Pnuematics
SLIDE 3 — What Is Pneumatics?
Pneumatics is the branch of engineering that uses pressurised gas — almost always compressed air — to
transmit and control mechanical force and motion. Think of it as using air the way hydraulics uses oil, but
lighter, faster, and far cleaner.
In an industrial setting, a pneumatic system takes electrical energy, feeds it into a compressor, stores the
resulting compressed air in a receiver tank, and then releases it on command to drive cylinders, grippers, and
rotary actuators. The energy is already stored — so when you open a valve, motion happens in milliseconds.
Real-world example: On a FANUC pick-and-place robotic line assembling automotive ECUs, the gripper
fingers open and close pneumatically. The valve switches in under 50 ms, and the cylinder strokes in under
100 ms. No servo motor could match that cycle time at that cost.
Key operating parameters to know:
Operating pressure: 4–10 bar in standard industrial systems
Valve switching time: under 50 ms
Maximum actuator velocity: 3 m/s
Energy efficiency: only 25–35% — compressed air is expensive; we'll come back to this
Advantages — Pneumatics is clean. There is no hydraulic oil to spill, no fire risk from fluid leaks, and the
system is inherently overload-safe: if an actuator stalls, pressure simply builds until the relief valve opens.
Components are simple, standardised, and cheap to replace.
Limitations — Because air is compressible, you cannot hold a precise mid-stroke position without additional
sensors and proportional valves. And that 25–35% efficiency figure is real — compressed air is one of the
most expensive utilities on a factory floor. Every leak costs money around the clock.
SLIDE 4 — Gas Laws & Thermodynamic Principles
Every pneumatic design decision traces back to four gas laws. These are not theoretical exercises — they
are the engineering tools you use when sizing a receiver tank, calculating pipe losses, or understanding why
your system pressure spikes on a hot summer day.
Boyle's Law — Isothermal Process: P₁V₁ = P₂V₂ At constant temperature, pressure and volume are
inversely proportional. If you compress a volume of air to half its size, the pressure doubles. This is the
foundation of receiver tank sizing. If your factory needs 500 litres of air at 6 bar for a peak demand burst,
you can calculate exactly what size receiver stores that energy at your compressor's rated output pressure of,
say, 10 bar.
Charles' Law — Isobaric Process: V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂ At constant pressure, volume is proportional to absolute
temperature. This matters most in outdoor or heated environments — near a welding cell, for instance. Hot
air expands; your cylinder stroke length can actually change slightly if the supply air temperature swings
dramatically. Always use absolute Kelvin in this formula, never Celsius directly.
Gay-Lussac's Law — Isochoric Process: P₁/T₁ = P₂/T₂ At constant volume — like a sealed receiver tank —
pressure rises proportionally with absolute temperature. This explains why a receiver reads 8 bar in the
morning and creeps toward 9.5 bar on a hot afternoon in a factory with no HVAC. Safety relief valves are
sized with this in mind.
Ideal Gas Law — PV = nRT This combines all three. In pneumatics, it's used for Free Air Delivery (FAD)
calculations — converting the compressor's rated output in litres per minute at atmospheric conditions to
actual delivery at working pressure. It's also used for compressor duty cycle analysis: how long must the
motor run per hour to maintain system pressure given your air consumption rate?
Practical note: For standard industrial systems below 80 bar, the ideal gas law is accurate enough. Above
80 bar — high-pressure breathing air or specialty applications — you need the compressibility Z-factor
correction for real gas behaviour.
SLIDE 5 — Compressors & Air Supply
The compressor is the power source of the entire pneumatic system. It converts electrical energy into stored
pneumatic energy. There are three main types used in industry, each with a distinct design and application
profile.
01 — Piston / Reciprocating Compressor This is the classic single or multi-stage piston-in-cylinder design.
A crankshaft drives the piston down to draw air in through an inlet valve, then up to compress it out through a
discharge valve. It can reach pressures up to 40 bar, making it the choice for high-pressure applications like
PET bottle blowing or nitrogen boosters.
However, the output is pulsating — pressure rises and falls with every piston stroke — which is why a piston
compressor must always be paired with a receiver tank to smooth the supply. Maintenance is
straightforward: piston rings, valves, and reed valve plates are standard wear items. Common in small
workshops and tool rooms.
