ABSTRACT

This Project titled Study of “Computer Networking Fundamentals and

Configuration” it aims the Computer Networking plays a vital role in modern
communication systems by enabling the exchange of data between connected
devices. This project presents a comprehensive study of fundamental
networking concepts including the Cisco Three-Layer Hierarchical Model,
Ethernet cabling, OSI model, TCP/IP protocol suite, IP addressing, sub netting,
routing, switching, and VLAN configuration.

The report explains the layered architecture of networks and the

importance of structured design for scalability and performance. It discusses
the functionality of TCP and IP protocols, differences between IPv4 and IPv6
addressing, and the role of sub-net masks and default gateways in network
communication. The project also examines router configuration and IOS
(Internet work Operating System) developed by Cisco Systems, along with
different types of router memory.
Furthermore, the study explores static and dynamic routing methods,
default route configuration, and switching techniques including VLAN
implementation for traffic management and security enhancement.

Overall, this project provides both theoretical knowledge and practical

insight into the design, configuration, and management of computer networks,
forming a strong foundation for advanced networking studies and professional
certification.

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 INDEX
[Link] TITLE PAGE
NO.
1 CHAPTER-1
Introduction 3
1.1 Background of The Study 4
1.2 Needs of study 5
1.3 Objectives of study 6
1.4 Limitations 7
2 CHAPTER-2
Conceptual Framework 8
1.1 Basic Networking Concepts 9
1.2 TCP/IP
1.3 IOS Commands and Router Configurations
1.4 Routing and Routing Protocols
1.5 Switching
3 CHAPTER-3
COMPANY PROFILE
4 CHAPTER-4
Presentation of Data Analysis and
Interpretation.
5 CHAPTER-5
Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
5.1 Findings
5.2 Suggestions
5.3 Conclusion

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 CHAPTER-I
Introduction

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 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Computer networking plays a vital role in modern communication
systems by enabling a smooth exchange of data between connected devices.
As the backbone of digital infrastructure, it facilitates everything from basic file
sharing to complex global communications.
This project, titled "Study of Computer Networking Fundamentals and
Configuration," provides a comprehensive study of essential networking
concepts and their practical applications. It explores the theoretical
frameworks that govern how networks function, such as the OSI model and the
TCP/IP protocol suite, which categorize and standardize the various tasks
performed by computer systems.
The report delves into critical architectural designs, including the Cisco
Three-Layer Hierarchical Model, which simplifies network management by
braking systems into Core, Distribution, and Access layers. This structured
approach is fundamental for ensuring network scalability, performance, and
ease of troubleshooting.
Key areas of study covered in this project include:
 Physical Infrastructure:
An examination of Ethernet cabling (Straight Through, Crossover, and
Rolled) and essential hardware like hubs, switches, and routers.
 Addressing and Subnetting:
Understanding the differences between IPv4 and IPv6 addressing, as well
as the use of subnet masks and default gateways to manage network traffic
efficiently.
 Routing and Switching:
Exploring static and dynamic routing methods, along with switching
techniques like VLAN implementation to enhance security and traffic
management.
 Configuration and Management:
Practical insight into the Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS),
including command-line configuration and router memory management. By
combining theoretical knowledge with practical configuration insights, this
project establishes a strong foundation for advanced networking studies and

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professional industry certifications.

1.2 NEEDS OF THE STUDY

The study of computer networking fundamentals and configuration is
essential because networking is the backbone of modern communication
systems, enabling data exchange between connected devices.
According to the provided project report, the key reasons and benefits for
studying this topic include:

 Understanding Modern Communication:

Computer networking plays a vital role in enabling communication and
data exchange in today's digital world.
 Improving Network Performance and Scalability:
Learning about structured network design and layered architecture (like
the OSI and Cisco models) is critical for building networks that can scale
efficiently while maintaining high performance.
 Enhanced Troubleshooting:
A fundamental understanding of how each network layer
functions makes identifying and fixing network issues considerably
easier.
 Effective Resource Management:
Networking allows for the sharing of resources and files, making work
environments more efficient than ever before.
 Network Security:
The study covers essential security aspects, such as using VLANs for
traffic management and security enhancement, and implementing
authentication servers like Radius and TACACS+. Professional
 Advancement:
This knowledge forms a strong foundation for advanced networking
studies and prepares students for industry standard professional
certifications like CCNA.

