Introduction to Electrical Engineering

Module-1: Introduction to Electrical Engineering

1. Conventional(nonrenewable) Energy Sources

1.1 THERMAL POWER PLANT

1.1.1 Introduction
The steam power plants, Diesel power plants, Gas Turbine power plants and Nuclear Power
plant are known as Thermal Power Plant. However, generally steam power plant is called as
thermal power plant. The Steam power plant can perform two purposes .1) To generate
electricity only 2) To generate electricity along with production of steam for process heating.
1.1.2 Working of a Steam Power Plant
Steam power plant basically works on the Rankine cycle in which steam and water is working
fluid. In the boiler steam is generated from water by using heat of flue gases which is produced
by means of burning of coal. The Steam which is expanded in a turbine, which produces
mechanical power. The output power of turbine is utilized to run the generator. The steam after
expansion in turbine is usually condensed in a condenser. The condensed steam (Water) is
again feed to the boiler and cycle is repeated. The Main Components of cycle are: 1) Boiler 2)
Turbine 3) Condenser 4) Feed Pump

1.1.3 General Layout of Modern Thermal Power Plant

The general layout of the thermal power plant consists of mainly 4 circuits as shown in Fig.

The main components of thermal Power Plant and their working

1) Coal and ash handling circuit:
The coal from the storage is fed to the boiler through coal handling equipment for the
generation of steam. Ash produced due to combustion of coal is removed to ash storage through
ash handling system.

2) Feed water and steam circuit:

 The steam generated in the boiler is fed to the steam prime mover to develop the power. The
steam coming out of prime mover is condensed in the condenser and then fed to the boiler with
the help of the pump. The condensate is heated in the feed heaters using the steam tapped from
different points of the turbine.
 Some of the steam ad water is lost passing through different components of the system,
therefore feed water is supplied from external source to compensate this loss.
 The feed water supplied from external source is passed through the purifying plant to reduce
the dissolved salts to an acceptable level to avoid the scaling of the boiler tubes.

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3) Cooling water circuit:

 The quantity of cooling water required to condense the steam is considerably large and it is
taken either from lake, river or sea. The cooling water is taken from the upper side of the river,
it is passed through the condenser and heated water is discharge through the lower side of the
river. such system of cooling water is possible if adequate cooling water available throughout
the year. This system is known as open system.
 When adequate water is not available, then the water coming out from the condenser is cooled
either in cooing tower or cooling pond. The cooling is effected by partly evaporating the water.
When the cooling water coming out from the condenser is cooled again supplied to the
condenser then the system is known as closed system.

 Advantages of Thermal Power plant.

1. They can respond quickly against change of load without difficulty.
2. Thermal power plant is more flexible to use any types of boilers and fuels.
3. A portion of steam generated can be used a process steam in different industries.
4. Thermal power plant requires less investment cost compared to hydroelectric power plants.
5. Less space is required compare to hydroelectric power plants.
6. Thermal efficiency of thermal power plant can be increased when it works conjunction with
gas turbine power plant.
7. Thermal power plant requires less time for installation compared to hydroelectric power
plant.
8. The application of thermal power plant is most economical if sited near coal mines and by
the side of river or canal.
 Disadvantages of Thermal Power plant
1. Thermal power plant requires large quantity of water for boiler and condenser.

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2. The fuel transportation cost is high especially when the power plants are away from coal
mines and has no railway siding.
3. It has a very high operating cost compared to hydro and nuclear power plants.
4. The thermal power plant pollutes the atmosphere by fumes, and residues of pulverized fuels.
5. The thermal power plant requires large number of equipment compared to other power
plants, hence plant becomes very complex.
6. In thermal power plant, there is great difficulty experienced in coal handling.
7. The thermal power plant is less efficient below 75% of load.
8. The thermal power plant requires long times for erection and putting into action.

2. Nuclear Power Plant

2.1 Working

Nuclear power can be defined as the act of splitting atoms to generate electricity.
Nuclear power plants are basically a kind of nuclear energy station in which the nuclear
reactor produces electricity from the heat generated when atoms are split inside a
nuclear reactor. This process is referred to as nuclear fission or simply fission.

