √
p p n4+1+ n4 − 1
= n4 + 1 − n − 1. √
4 √
n4 + 1 + n4 − 1
2
=√ √ .
n4 + 1 + n4 − 1

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 1
P
Consider bn = n2 · Note that bn is convergent. Now

√ 2√
an n4 +1+ n4 −1
lim = lim 1 = 1.
bn n2
P
Hence an is convergent, by LCT (a).

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Question

X 2n − n
n2n n
Sol. Here an = 2n2−n
n . Since 2
n
> n for all n, so consider
2n 1
P
bn = n2n = n . Note that bn is divergent. Now
2n −n
an n2n 2n − n
lim = lim 1 = lim = 1·
bn n
2n
P
Hence an is divergent, by LCT (a).

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Question

∞
X 1
√ ·
n=2
n ln n
1
Sol. Here an = √n1ln n . Consider bn = n1/2+c , where
P
0 < c < 1/2. Note that bn is divergent. Now
√ 1
an n ln n nc
lim = lim 1 = lim = ∞.
bn n1/2+c
ln n
P
Hence an is divergent, by LCT (c).

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Question
X (ln n)2
·
n3/2
2 c
Sol. Here an = (ln n)
n3/2
· Consider
P bn = nn3/2 = n3/2−c
1
, where
0 < c < 1/2. Note that bn is convergent. Now
(ln n)2
an 3/2 (ln n)2
lim = lim n 1 = lim c
= 0. (How ?)
bn n3/2−c
n
P
Hence an is convergent, by LCT (b).

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 Section 10.5
Ratio and Root Tests

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Theorem (Ratio Test)
P
Let an be a series of positive terms. Suppose
an+1
lim an = r. Then
P
(a) If r < 1, the series an is convergent;
P
(b) If r > 1, the series an is divergent;
(c) If r = 1, the test is inconclusive.

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Question
X
e−n n3 .

Sol. Here an = e−n n3 . So

3
e−(n+1) (n + 1)3

an+1 −1 1
= =e 1+ .
an e−n n3 n

Thus lim aan+1

n
= e−1 < 1. Therefore by ratio test, the
series converges.

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Question
X 3n
·
n3 2n
3n
Sol. Here an = n3 2n · So
3n+1
an+1 (n+1)3 2n+1 3 n3
= 3n = .
an 3
n 2 n 2 (n + 1)3
an+1 3 n3 3
lim = lim . = > 1·
an 2 (n + 1)3 2
Therefore by ratio test, the series diverges.

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Question
X (2n + 3)(2n + 3)
·
3n + 2
(2n+3)(2n +3)
Sol. Here an = 3n +2 · So
(2n+5)(2n+1 +3)
an+1 3n+1 +2
= (2n+3)(2n +3)
an
3n +2
n+1
(2n + 5)(2 + 3)(3n + 2)
=
(2n + 3)(2n + 3)(3n+1 + 2)
an+1 2
⇒ lim = < 1.
an 3
Therefore by ratio test, the series converges.
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Theorem (Root Test or nth Root Test)
P
Let an be a series of non-negative terms, and suppose
1
that lim(an ) n = r. Then
P
(a) If r < 1, the series an converges;
P
(b) If r > 1, the series an diverges;
(c) If r = 1, the test is inconclusive.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 65 / 109
Question
X
n2 e−n .

Sol. Here

an = n2 e−n
⇒ (an )1/n = n2/n e−1
⇒ lim(an )1/n = lim n2/n e−1 = e−1 < 1.

Therefore the series converges by root test.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 66 / 109
Question
X
e−n n3 ·

Sol. Here

an = e−n n3
(an )1/n = e−1 (n1/n )3
lim(an )1/n = lim e−1 (n1/n )3 = e−1 < 1.