 Business Competitive Advantage:

Organizations that effectively utilize and manage their network systems
can collect and analyze crucial information faster, giving them a significant
advantage over competitors.

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 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Based on the project report, the study of computer networking
fundamentals and configuration aims to provide both theoretical and practical
insights into several core areas. The objectives can be denoted through the
following key topics and learning outcomes.
Core Theoretical Objectives
 Understanding Network Models:
To study the layered architecture of networks, specifically focusing on
the Cisco Three Layer Hierarchical Model (Core, Distribution, and Access
layers) and the OSI Seven-Layer Model.
 Learning Protocol Suites:
To comprehend the functionality of the TCP/ IP protocol suite,
including how data is divided into packets and reassembled.
 IP Addressing Fundamentals:
To distinguish between IPv4 and IPv6 addressing, understand subnet
masks, and recognize the role of default gateways in network
communication.
 Networking Hardware & Topology:
To identify various network devices (hubs, switches, routers, bridges, and
gateways) and explore different physical and logical arrangements like Star, Bus, Ring, and
Mesh topologies.
Practical Configuration Objectives
 Physical Connectivity:
To learn about Ethernet cabling standards, including the use of Straight-Through,
Crossover, and Rollover cables for connecting various devices.
 Operating System Mastery:
To gain proficiency in the Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS),
understanding how to use command-line interfaces to configure networking devices.
 Routing and Switching Implementation:
Implementing Static and Dynamic routing methods to manage data traffic
between networks.
 Device Management:
To understand router memory types (Running-Config, Startup-Config, and Flash) and
how they affect device operation and configuration persistence.
Professional Foundation

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 The ultimate objective of this study is to form a strong foundation for students
aiming for advanced networking studies or industry-standard professional certifications such
as the CCNA.

1.4 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The limitations of this topic are primarily addressed through current
constraints in networking technologies and suggestions for future
improvements to the study.
Technological Limitations
The report identifies specific technical limitations within current
networking practices:

 IPv4 Address Exhaustion:

A significant limitation of IPv4 is its 32-bit format, which only allows for
approximately four billion unique addresses. This is insufficient for the growing
number of internet users and devices globally.

 Static Routing Constraints:

Static routing is limited by its manual nature; routing tables must be
updated manually, making it time-consuming and prone to errors.
Furthermore, static routes are not fault-tolerant, meaning data will not be
rerouted automatically if a path fails.

 Half-Duplex Ethernet:
In half-duplex mode (often used with hubs), data can only travel in one
direction at a time. This is less efficient than full-duplex and makes data
collisions inevitable.

 Security of Mobile Devices:

Managing the security of mobile devices connecting to corporate
networks is noted as a difficult task from a security policy standpoint.

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 CHAPTER-2
Conceptual Framework

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 2.1 Basic Networking Concepts

2.1.1 The Cisco Three Layer Hierarchy Model

Cisco Systems have invented a three-layered Hierarchical Model for simplifying the task
of networking and for enhancing the efficiency to a greater extent. These three layers break
down the networking system making it more intelligible and workable for both smaller and
larger networking setups. However, the Layered model assists and facilitates the larger
networks even more and can be seen as a great development in the field of networking.
With the advent of Cisco Three Layer Hierarchy Model the comprehension of the
network layout and functioning has become quite easier. Since each layer possesses its own
functioning thus troubleshooting has also become considerably easier. Despite all these
enhanced features Cisco Three Layer Hierarchical Model remains to be cost-effective.
The Cisco Three Layer Hierarchical Model entails the following layers:

 Core Layer:
Core Layer acts as a fulcrum point for the entire network setup. Its layout consists of
high-speed cables such as fiber cables and high-end switches. It basically works in
transferring a large amount of data with high speed, owing to the implanted devices such as
high-end switches and routers in this particular layer.
It has the capability to alter traffic data at the fastest rate. It is a very critical yet
simply designed layer. It is devised to manage and balance the load and often uses mesh
topology. The latency period is lower in Core Layer, and hence its performance in data
transmission is enhanced. Fault tolerance is also one of the specific features of core layer. It
encapsulates a backup system which is termed as ‘redundancy’ which saves the network
operation in case of any failure.