02 — Rotary Screw Compressor This is the workhorse of modern industrial manufacturing. Two
intermeshing helical rotors turn in opposite directions, continuously trapping and compressing air between the
screw profiles. Output is smooth and continuous — no pulsation.
Operating range is 6–13 bar, from 2 kW up to 750 kW. Available in oil-injected (oil lubricates and seals the
rotors) and oil-free versions (for food, pharma, and electronics where any oil contamination is unacceptable).
Variable Speed Drive (VSD) versions modulate motor speed to match actual air demand — saving 20–35%
energy compared to fixed-speed units. In a factory running 24/7, that energy saving justifies the VSD
premium within 12–18 months.
03 — Scroll Compressor Two interleaved Archimedean spiral scrolls — one fixed, one orbiting —
progressively compress air from the outer periphery to the centre. The mechanism is extremely quiet and
inherently oil-free. No reciprocating forces mean very low vibration.
Preferred in medical, laboratory, and semiconductor fabrication environments where clean, quiet, oil-free
air is non-negotiable. Capacity is typically smaller than screw compressors, but the air quality is exceptional
without the cost of downstream oil-removal filtration.
SLIDE 6 — Air Treatment: The FRL Unit
Between the compressor and your working circuit sits the air treatment train. The sequence is fixed and must
not be changed:
Compressor → Receiver → Dryer → Filter → Regulator → Lubricator → Working Circuit
Compressed air straight from the compressor contains water vapour, oil aerosols, pipe scale, and particulate.
Any of those contaminants entering a solenoid valve or cylinder seal will cause premature failure. The FRL
unit is your defence.
FILTER The filter uses a centrifugal deflector to spin liquid droplets out of the airstream and collect them in a
bowl. The element itself is typically sintered or paper, rated at 5–40 µm for general particulate. For oil
aerosols, a coalescing filter with a 0.01 µm element is used — this achieves ISO 8573-1 Class 1 air quality
(less than 0.1 mg/m³ of oil). Replace the element when the pressure drop across it exceeds 0.3 bar —
beyond that, you're losing more energy in the filter than the replacement costs.
REGULATOR The regulator steps line pressure down to the working pressure needed by your circuit. It uses
a spring-loaded diaphragm that senses downstream pressure and throttles a poppet valve to maintain
setpoint. The relieving type exhausts excess downstream pressure if setpoint is reduced — essential during
commissioning. Proportional (E/P) regulators accept a 4–20 mA or 0–10 V signal for remote pressure control
from a PLC — used in FANUC force-controlled applications. Always fit a pressure gauge downstream of the
regulator, never upstream only.
LUBRICATOR A Venturi jet draws oil from a sight bowl and injects a fine mist into the airstream — typically
1–2 drops per minute per standard m³/min of flow. Use ISO VG 32 non-detergent mineral oil only. Critical
warning: many modern pneumatic cylinders, valves, and FANUC EOAT components are designed as lube-
free with PTFE-coated seals. Introducing oil to a lube-free circuit will wash out the PTFE coating and
accelerate wear rather than reduce it. Always confirm before fitting. In food, pharmaceutical, and spray
painting applications, omit the lubricator entirely.
Dryer types: Refrigerant dryers (+3 to +7°C pressure dew point) for general industrial use. Adsorption dryers
(−40 to −70°C PDP) for outdoor pipework, instrument air, and any application where freezing is a risk.
Membrane dryers for point-of-use in sensitive locations.
SLIDE 7 — Directional Control Valves (DCVs)
Directional control valves are the routing elements of a pneumatic circuit. They decide which port of an
actuator receives supply air and which exhausts — controlling the direction of cylinder travel.
Valve Notation — X/Y per ISO 5599: X = number of ports (P = pressure supply, A/B = work ports to actuator,
R/S = exhaust ports) Y = number of switching positions
2/2 valve — 2 ports, 2 positions. Simply on or off. Used for safety isolation shut-offs upstream of a
machine zone.
3/2 N/C — 3 ports, 2 positions, normally closed. In rest state, work port A is blocked. When energised, P
connects to A. Used to drive a single-acting cylinder — air extends it, spring retracts it. Also used as a pilot
signal generator in pneumatic logic circuits.