Therefore the series converges by root test.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 67 / 109
Question
X (n!)n
.
(nn )2

Sol. Here
(n!)n
an = n 2
(n )
n!
(an )1/n = 2
n
n!
lim(an )1/n = lim 2 = ∞.
n
Therefore the series diverges by root test.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 68 / 109
 Section 10.6
Alternating Series, Absolute and
Conditional Convergence

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 69 / 109
Alternating Series
A series whose terms are alternately positive and
negative is called an alternating series.
(−1)n+1 un or
P
An alternating series is one of the form
(−1)n un , where un > 0 for all n.
P

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 70 / 109
Examples
(−1)n+1
P

(−1)n+1 n1
P
(Alternating harmonic series)
(−1)n ln 1 + n1
P

n
(−1)n n+1
P

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 71 / 109
Theorem (Leibniz’s Theorem for Alternating
Series)
(−1)n+1 un converges if
P
The alternating series

(i) un ⩾ un+1 for all n ⩾ N for some N ; and

(ii) lim un = 0.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 72 / 109
Example

For the alternating series

1 1 1 1 1 1
− + 1 − + − + − + ··· ,
22 42 32 62 52 82
the first condition of Leibniz’s test fails but the
series converges (How?).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 73 / 109
Question
∞
X 4
(−1)n .
n=2
(ln n)2

Sol. (i) Here un = (ln4n)2 . Since ln(n + 1) ⩾ ln n for all

4
n ⩾ 2 so (ln4n)2 ⩾ (ln(n+1))2 for all n ⩾ 2 and so

un ⩾ un+1 for all n ⩾ 2.

(ii) Also, we have lim un = lim (ln4n)2 = 0.
Hence by Laibniz’s test the series is convergent.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 74 / 109
Question
 
X 1
(−1)n ln 1 + .
n

Sol. (i) Here un = ln 1 + n1 . Consider

 
1 1
f (x) = ln 1 + ⇒ f ′ (x) = − .
x x(x + 1)

Since f ′ (x) < 0 for all x ⩾ 1. So f (x) is nonincreasing

for all x ⩾ 1 and hence un ⩾ un+1 , ∀n ⩾ 1.
(ii) Also, we have lim un = lim ln 1 + n1 = 0 (how?).

Hence by Laibniz’s test the series is convergent.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 75 / 109
Absolute and Conditional Convergence
P
A series an is said to be
P
absolutely convergent if the series |an | is
convergent.
P
conditionally convergent
P if the series |an | is
divergent but an is convergent.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 76 / 109
Theorem (Theorem 16. The Absolute
Convergence Test)
P P
If |an | converges, then an also converges. That is
“absolute convergence implies convergence”.
Proof. We have

− |an | ⩽ an ⩽ |an | , ∀n.

So
0 ⩽ |an | + an ⩽ 2 |an | .
P P
Now the series 2 |an | converges as the series |an |
converges.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 77 / 109
Therefore byPDirect Comparison Test, the non-negative
terms series (|an | + an ) converges.
Now we can write
X X X X
an = (|an |+an −|an |) = (|an |+an )− |an | .
P
Therefore an , being a difference of two convergent
series, converges.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 78 / 109
Steps to check a series for absolute and
conditional convergence
P
First
P check the behavior ofPthe series |an |. If
|an | is convergent then an is absolutely
convergent.
P
P |an | P
If is divergent then check theP behavior of
an . If an is convergent then an is
conditionally convergent.
P
Otherwise an is divergent.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 79 / 109
Question
X ln n
(−1)n .
n − ln n

Sol.
ln n
P P
First we check the behavior of |an | = n−ln n .
We have
ln n ln n 1
⩾ ⩾ , ∀ n ⩾ 3.
n − ln n n n
P1 P ln n
Since n is divergent so n−ln n is also divergent
(by DCT).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 80 / 109
 Now
P we P check the behavior of
ln n
an = (−1)n n−ln n by using Leibniz’s test.
ln x ′ 1−ln x
(i) Consider f (x) = x−ln x ⇒ f (x) = (x−ln x)2 .
Thus f ′ (x) < 0 for all x > e and so un ⩽ un+1 for
all n ⩾ 3.
ln n
(ii) Also we have lim n−ln n = 0 (Using L’Hôspital’s
rule).
ln n
Therefore by Leibniz’s test (−1)n n−ln
P
n is convergent.
ln n
Hence (−1)n n−ln
P
n is conditionally convergent.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 81 / 109
Question

X cos nπ
√ .
n n
P P cos nπ P (−1)n
Sol. Here an = √ =
n n
√ and so
n n
P P 1
|an | = √ . Clearly being a p-series (with
n n
n = 32 > 1) |an | is convergent. Hence (−1)n cos
√nπ
P P
n n
is absolutely convergent.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 82 / 109
Question
X 1
Check the behavior of (−1)n √ √ by using
n+1+ n
Leibniz’s test.