 Distribution Layer:
This layer act as a bridge or a junction between, core and Access Layer. It ensures
proper routing between sub-nets and VLANs of packets. The primary function of this layer is
to provide accessibility between the two layers and between the packets and core by
ensuring the performance of functions such as routing, WAN access and filtering.
Distribution layer performs multiple functions and is not function specified such as the
other two layers.

All the access layer switches, including OSI Layer 3 switches and
routers which are LAN-based, stem from distribution layer, and is an active participant in
core routing design. Furthermore, key functions of distribution layer include: Static routing

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and security filtering, including hiding network numbers (internal), combining LAN wiring
and connections of WAN.

 Access Layer:
Lowermost layer of the Cisco model, Access Layer or ‘Desktop layer’ provides the
widest variety of features. It basically links inter network resources with local work group. It
enables access to different work groups, being a junction of the provision of many
networking services, and ensures that most of the resources be made available locally for
the users.
This also involves the execution and implementation of many configuration-related
tasks. It has Layer 2 and Layer 3 services, plus a number of authentication servers including:
Radius and TACACS+. Access layer also segments by creating separating domains of
collision.

2.1.2 Ethernet Cabling

Ethernet Cabling has become a part and parcel of the networking field and
communication. Ethernet cables are used for connecting devices on LANs [Local Area
Network] such as switches, routers and PCs etc. Ethernet cabling is carried out via different
cables as per the particular need and design of the networking structure. These cables
encapsulate three major kinds namely; Straight Through Cable, Cross over Cable and Rolled
Cable.

The classification of the cables into three types originates from the difference or the
way in which they are wired, the manner in which pin-to-pin connection is held. Straight
Through Cables, as the name signifies are used for linking dissimilar devices. Straight
Through Cable is used for connecting a LAN port to a computer, hub or switch. It is an 8
wired patch cable. It is also used when connecting a PC to a switch and also for connecting
router to a hub, or a printer to the router etc. Its main purpose is to connect a host to the
client.

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 However, a computer would not be able to get connected to a router via Straight
Through Cables because both of them are considered to be the “same” devices. These
cables can be termed as the standard ones as per the percentage of their usage in various
networking setups. If we consider two connectors such as A and B, both having 8 ends of
wires originating from one connector and ending at the other. In such a layout, straight
through cables will initiate from Pin 1 of Connector A and would go to the same Pin 1 of
Connector B. Models like RJ connectors are mainly used for such cable design.

Crossover Cables are planted to connect two hosts together. The cables are crossed
wired to let the two computers or hosts get connected directly. It can also be said that
primarily Crossover Cables are used when like or same devices are intended to be
connected. The pairs of wires crisscross each other which makes the communication path
for the two devices to communicate at the same time.

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 Rollover wired Cables connects any device or a computer terminal to a network
switch console port. The cables connected in a rolling manner are not responsible for the
connectivity of the network or transmitting data rather they only establish an interface with
the device. Pin 1 gets connected to Pin 8 in Connector B. Their usage is not extensive and
they are normally available in different colors from the Crossover and Straight Through
Cables.

2.1.3 Ethernet Networking

It is a technology mainly used for LAN networks and is associated with the physical
layer or data link layer. In the olden times the medium of connection used for the
connection of Ethernet devices was copper cables, the trend has been replaced now by
fiber optic cables. Switching of Ethernet gave birth to two types Half Duplex and Full Duplex
Ethernet. It also has the mechanism of auto detection which is built in with the ability to
assess of rate of exchange; also, it decides with which mode of transmission it will go Full
Duplex or Half.

In Full Duplex, the data can be sent and received at the same time. The reception
and transmission take place simultaneously and hence the speed of data transfer increases.
The data travels between source node and destination node. There is no occurrence of
collision when it comes to full duplex Ethernet. The data cables used for reception and
transfer of data are different and rules over the possibility of interference and hence makes
the efficiency up to 100%. They can also carry multiple conversations with different
computers at one time unlike in Half duplex mode of transmission.