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2.2 Main components of Nuclear Power Plants

1. Fuel

Uranium is the fundamental fuel. Typically pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are organized in
cylindrical tubes to form fuel rods.

2. Core

A reactor core is the part of a nuclear reactor, including the nuclear fuels where the nuclear
reactions occur, and the heat is generated.

3. Coolant

A liquid coursing through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light water reactors the
water moderator works likewise as a primary coolant.

4. Moderator

Material in the core of the reactor which basically slows down the neutron's speed released
from fission with an objective so that they cause more fission. It is generally water; however,
it might be heavy water or graphite.

5. Control rods or blades

These are made up of neutron-absorbing material such as hafnium, cadmium or boron, and are
embedded or removed from the core to regulate the rate of reaction, or to stop it.

Advantages

 As a small amount of fuel can generate a huge amount of power, thus nuclear power is
a cheap source of electricity.
 Nuclear power plants require less space as compared to any other power station of the
similar size.
 Nuclear power is most economical and efficient to produce large capacities of power.
 Since, a large amount of nuclear fuel is available(e.g. Uranium, Plutonium
and Thorium etc.) so, a nuclear power plant can produce electrical energy for thousands
of years.
 Nuclear Power Plants are generally very neat and clean when compared with a steam
power plant.

Disadvantages

 Initial installation cost of the Nuclear plant is very high when compared to the other
power stations (like Solar or wind power stations).

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 Nuclear fuel is very expensive (because of its rare nature) and it is challenging to
control.
 Specialized knowledge is expected to operate such a type of plant. So, the salary bill
and other maintenance costs will be higher to operate such plants.
 As discussed in the last section, nuclear energy is clean. However, radioactive nuclear
waste contains exceptionally poisonous chemicals like pellets of uranium
and plutonium are used as fuel. There is a chance to spread radioactive contamination
from this kind of plant.
 Nuclear Reactors do not respond effectively with the fluctuating load demand. Thus it
is not suited for varying the load.

3. Renewable (nonconventional) Energy Sources

3.1 Solar Power Plant (Photovoltaic power plant):

The solar power plant is also known as the Photovoltaic (PV) power plant. It is a
large-scale PV plant designed to produce bulk electrical power from solar radiation.
The solar power plant uses solar energy to produce electrical power.

Photo Voltaic (PV) Principle:

 Silicon is the most commonly used material in solar cells. Silicon is a semiconductor
material. Several materials show photoelectric properties like; cadmium, gallium
arsenide, etc.
 Electron-holes pairs are created in solar cells. The PV materials have the property to
absorb photons of sunlight. The valance band electrons of semiconductor material are
at lower energy and the electrons of conduction band are at a higher energy level. The
difference between this energy level is known as bandgap energy Eg.
 Therefore, if the potential difference exists within the cell, the electrons of the
conduction band and holes of the valance band made the flow of current in the circuit.

3.2 Components of Solar Power Plant

The major components of the solar photovoltaic system are listed below.
1. Photovoltaic (PV) panel
2. Inverter
3. Energy storage devices
4. Charge controller
5. System balancing component

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Fig 3.1: Solar Power Plant

1. Photovoltaic (PV) Panel (PV array):

 PV panels or Photovoltaic panel is a most important component of a solar
power plant. It is made up of small solar cells. This is a device that is used
to convert solar photon energy into electrical energy.
 Generally, silicon is used as a semiconductor material in solar cells. The
typical rating of silicon solar cells is 0.5 V and 6 Amp. And it is equivalent
to 3 W power. The number of cells is connected in series or parallel and
makes a module. The number of modules forms a solar panel.
2. Inverter:
 The output of the solar panel is in the form of DC. The most of load
connected to the power system network is in the form of AC. Therefore,
we need to convert DC output power into AC power. For that, an inverter is
used in solar power plants.
3. Energy storage devices:
 The batteries are used to store electrical energy generated by the solar power
plants. The storage components are the most important component in a
power plant to meet the demand and variation of the load.
 The capacity of a battery is that how much amount of electrical power it can
store. The capacity of batteries is measured in Ampere-hours (AH) rating.
 For example, a battery having 100 AH battery can supply 1 Amp current for
100 hours or 100 Amp current for 1 hour.
4. Charge Controller:
 A charge controller is used to control the charging and discharging of the
battery. The charge controller is used to avoid the overcharging of the
battery. The overcharging of a battery may lead to corrosion and reduce