1 √ 1√
Sol. Clearly √n+1+ n
⩾ √
n+2+ n+1
for all n, so
un ⩾ un+1 for all n.
1 √
Moreover, we have lim un = lim √n+1+ n
= 0.
1 √
Therefore by Leibniz’s test (−1)n √n+1+
P
n
is
convergent.
√ √
Hence (−1)n ( n + 1 − n) is conditionally
P
convergent.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 83 / 109
Summary

If lim an ↛ 0, the series diverges.

If lim an = 0, check whether it is a known series
(like geometric series, p-series etc.).
For nonnegative (positive) terms series try integral
test, comparison tests, ratio test, root test etc.
For series with some negative terms
P (not necessarily
alternating series)
P see whether |an | converges. If
yes, so does an .
For alternating series apply Leibniz’s test.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 84 / 109
Power Series

A power series about x = a is a series of the form

∞
an (x − a)n in which the center a and
P
n=0
coefficients an are constants.
A power series about x = 0 is a series of the form
∞
an x n .
P
n=0

Here the coefficients a0 , a1 , . . . . an . . . are constants.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 85 / 109
Examples
∞
xn
P
(geometric series).
n=0
∞
xn
P
n! (exponential series).
n=0
n
(−1)n+1 xn
P
(logarithmic series).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 86 / 109
Result
∞
an (x − a)n , let
P
For the power series
n=0

1 an+1
= lim = lim |an |1/n ,
R an
provided the limits exist (as a real number or +∞).
Then
1 The power series converges absolutely when
|x − a| < R.
2 The power series diverges when |x − a| > R.
Note: R is called the radius of convergence. The
interval (a − R, a + R) is called the interval of absolute
convergence of the power series.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 87 / 109
Theorem (The Convergence Theorem for Power
Series)
∞
an x n
P
If the power series
n=0
1 Converges at x = c (c ̸= 0), then it converges
absolutely for all x such that |x| < |c|.
2 Diverges at x = d, then it diverges for all x such
that |x| > |d|.

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Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 89 / 109
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 90 / 109
How to Test a Power Series for
Convergence
Step-1. Testing for absolute convergence: Use
Ratio (or Root) test to find an open interval where the
series converges absolutely as follows:

un+1 an+1
lim = lim (x − a)
un an
an+1
= |x − a| lim
an
|x − a|
= .
R

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 91 / 109
How to Test a Power Series for
Convergence

Now for convergence, we must have (ratio test)

un+1
lim <1
un
|x − a|
<1
R
|x − a| < R
x ∈ (a − R, a + R).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 92 / 109
How to Test a Power Series for
Convergence

Step-2. Testing at the end points: If R is finite,

then test for absolute (or conditional) convergence at
both end points x = a − R and x = a + R (by
substituting x = a − R and x = a + R respectively in
the given power series).
Step-3. Make a conclusion based on Step 1 and Step 2.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 93 / 109
Question
X (−1)n+1 (x + 2)n
.
n2n
Sol. Step-1. Testing for absolute convergence:
Here R1 = lim |an |1/n = 1/2 and so R = 2. This implies
that the given series is absolutely convergent for all
x ∈ (−2 − 2, −2 + 2) i.e., x ∈ (−4, 0).
Step-2. Testing at the end points x = −4 and
x = 0:
At x = −4, the given series becomes − n1 , which
P
is the negative harmonic series and so is divergent.
So the given series is divergent at x = −4.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 94 / 109
 P (−1)n+1
At x = 0, the given series becomes n that is
an alternating harmonic series, and so is convergent
(by Leibniz’s test).
What about the absolute convergence at x = 0?
P1
Since the series n diverges so conditionally
convergent.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 95 / 109
Step-3. Conclusion: Thus
(i) R = 2.
(ii) For −4 < x < 0 → absolutely convergent.
(iii) For −4 < x ⩽ 0 → convergent.
(iv) Conditionally convergent at x = 0.
This completes the analysis of this series.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 96 / 109
Questions

Discuss the nature of convergence of the following power

series:
X (−1)n+1 (3x + 2)n X xn
1 2. ·
n2n n!

Ans 1 (i) R = 2/3.

(ii) For −4/3 < x < 0 → absolutely convergent.
(iii) For −4/3 < x ⩽ 0 → convergent.
(iv) Conditionally convergent at x = 0.