Full duplex transmission mode certainly finds its best place in the areas having
higher loads and managing various networking paths at one time. It has the potential to
cater with larger data traffic in a finer and speedier way. On the other hand, half duplex
transmission involves the data transference only in one direction. Carrier Sense Multiple

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Access with Collision Domain (CSMA/CD) is a fundamental part of Half Duplex as it has the
ability to transmit the data again when collision occurs. Hub is also a vital part of half
duplex transmission. It is comparatively not that efficient as compared to the full duplex.
10Base2 uses half duplex.

2.1.4 OSI Layer Model

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) has been developed by International
Organization for Standardization (ISO). It is a networking flow of data built upon and
comprehended as a virtual hierarchy. OSI Layer Model is the system’s conceptual model; it
is abstract and not physical as the motherboard or RAM, but the working of the computer
system is based on the layering of the OSI model.
OSI model relates the computers’ functions together, characterizing the functions,
as well as interconnecting and assembling the tasks to be performed. It is layered, therefore
one look at the ‘layers’ of the OSI model will give you an idea about the order of fulfillment
of computer tasks.
The model has seven layers enumerated as follows:

1. Application layer
2. Presentation layer
3. Session layer
4. Transport layer
5. Network layer
6. Data link layer
7. Physical layer
The layers are ‘stacked’ or arranged in the order which has the physical layer as the
lower most layer and the application layer as the highest. The ‘physical layer’ up to the
‘transport layer’ is known as the lower layers, whereas the ‘session layer’ up to the
‘application layer’ makes up the upper layers of the OSI model.

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2.1.5 Network Devices

 HUB


Hub is one of the basic icons of networking devices which works at physical layer
and hence connect networking devices physically together. Hubs are fundamentally used in
networks that use twisted pair cabling to connect devices. They are designed to transmit
the packets to the other appended devices without altering any of the transmitted packets
received. They act as pathways to direct electrical signals to travel along. They transmit the
information regardless of the fact if data packet is destined for the device connected or not.

 Ethernet Hubs


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 It is a device connecting multiple Ethernet devices together and makes them
perform the functions as a single unit. They vary in speed in terms of data transfer rate.
Ether utilizes Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detect (CSMA/CD) to control
Media access. Ethernet hub communicates in half duplex mode where the chances of data
collision are inevitable at most of the times.

 Switches


Switches are the linkage points of an Ethernet network. Just as in hub, devices in
switches are connected to them through twisted pair cabling. But the difference shows up
in the manner both the devices; hub and a switch treat the data they receive. Hub works by
sending the data to all the ports on the device whereas a switch transfers it only to that
port which is connected to the destination device. A switch does so by having an in-built
learning of the MAC address of the devices connected to it. Since the transmission of data
signals are well defined in a switch hence the network performance is consequently
enhanced. Switches operate in full-duplex mode where devices can send and receive data
from the half duplex mode. The transmission speed in switches is double than in Ethernet
hub transferring a 20Mbps connection into 30Mbps and a 200Mbps connection to become
300Mbps. Performance improvements are observed in networking with the extensive usage
of switches in the modern days.

 Bridges


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 A bridge is a computer networking device that builds the connection with the other
bridge networks which use the same protocol. It works at the Data Link layer of the OSI
Model and connects the different networks together and develops communication
between them. It connects two local-area networks; two physical LANs into larger logical
LAN or two segments of the same LAN that use the same protocol.

Apart from building up larger networks, bridges are also used to segment larger
networks into smaller portions. The bridge does so by placing itself between the two
portions of two physical networks and controlling the flow of the data between them.
Bridges nominate to forward the data after inspecting into the MAC address of the devices
connected to every segment. The forwarding of the data is dependent on the
acknowledgement of the fact that the destination address resides on some other interface.
It has the capacity to block the incoming flow of data as well.
Today Learning bridges have been introduced that build a list of the MAC addresses
on the interface by observing the traffic on the network. This is a leap in the development
field of manually recording of MAC addresses.