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plate growth. And in the worst condition, it may damage the electrolyte of
the battery.
5. System balancing component:
 It is a set of components used to control, protect and distribute power in the
system. These devices ensure that the system working in proper condition
and utilize energy in the proper direction. And it ensures maximum output
and security of other components of a solar power plant.

3.2 Wind Power Plant

 Wind is used to produce electricity by converting the kinetic energy of air
in motion into electricity. In modern wind turbines, wind rotates the rotor
blades, which convert kinetic energy into rotational energy. This rotational
energy is transferred by a shaft which to the generator, thereby producing
electrical energy.
 Wind turbines working principle: instead of using electricity to make
wind—like a fan—wind turbines use wind to make electricity. Wind turns
the propeller-like blades of a turbine around a rotor, which spins a generator,
which creates electricity

Fig 3.2: Flow Diagram of a Wind Turbine

Flow Diagram of a Wind Turbine System Here,

1) Wind Turbine: Converts wind energy into rotational (mechanical) energy
2) Gear system and coupling: It steps up the speed and transmits it to the generator rotor
3) Generator: Converts rotational energy into electrical energy.
4) Controller: Senses wind direction, wind speed, generator output and temperature and
initiates appropriate control signals to take control action. There are two basic types
of wind turbines (WT): horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) and vertical axis wind
turbines (VAWT). Figures 6(a) and 6(b) show HAWT and VAWT respectively.

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3.3 Hydroelectric power:

Hydroelectric power , electricity produced from generators driven
by turbines that convert the potential energy of falling or fast-
flowing water into mechanical energy.
Hydroelectric power plants are usually located in dams that impound rivers, thereby
raising the level of the water behind the dam and creating as high a head as
is feasible. The potential power that can be derived from a volume of water is
directly proportional to the working head, so that a high-head installation requires a
smaller volume of water than a low-head installation to produce an equal amount of
power.

Fig 3.3: Hydroelectric power plant

3.4 Biomass Energy:

Bioenergy is a form of renewable energy generated when biomass fuel is burnt.
Biomass fuels come from organic material such as harvest residues, purpose
grown crops and organic waste from homes, business and farms

Fig 3.4: Biomass power generation plant

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 Electricity isn’t produced directly from this combustion. Burning solid biomass
materials heats giant boilers filled with water. This transforms liquid water into
steam. The steam creates pressure in the boiler. The force of the steam rotates
a turbine. The turbine then moves a wire coil in a generator.
 Some biomass plants generate electricity by burning methane. Methane is a gas that
can be collected from landfills. These plants use a slightly different process than
plants that burn solid biomass. The products of burning methane, instead of steam,
cause the turbine to spin. As with solid biomass, the rotation of the turbin e drives a
generator.
 Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. First a force from the
water vapour or gas makes the rotor turn. The rotor has a coil of wire that spins
inside a fixed magnet around it, called the stator. The rotation causes changes in
the magnetic field which forces electrons to move along the wire. This generates
electric current.

4. Single Line Diagram of Power Supply System

The electrical energy is produced at generating stations, and through the transmission
network, it is transmitted to the consumers. Between the generating stations and the
distribution stations, three different levels of voltage (transmission, sub-transmission
and distribution level of voltage) are used. Single line diagram of power system is
mentioned in Fig 4.1

 Generating Stations
 The electrical power is generated in the thermal / hydro / nuclear power
station.
 The generation of 11 kV is done by alternator.
 The generated power is transmitted to different areas which are far away from
generating station.
 The generated voltage is step up for transmission due to following reasons.
As the generating voltage increases
1) Conductor volume (weight) decreases
2) Efficiency of transmission line increases
3) Percentage voltage drop decreases.