3/2 N/O — Same as above but normally open — P connects to A at rest. Used in fail-open safety
applications where loss of signal must maintain air flow, such as a clamping circuit that must release on
power loss.
5/2 — 5 ports, 2 positions. This is the most important valve in industrial robotics. With P as supply, two work
ports A and B, and two exhaust ports R and S — it drives a double-acting cylinder in both directions with full
control. This is the standard valve on FANUC EOAT gripper circuits. When energised: P→A, B→S (cylinder
extends). When de-energised: P→B, A→R (cylinder retracts).
5/3 CC — Closed Centre. Three positions, centre position blocks all ports. The cylinder is hydraulically
locked mid-stroke. Used where a cylinder must hold its position on power loss, such as a vertical clamping
fixture.
5/3 OC — Open Centre. Centre position connects both work ports to exhaust. On E-stop, both sides of the
cylinder de-pressurise — the actuator becomes free-floating. Used where a robot arm or slide must be safe
to push manually during a fault recovery.
Actuation methods: Solenoid at 24V DC is the FANUC standard — directly driven from DO outputs on the
R-30iB controller. Manual lever override is essential for commissioning and fault diagnosis. Pilot-operated
valves use upstream pneumatic pressure to shift the spool — useful for high-flow applications where solenoid
current would be excessive.
SLIDE 8 — Pneumatic Actuators
Actuators convert the energy of compressed air back into mechanical work. There are two families: linear
cylinders and rotary actuators.
LINEAR CYLINDERS
Single-Acting Cylinder (SAC): Air pressure extends the piston rod. A return spring retracts it. Maximum
stroke is limited to approximately 100 mm because the spring becomes impractically large beyond that.
Force on extension: F = PA − F_spring. Used for light clamping, ejection, and spring-return grippers.
Double-Acting Cylinder (DAC): Air drives both the extension and retraction strokes independently. This is
the standard for industrial robotics — full, controllable force in both directions. Extension force uses the full
bore area; retraction force is slightly less because the rod occupies some of the piston area on the rod side.
Rodless Cylinder: The piston drives an external carriage via magnetic coupling through the cylinder wall,
with no protruding rod. Used for long strokes in confined spaces — transfer slides in automotive assembly
lines, for example — where a conventional rod would require double the installation length.
Guided Cylinder: Integral guide rods parallel to the piston rod absorb side loads and prevent rotation.
Essential for any application where the load is not purely axial — pushing a gripper into a part, for instance.
Cushioned Cylinder: Pneumatic cushions at end-of-stroke trap a small air volume to decelerate the piston
before it contacts the end cap. Required for speeds above 0.5 m/s to prevent hammering damage. ISO circuit
design rules mandate cushioned cylinders above this threshold.
CYLINDER SIZING FORMULA
Extension force: F_ext = P × (πD²/4) Retraction force: F_ret = P × π(D² − d²)/4 (where d = rod diameter)
Always apply a safety factor of ×1.5 minimum, and subtract 10–15% for seal friction. On a FANUC M-20iA
EOAT gripper with D = 32 mm at 6 bar: F_ext = 6 × 10⁵ × π(0.032²)/4 = approximately 483 N. After safety
factor and friction: usable force ≈ 300 N — enough to grip most automotive components.
ROTARY ACTUATORS
Rack & Pinion: A double-acting cylinder drives a rack that rotates a pinion gear. Available in 45°, 90°, 180°,
and 270° travel. High torque output, highly repeatable positioning to hard mechanical stops. Standard for
part-turn valve actuators and index tables.
Vane Actuator: A pivoting vane inside a cylindrical chamber. More compact but lower torque than rack-and-
pinion. Up to 270° rotation.
Air Motor: Continuous rotation — vane type or piston type. No overload damage, intrinsically safe in
hazardous areas. Used for screwdriving, grinding, and conveyor drives in explosive atmospheres.
Pneumatic Gripper: Parallel jaw or angular jaw types. SCHUNK PGN-plus (parallel) and PGH (angular) are
standard on FANUC EOAT. Self-centering — both jaws move equal amounts, so the part centre stays fixed
regardless of part width variation. Reed or Hall-effect sensors confirm jaw open/closed state to the R-30iB
controller.
SLIDE 9 — Flow Control & Circuit Design
Controlling actuator speed means controlling the flow rate of air in and out of the cylinder. There are several
valve types for this, and the choice significantly affects stability and safety.