 Routers


Routers are network layer devices and are particularly identified as Layer- 3 devices
of the OSI Model. They process logical addressing information in the Network header of a
packet such as IP Addresses. Router is used to create larger complex networks by complex
traffic routing. It has the ability to connect dissimilar LANs on the same protocol. It also has
the ability to limit the flow of broadcasts. A router primarily comprises of a hardware device
or a system of the computer which has more than one network interface and routing
software

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 Static Routing:
In static routing, the routing information is fed into the routing tables manually. It
does not only become a time-taking task but gets prone to errors as well. The manual
updating is also required in case of statically configured routers when change in the
topology of the network or in the layout takes place. Thus, static routing is feasible for
tinniest environments with minimum of one or two routers.
 Dynamic Routing:
For larger environment dynamic routing proves to be the practical solution. The
process involves use of peculiar routing protocols to hold communication. The purpose of
these protocols is to enable the other routers to transfer information about to other
routers, so that the other routers can build their own routing tables.

 Brouters


Brouters are the combination of both the bridge and routers. They take up the
functionality of the both networking devices serving as a bridge when forwarding data
between networks, and serving as a router when routing data to individual systems.
Brouters functions as a filter that allows some data into the local network and redirects
unknown data to the other network.

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 Brouters are rare and their functionality is embedded into the routers functioned to
act as bridge as well.

 Gateways


Gateway is a device which is used to connect multiple networks and passes packets
from one packet to the other network. Acting as the ‘gateway’ between different
networking systems or computer programs, a gateway is a device which forms a link
between them. It allows the computer programs, either on the same computer or on
different computers to share information across the network through protocols. A router is
also a gateway, since it interprets data from one network protocol to another.

Others such as bridge converts the data into different forms between two networking
systems. Then a software application converts the data from one format into another.
Gateway is a viable tool to translate the data format, although the data itself remains
unchanged. Gateway might be installed in some other device to add its functionality into
another.

 Network card


Network cards also known as Network Interface Cards (NICs) are hardware devices
that connect a computer with the network. They are installed on the mother board. They
are responsible for developing a physical connection between the network and the
computer. Computer data is translated into electrical signals send to the network via
Network Interface Cards.

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 They can also manage some important data-conversion function. These days network
cards are software configured unlike in olden days when drivers were needed to configure
them. Even if the NIC doesn’t come up with the software, then the latest drivers or the
associated software can be downloaded from the internet as well.

 Network protocols


Network protocols define a language of instructions and conventions for

communication between the network devices. It is essential that a networked computer
must have one or more protocol drivers. Usually, for two computers to interconnect on a
network, they must use identical protocols. At times, a computer is designed to use
multiple protocols. Network protocols like HTTP, TCP/IP offer a basis on which much of the
Internet stands.

 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)



ISDN are used to send over graphic or audio data files. It is a WAN technology that
can be used in place of a dial up link. The accessibility of ISDN depends upon the provision
of the service by the service provider, the quality of the line set up to your area. It surely
provides higher speed than a modem and has the capability to pick up the line and drop it
considerably at a faster rate.
ISDN can create numerous communication routes on a single line. Nowadays, even
faster and cheaper technologies that ISDN have found their way in the realm of technology.

 Modems


Modem is a device which converts the computer-generated digital signals of a

computer into analog signals to enable their travelling via phone lines. The ‘modulator-

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demodulator’ or modem can be used as a dial up for LAN or to connect to an ISP. Modems
can be both external, as in the device which connects to the USB or the serial port of a
computer, or proprietary devices for handheld gadgets and other devices, as well as
internal; in the form of add-in expansion cards for computers and PCMCIA cards for laptops.

Configuration of a modem differs for both the external and internal modem. For
internal modems, IRQ – Interrupt request is used to configure the modem along with I/O,
which is a memory address. Typically, before the installation of built-in modem, integrated
serial interfaces are disabled, simultaneously assigning them the COM2 resources.