 Primary Transmission
 The step-up transmission step-up the generating voltage from 11 kV to 132
kV / 220 kV.
SystemIt is transmitted by three phase, three wire supply system.

 Secondary Transmission
 The primary transmission line terminates at the receiving substation.
 The transmission line voltage steps down from 132 kV / 220 kV to 66 kV at
the receiving end substation.

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 The electrical power is transmitted at voltage level of 66 kV to different

substation.
 This is called as secondary transmission.

Fig 4.1: Single line diagram of Power

 Primary Distribution
 The secondary transmission line terminates at the substation where the
voltage is reduced from 66 kV / 11 kV by step down transformer.
 The 11 kV voltage is transmitted to different area of city by transmission line.
 The primary transmission is done through 3 – phase, 3 – wire system which
supply power to HT consumers.

 Secondary Distribution
 The electrical power from primary distribution line is delivered to pole mounted
distribution transformer.
 The pole mounted delta / star transformer step down the 11 kV to 440 V.

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 The secondary of transformer star connected with neutral which supplies

three phase four wire.
 The residential consumer gets single phase supply through one phase and
neutral (Phase R and N, Phase Y and N, Phase B and N).
 The three-phase load is directly connected to three phase supply.

5. Concept of Power and Energy

Electrical Power - The rate at which work is done in an electric circuit is called electrical
power. The unit of power is watts or kilo-watts. 1 kW = 1000 W

Electrical Energy - The total amount of work done in an electric circuit is called
electrical energy. It is the product of electrical power and time. The
unit of electrical energy is Watt-Hour (Wh) or KiloWatt-hour (kWh)

Electrical power can be denoted as ‘P’.

The electrical power formula is given as,
Power (P) = V*I watts
SI units of electrical power are given as Watts (W) or Joule/Sec (J/s).

Therefore, P = V*I
And V = I*R
Thus P = 𝐼 2 𝑅
Therefore, P = 𝑉 2 /𝑅

Electrical Energy:
Then work done by the electrical charge for particular amount of time will be,
𝐸 =𝑃×𝑡
We know that,
𝑃 = 𝑉×𝐼
Therefore, the Electrical Energy formula can be given as follows,
E = V×I×t joules

6. Tariff Structure for Electrical Energy Consumption

TARIFF DEFINITION: The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is

known as tariff.
 Cost of Producing Electricity depends upon the magnitude of Electricity
consumed by load.
 Tariff fixation has to be given to different types of consumers (e.g., industrial,
domestic and commercial).
 Tariff fixing for different consumers is more complicated.

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Objectives of tariff
1. It should include the recovery of cost of producing electric energy at power station
2. It should include the recovery of capital investment in transmission & distribution
3. It should include recovery of cost of operation & maintain of supply of electrical energy
such as metering, billing etc.

Desirable characteristics
(i) Proper return:
 The total receipts from the consumers must be equal to the cost of producing
and supplying electrical energy plus reasonable profit.
 This will enable the electric supply company to ensure continuous and reliable
service to the consumers.
(ii) Fairness:
 The tariff must be fair so that different types of consumers are satisfied with the
rate of charge of electrical energy.
 A big consumer should be charged at a lower rate than a small consumer with
fixed charges and thus reducing overall production cost of electrical energy.
 A consumer whose load conditions do not deviate much from the non-variable
load should be charged at a lower rate than big consumers with variable load
(iii) Simplicity:
 The tariff should be simple so that an ordinary consumer can easily understand
it.
 A complicated tariff may cause an opposition from the public which is generally
distrustful of supply companies.
(iv) Reasonable profit:
 The profit element in the tariff should be reasonable.
 An electric supply company is a public utility company and generally enjoys the
benefits of monopoly.
 The investment is relatively safe due to non-competition in the market and the
profit is to be restricted to 8% or so per annum.
(v) Attractive:
 The tariff should be attractive so that a large number of consumers are encouraged
to use electrical energy.
 Efforts should be made to fix the tariff in such a way so that consumers can pay
easily.