NEEDLE VALVE An adjustable tapered orifice that restricts flow equally in both directions. Set manually
during commissioning and left fixed. Simple and cheap, but it restricts both supply and exhaust air, which can
cause erratic behaviour under varying loads.
ONE-WAY FLOW CONTROL VALVE A needle valve in parallel with a check valve. The check valve allows
free flow in one direction; the needle valve restricts flow in the other. This gives you control of either the
supply or exhaust stroke independently.
METER-OUT (Preferred for most applications) The one-way flow control is fitted so that it restricts the
exhaust air leaving the cylinder. This creates a back-pressure on the exhaust side that stabilises the piston
against load variations and gravity. For a vertical cylinder lifting a load, meter-out prevents uncontrolled drop
if pressure fluctuates. It is the recommended configuration for all vertical and high-inertia loads and is
the FANUC standard for EOAT applications.
QUICK EXHAUST VALVE (QEV) Mounts directly on the cylinder port. When supply pressure is present, it
seals the exhaust. When the supply valve switches, the QEV detects the pressure drop and dumps exhaust
air locally at very high flow — directly to atmosphere, bypassing the long pipe run back to the DCV. This
dramatically reduces cycle time. Common on FANUC pick-and-place EOAT where retraction speed is
critical to throughput. A robot cycling 60 parts per minute saves measurable time with QEVs.
PNEUMATIC LOGIC COMPONENTS The Shuttle valve acts as an OR gate — output is pressurised if either
of two inputs is pressurised. The Dual Pressure valve acts as an AND gate — both inputs must be
pressurised for output. This is the basis of two-hand safety controls: a press will only cycle if the operator
has both hands on two separate valves simultaneously, making it impossible to have a hand under the die.
Time-delay valves and pressure sequence valves allow sequential circuit control without electrical signals.
ISO 1219 CIRCUIT DESIGN RULES — these are mandatory for any professional drawing:
Draw all valves in their de-energised state
Label all ports per ISO 5599 (P, A, B, R, S)
FRL unit must appear before the working circuit
Pressure drop to actuator must not exceed 0.5 bar
Use cushioned cylinders at speeds above 0.5 m/s
Fit exhaust silencers on ALL exhaust ports
Show the safety exhaust valve on the E-stop circuit
SLIDE 10 — Vacuum Systems
Vacuum is simply pressure below atmospheric — below 101,325 Pa. Industrial vacuum is a partial vacuum,
expressed either as absolute pressure in mbar or as gauge vacuum below atmosphere.
Three vacuum ranges:
Rough Vacuum (1013–1 mbar): The industrial standard for suction gripping and Venturi ejectors. This is
where FANUC EOAT vacuum systems operate.
Medium Vacuum (1–10⁻³ mbar): Rotary vane pumps, packaging and degassing lines.
High Vacuum (10⁻³–10⁻⁷ mbar): Semiconductor deposition chambers, thin-film coating processes.
GRIPPING FORCE FORMULA F = ΔP × A_cup = (P_atm − P_vac) × (πD²/4)
Example: A 50 mm diameter flat suction cup at −0.8 bar gauge vacuum: F = 0.8 × 10⁵ × π(0.05²)/4 =
approximately 157 N per cup.
For a 2 kg part, that's a safety factor of 8 — more than adequate. In practice, always target a safety factor of
at least 4 for horizontal pick, 8 for vertical (to account for acceleration forces), and higher still for porous
surfaces.
SUCTION CUP PROFILES
Flat cup: Sheet metal, glass, polished plastic — any flat, non-porous surface.
Deep bellows: Soft, deformable products — bread loaves, foam packaging, fresh produce. The bellows
absorb the ±5–10 mm height variation common in unguided product.
Bellows (1-fold): A shallower version for slight surface variation — ±5–10 mm.
Oval cup: Narrow parts, PCB edges, carton flaps where a round cup won't fit.
VENTURI EJECTOR — The FANUC EOAT Standard A Venturi ejector generates vacuum from compressed
air with no moving parts. Supply air passes through a converging nozzle at high velocity, creating a low-
pressure zone that draws air through the vacuum port. Maximum vacuum: −0.88 bar for single-stage, −0.90
bar for multi-stage.