2.1.6 Network Topology



Network topology is the arrangement of various network elements used in data

transmission and formation of interconnections like nodes and links with each other. This
linking of various elements is known as network topology.
Network topology is of two types:
• Physical topology
• Logical topology
Physical topology is the mapping out of the various interconnections that are visible
and which is the physical design of that network. Logical topography is the mind mapping of
such intercommunication diagrams that you make while identifying a network. It shows
how the data flows within a functioning network. A good example is the local area network.
A local area network, or LAN, works as having many connections with various devices in a
given network. Such that when a map is drawn out of the interconnections, a geometrical
shape is formed. This is the physical topography of that network. On the other hand, the
understanding of the flow of data and its transmission forms the logical topography.
 Point to point
 Bus
 Star
 Ring or circular

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  Mesh
 Tree
 Hybrid
 Daisy chain

 Point to point:
This is the simplest and the earliest type of topology that links two end points. This
has been used by the telephonic systems and is the oldest type of network topology. A
simple example of such a topology is how main frames and mini computers are connected
to terminals. There can be one terminal or various terminals but that one terminal server
will have a point-to-point topological access to each of its subscriber. Hence it doesn’t
matter that if the terminals are hooked together as the main computer is transmitting the
data individually to all the other computers. Point to point topology is the oldest type of
network arrangement and it is from where the various other topological arrangements have
been evolved.

 Bus

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 Remember the buses functioning in the iconic city of San Francisco? They function
through a set of cable wires that are laid throughout the city. That cable wired are
commonly for all of the buses and act as their common mode of power supply. Taking that
practical example and incorporating it in network topologies, helped making the most
widely used and popular network topologies of all time, the bus topology. In this topology, a
single cable is connected to the main computer and that is further branched out to reach
out to the various other computers out there.

 Star:
Star topology is the arrangement of the computers in such a way that all the
terminals or work stations are connected to the main central hub. The terminals are
referred to as the clients and the main central hub is referred to as the switch. It is the
easiest way of arranging a network topology with one central main computer connected to
several other functioning terminals. All the network traffic passes through the central
device and all the data transmission occurs through the main switch as well as all the hub
acts as the signal repeater.

 Ring or Circular:
Ring network topology is that in which all the terminals are arranged in a circular
fashion and that all the data that is transmitted across the terminals is transferred in a
circular pattern so that all the terminals receive it. In this kind of network topology, all the

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terminals have a data receiver to get all the signals from the predecessor computer and a
data transmitter that ejects all the signals out to the next neighboring computer.

 Mesh:
Mesh topology is the most complicated to build as compared to other topologies
and it is less popular due to its sheer impracticality. In this kind of topology all the devices
are connected to each other and that the data transferred from one system is sent and
received by all the other systems. In this way, the data is transferred in not a one-way route
but in multiple access pathways and that all the workstations are functioning in data
receiving and data sending at the same time.

 Tree:
A tree network topology is the one in which there is a main functioning root node
that is then connected to other servers via point-to-point topology in the levels of hierarchy.
In other words, this topology is connected as a branching network of terminals. Each level
of terminals has a specific number of nodes that it can connect.
The topology works in hierarchy fashion.

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  Hybrid:

A hybrid network topology is the kind of arranging work stations in such a way that
it doesn’t resembles any of the basic network topologies like the star, bus or ring, etc.
Rather it amalgamates the two types of topologies to create a new one. For example, the
star ring network or a star bus network. A star ring network uses multiple networks
arranged in star topologies that are then connected together using a multi station access
unit as a centralized hub.

 Daisy chain:

A daisy chain network topology allows the workstation to be connected in such a

way that the data which has to be sent is transmitted in a sequence. It makes it easy for
adding more connections and station in the topology as daisy chaining and causes the data
flow to be transmitted in such a way that all the signals are transmitted station to station
one after the other in a sequence that causes them to end up in their desired destination. A
daisy chain topology can be arranged in two ways:
A linear topology: The linear topology allows the station to send and receive the
data in a two-way fashion. This was difficult to build as all the stations required two
receivers and two transmitters.
Ring topology: It is formed by all the computers connected by each other through
their ends. This ensures that all the data is transmitted by the computers one after the
other and if there is a pathway break then the data is transmitted in the reverse fashion
ensuring that the signals are received at their desired destination.