Types of tariff
1. Simple tariff
2. Flat rate tariff
3. Block rate tariff
4. Power factor tariff
5. Two-part tariff
6. Three-part tariff

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1. Simple tariff:
 When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, it is called a simple tariff or
uniform rate tariff.
Advantages of Simple Tariff:
 In simple tariff, the cost does not vary with increase or decrease in number of
units consumed.
 The consumption of electrical energy at the consumer terminals is recorded by
means of an energy meter.
 This is the simplest of all tariffs and is easily understood by the consumers.
Disadvantages of Simple Tariff:
 Every consumer has to pay equally for the fixed charges irrespective of load
variation.
 The cost per unit delivered is high.
 It does not encourage the use of electricity.

2. Flat rate tariff:

 When different types of consumers are charged at different uniform per unit rates, it is
called a flat rate tariff.
 In this type of tariff, the consumers are grouped into different classes and each class
of consumers is charged at a different uniform rate. 
 The different classes of consumers are made taking into account their diversity and
load factors.
Advantages of Flat rate tariff:
 This tariff is more benefit to different types of consumers
 Flat rate tariff is quite simple in calculations.
Disadvantages of Flat rate tariff:
 Separate meters are required for lighting load, power load etc.
 The application of such a tariff is expensive and complicated.
 A particular class of consumers is charged at the same rate irrespective of the
magnitude of energy consumed.
3. Block rate tariff:
When a given block of energy is charged at a specified rate and the succeeding blocks
of energy are charged at progressively reduced rates, it is called a block rate tariff.
 The energy consumption is divided into blocks and the price per unit is fixed in
each block.
 The price per unit in the first block is the highest and it is progressively reduced
for the succeeding blocks of energy.
 For example, the first 30 units may be charged at the rate of 60 paise per unit;
the next 25 units at the rate of 55 paise per unit and the remaining additional
units may be charged at the rate of 30 paise per unit.

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Advantages of Block rate Tariff:

 The consumer gets an incentive to consume more electrical energy.
 This increases the load factor of the system and hence the cost of generation is
reduced.
Disadvantages of Block rate Tariff:
 It lacks a measure of the consumer demand.
 This type of tariff is being used for majority of residential and small commercial
consumers.
4. Power Factor tariff:
The tariff in which power factor of the consumer load is taken into consideration is
known as power factor tariff.
 A low power factor increases the rating of station equipment and line losses.
 A consumer having low power factor must be penalized.

5. Two-part tariff:
When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum demand of the
consumer and the units consumed, it is called a two-part tariff
 In two-part tariff, the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into two
components ie., fixed charges and running charges.
 The fixed charges depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer while the
running charges depend upon the number of units consumed by the consumer.
 Thus, the consumer is charged at a certain amount per kW of maximum demand plus a
certain amount per kWh of energy consumed i.e.
Total charges=Rs (a × KW + b × KWh)
Where;
a - Charges per kW of maximum demand
b - Charges per kWh of energy consumed

 The consumer has to pay fixed charges irrespective of the consumer uses his load or
not
 This type of tariff is mostly applicable to industrial consumers who have appreciable
maximum demand.
Advantages of two-part Tariff:
 It is easily understood by the consumers.
 It recovers the fixed charges which depend upon the maximum demand of the
consumer.
 It is independent of the units consumed.
Disadvantages two-part Tariff:
 The consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of energy consumed
 There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the consumer.

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6. Three-part tariff:
When the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into three parts viz., fixed
charge, semi-fixed charge and running charge, it is known as a three-part tariff
Total charges=Rs (a + b × KW+ c × kWh)
Where; a - Fixed charges made during each billing period. It includes interest
and depreciation on the cost of the secondary distribution and labor
costs of collecting revenues
b - Charges per kW of maximum demand
c- Charges per kWh of energy consumed

 It may be seen that by adding fixed charge to two-part tariff, it becomes three-part tariff.
 The principal objection of this type of tariff is that the charges are split into three
components.
 This type of tariff is generally applied to big consumers.

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