Why it dominates FANUC EOAT: No pump to mount, no motor to wire. It mounts directly on the gripper arm,
close to the cup — minimising the dead volume that must be evacuated each cycle. The blow-off function
applies a brief positive pressure pulse to the cup to actively release the part — critical for reducing release
time and preventing parts from sticking mid-transfer. An IO-Link pressure sensor confirms grip before the
robot moves — the R-30iB controller will fault and hold position if vacuum is below threshold, preventing
dropped parts.
SLIDE 11 — Pneumatics in FANUC Robot Systems
This is where all the previous principles converge into an integrated system. FANUC robots are designed with
pneumatics as a first-class interface, not an afterthought.
INTERNAL WRIST AIR SUPPLY Models including the M-10iA, M-20iA, M-20iD, and LR Mate 200iD have
hollow arm castings that route two internal pneumatic circuits from the base to the J6 wrist flange. Fittings
are Ø8 mm push-fit at J6. Maximum working pressure: 6 bar.
This eliminates all external hoses along the arm — no cable drag, no snag risk on fixtures, and no hose
fatigue from millions of joint cycles. For a robot doing 60 cycles per minute over three shifts, external hoses
would need replacement within months. Internal supply removes this failure mode entirely.
The circuits are protected by a dual-solenoid safety valve at the base: both solenoids must energise
simultaneously for air to flow. This prevents a single-point electrical failure from opening the valve. On E-stop,
both solenoids de-energise, the valve closes, and the EOAT exhausts to its safe state — gripper springs
open, vacuum drops, parts release safely.
R-30iB CONTROLLER INTERFACE The standard J6 EE connector provides 4 digital inputs + 4 digital
outputs for pneumatic control (expandable to 8+8 with the expansion board). Solenoid valves are wired to
DO signals and controlled by KAREL or TP programs that manage both timing and interlocking. A vacuum
pressure switch on a DI confirms grip before the program issues a MOVE command. A 4–20 mA analogue
transducer on an AI enables continuous grip-force monitoring — useful for detecting cup wear or part surface
contamination. IO-Link masters (FESTO VTEM, SMC EX600) provide full valve diagnostics over the network.
END-OF-ARM TOOLING (EOAT) TYPES
Pneumatic Grippers — SCHUNK PGN-plus (parallel jaw) or PGH (angular jaw). Self-centering with reed or
Hall-effect open/closed sensors feeding back to the R-30iB DI.
Multi-zone Vacuum — Multiple independently controlled suction circuits on one tool. Enables picking parts of
different sizes and shapes in a single tool cycle without a tool change — each zone activated or deactivated
by individual solenoid valves.
Combined Pneumo+Vacuum — Vacuum lifts the part; a pneumatic gripper then locates and constrains it for
precision insertion. Standard in automotive electronics assembly where a part must be both held securely
and accurately positioned.
Quick-Change (ATI QC-310) — A pneumatically locked J6 tool changer. Engages in under 1 second and
passes both air circuits, vacuum, and electrical signals through the interface. Enables a single robot to run
multiple tools on one workcell, changing tools mid-program.
SLIDE 12 — Safety, Maintenance & Troubleshooting
Pneumatic systems store significant energy. A 200-litre receiver at 10 bar contains the equivalent energy of a
substantial explosion if it fails catastrophically. Safety is not optional.
CRITICAL SAFETY RULES
Never direct exhaust air at a person. High-velocity compressed air entering the skin causes a fatal air
embolism — it does not need to puncture the skin to be lethal. This is the single most important rule in the
workshop.
Always fully depressurise before disconnecting any fitting or hose. A push-fit connector under 6 bar
pressure will eject with enough force to cause serious injury. LOTO the compressor and bleed the system
before any maintenance.
LOTO (Lockout/Tagout) the compressor main isolator and the system's main manual isolation valve before
any work on valves, cylinders, or pipework.
Never exceed the rated working pressure of any component. Every cylinder, valve, and fitting has a
maximum working pressure stamped on it. Exceeding it voids compliance and risks catastrophic failure.
Safety exhaust valve on ALL robots. ISO 10218 requires this. On E-stop, the valve exhausts the EOAT to a
defined safe state — spring returns, vacuum releases, grippers open.