Ans 2 Absolutely convergent for all values of x.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 97 / 109
Question
∞
X (x − 3)2n
·
n=0
3n

Step-1. Testing for absolute convergence:

(x−3)2n+2 2
un+1 3n+1 |x−3|
lim un = lim (x−3)2n
= 3 . For the absolute
3n
2
convergence, we must have lim uun+1 < 1 i.e., |x−3|
3 <1
2 √ n

or |x − 3|√ |x − 3| < 3 or
< 3 or √
x ∈ (3 − 3, 3 + 3). Thus the given√series is√
absolutely convergent for all x ∈ (3 − 3, 3 + 3).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 98 / 109
 √
Testing at the end points x = 3 − 3 and
Step-2. √
x = 3 + 3:
√
At x = 3 − 3, the given series becomes ∞
P
n=0 1
and hence is divergent.
√
At x = 3 + 3, the given series becomes ∞
P
n=0 1
and hence is divergent.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 99 / 109
Step-3. Conclusion: For the given series
√
(i) R = 3.
√ √
(ii) For 3 − 3 < x < 3 + 3 → absolutely
convergent.
√ √
(iii) For 3 − 3 < x < 3 − 3 → convergent.
(iv) No point of conditional convergence.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 100 / 109
Question

Discuss the convergence of the power series

X n!
x2n .
1.3.5 . . . (2n − 1)

Ans.
√
(i) R = 2.
√ √
(ii) For − 2 < x < 2 → absolutely convergent.
√ √
(iii) For − 2 < x < 2 → convergent.
(iv) No point of conditional convergence.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 101 / 109
 Section 10.8
Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 102 / 109
Taylor Series
Let f (x) be a function with derivatives of all orders in an
interval containing a as an interior point. Then the
Taylor series generated by f (x) at a is given by
∞
X
n f (n) (a)
an (x − a) , where an = .
n=0
n!

That is the Taylor series is

f ′ (a) f ′′ (a)
f (a) + (x − a) + (x − a)2
1! 2!
f (n) (a)
+ ··· + (x − a)n + · · ·
n!
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 103 / 109
Maclaurin Series
The Maclaurin series generated by f (x) is given by
∞
X
n f (n) (0)
an x , where an = .
n=0
n!

That is the Maclaurin series of f (x) is

f ′ (0) f ′′ (0) 2 f (n) (0) n

f (0) + x+ x + ··· + x + ···
1! 2! n!

The Maclaurin series is the Taylor series generated by f

at x = 0.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 104 / 109
Question

Determine the Maclaurin series of xex .

Sol. Here

f (x) = xex ⇒ f (0) = 0

f ′ (x) = xex + ex ⇒ f ′ (0) = 1
f ′′ (x) = xex + 2ex ⇒ f ′′ (0) = 2
f ′′′ (x) = xex + 3ex ⇒ f ′′′ (0) = 3
f iv (x) = xex + 4ex ⇒ f iv (0) = 4
.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 105 / 109
 f (n) (x) = xex + nex ⇒ f (n) (0) = n
.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .

Thus, the required series is

2 2 3 3 n
x+ x + x + · · · + xn + · · ·
2! 3! n!
or
x3 xn
x + x2 + + ··· + + ···
2! (n − 1)!

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 106 / 109
Question
Determine the Taylor series of 2x at x = 1.
Sol. Here
f (x) = 2x ⇒ f (1) = 2
f ′ (x) = 2x ln 2 ⇒ f ′ (1) = 2 ln 2
f ′′ (x) = 2x (ln 2)2 ⇒ f ′′ (1) = 2(ln 2)2
f ′′′ (x) = 2x (ln 2)3 ⇒ f ′′′ (1) = 2(ln 2)3
f iv (x) = 2x (ln 2)4 ⇒ f iv (1) = 2(ln 2)4
.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .
f (n) (x) = 2x (ln 2)n ⇒ f (n) (1) = 2(ln 2)n
.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 107 / 109
Thus, the required series is

2(ln 2)2 2(ln 2)n

2+2 ln 2(x−1)+ (x−1)2 +· · ·+ (x−1)n +· · ·
2! n!

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F111 (MATHEMATICS-I) February 7, 2023 108 / 109
Question
Show that
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn + · · · for |x| < 1.
1−x
On integrating, we get

x2 x3 xn
− ln(1 − x) = x + + + · · · + + · · · for |x| < 1.
2 3 n
On the other hand on differentiating, we obtain
1
2
= 1+2x+3x2 +4x3 +· · ·+nxn−1 +· · · for |x| < 1.
(1 − x)
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