Inspect flexible hoses at every maintenance visit. Hoses fail from the inside — internal erosion and
pressure cycling cause delamination that is invisible externally until burst failure.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE
Daily: Check FRL condensate bowl and drain. Listen for hissing leaks — a 1 mm hole at 6 bar loses
approximately 15 litres/minute of compressed air, continuously. Verify system pressure at the regulator
gauge.
Weekly: Inspect cylinder rod seals for oil weeping. Test solenoid valve response with manual override
buttons. Wipe filter bowls — UV degradation of polycarbonate bowls is a known failure mode.
Monthly: Replace filter element when ΔP exceeds 0.3 bar. Check lubricator oil level and drip rate. Verify E/P
regulator calibration.
Quarterly: Test all Pressure Relief Valves (PRVs) — manually lift the valve seat to confirm it moves and
reseats. Inspect the receiver tank for external corrosion at welds and feet. Verify auto-drain valve operation.
Annual: Full cylinder overhaul — replace all seals and rod wiper seals. Valve service — clean or replace
solenoid coils and spool seals. Full hydraulic pressure test of all pipework per ISO 4414 requirements.
COMMON FAULTS AND DIAGNOSIS
Slow cylinder: Check filter ΔP first — a blocked filter is the most common cause. Then check flow control
valve setting. Check pipe bore for kinking.
No movement: Check DO signals on FANUC HMI — is the solenoid being commanded? Use the manual
override on the valve to confirm whether it's an electrical or mechanical fault. Check for a tripped pressure
switch.
Air leak (hissing): Worn cylinder rod seal (oil mist visible around rod) or a loose push-fit connector. Push-fit
connections sometimes partially unseat during cable drag — push firmly and twist to confirm seating.
Vacuum releases: Worn cup (cracked or hardened lip), oily part surface reducing seal area, or insufficient
safety factor in original sizing. Increase vacuum setpoint if ejector capacity allows, or upgrade cup diameter.
SLIDE 13 — Pneumatics vs Hydraulics vs Electromechanical
This comparison is fundamental to any system design decision. There is no universally superior technology
— each dominates in its appropriate application space.
Working Medium and Pressure: Pneumatics uses compressed air at 4–10 bar. Hydraulics uses mineral oil
or synthetic fluid at 70–700 bar. Electromechanical uses electrical power directly — no fluid medium at all.
Force Output: Pneumatics delivers low-to-medium forces in the kN range. At 6 bar with a 100 mm bore
cylinder, you get approximately 4.7 kN — plenty for gripping, clamping, and light assembly. Hydraulics at 300
bar with the same bore delivers 235 kN — required for forging presses, injection moulding clamps, and
construction equipment. Electromechanical spans the full range depending on motor and gearbox selection.
Speed: Pneumatics is the fastest — cylinder velocities to 3 m/s, valve switching in <50 ms. Hydraulic
actuators are moderate speed, limited by the oil's flow dynamics and compressibility of connected volumes.
Servo motors are precisely programmable for any speed profile.
Accuracy: Pneumatics in open-loop operation delivers ±1–5 mm — adequate for pick-and-place and
clamping to hard stops, but not for precision positioning without added sensors. Hydraulic servo systems
achieve <0.1 mm. Electromechanical servos achieve <0.01 mm — the choice for CNC machining centres
and precision assembly.
Leakage Risk: Pneumatic leaks are harmless — air is free (relatively) and non-toxic, though costly. Hydraulic
leaks are serious — hot oil is a fire hazard, environmentally damaging, and creates slip hazards.
Electromechanical has no fluid — zero leakage risk.
Energy Efficiency: This is where pneumatics is weakest at 25–35%. Hydraulics is notably better at 60–80%.
Electromechanical servo systems are the most efficient at 85–95%, which is why there is an industry trend
toward replacing pneumatic axes with electric servo axes in applications requiring precision and high cycle
counts. However, the capital cost differential and the simplicity advantage of pneumatics keeps it dominant in
high-speed, light-force, and intrinsically-safe applications for the foreseeable future.
Best Application Summary: Use pneumatics for fast, light, clean, simple motion — gripping, clamping,
ejecting. Use hydraulics for very high forces in heavy industry. Use electromechanical for precision,
programmability, and energy efficiency where cycle counts justify the investment.