2.1.7 Computer Networking

A network comprises of two or much more computer systems that are connected in
sequence to discuss sources, exchange data files, or enable electronic digital marketing
communications. The computer systems on a network may be connected by means of
wires, phone lines, radio waves, satellite, or infra-red-light beams.

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 There are a lot of actions to starting a small business enterprise, just one of which is
obtaining the technological innovation side of factors set up. Computer networking experts
are an essential source when it’s time to set up this program. They do a lot more than
computer networking, although. They offer the products and solutions and provide
coaching and desktop computer assist as well. Take into consideration these important
items and expert services when organizing for this crucial action in the procedure.

After buying tools for the business enterprise, computer networking is the initial
action in the procedure. It includes building a relationship among all the local programs so
that they can connect with each other and work at the exact podium. Computer networking
services is an extremely appropriate profession that a lot of people are selecting to practice.

Computer networking has allowed people to do the work and get work home much
more effectively than has ever been achievable before. Today’s mobile employees connect
several devices to the corporate and business network that are difficult to manage from a
security plan viewpoint. It is a typical string that organizations that increase the utilization
of and advantages from the capabilities and abilities of their systems are capable to collect,
evaluate, and spread crucial marketing and advertising information rapidly, which can give
them a benefit over their challengers.

2.2 TCP/IP

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2.2.1 TCP

Transmission Control Protocol (often shortened to TCP) is set of rules which pair up
with other sets of rules when sending data between computers locally or over the internet.
It is one of the most common protocols used when using the internet alongside-IP, and is
used by web browsers when they connect to the internet.

When data (such as an HTML internet page for example) is sent between
computers, TCP divides it up into individual units, called data grams or packets – this
ensures they arrive efficiently and are tracked safely from one computer to another. TCP is
responsible for breaking the data being sent down into these packets, and then
reassembling them in the correct order at the other end so they make sense again.
The actual delivery of the data is handled by another set of protocols.

2.2.2 Subnet Mask

 Subnet Mask

A subnet splits up the traffic on a network into smaller, more manageable, logical
groups. This can allow for improvement in the network’s performance and security. A
subnet mask is a binary code which is formatted similarly to an IP Address, e.g.
[Link]. An IP address generally gives information about the network overall and the
specific device being used, however when a Subnet Mask is used alongside it the
information provided by the IP Address is further extended to also provide information
about the subnet being used.

This can be useful to very large networks, for example a large multinational
company’s internal network, as it can help avoid delays and confusion when transferring
data. The Subnet Mask provides clear information to the gateways within the network so
they know exactly where to send each piece of data that is transmitted without any delays
or hesitations.

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2.2.3 IP Adress

 IP Address
An IP Address is a unique number assigned to each and every device which is
participating in a network. A device could be a computer, a printer, or anything else which
connects to either a local network or the internet. All computers connected to the internet
use IP Addresses when communicating with each other.

IP Addresses are made up of Binary Code, but are displayed in numbers so humans
are able to read it. These are usually groups of numbers separated by dots, for example
[Link]. There are several types of IP Address, such as IPv4 and IPv6, the latter of
which is newer and becoming more popular as it is able to create more unique addresses,
allowing more people than ever before to use the internet. IP Addresses can be static,
meaning they are created by the user themselves, or dynamic, meaning they are assigned
automatically by the network – dynamic is by far the most common.

2.2.4 IP
 Internet Protocol (IP)

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 Internet Protocol (often shortened to IP) is the foremost set of rules for
communicating over the Internet, which essentially establishes how the internet is able to
function. It is usually combined with a number of other protocols in order to communicate
data and connect two hosts (computers) together so they are able to share data between
them, either privately or publicly.

IP is responsible for the actual delivery of data, which is sent from one computer to
another via a series of stopping points called gateways. These gateways recognize the data
and send it on to a subsequent gateway, and so on until the data arrives at its final intended
destination. Data can get mixed up and sent in the wrong order, but IP does not deal with
this.

[Link] IPv4

IPv4 is the most common type of IP address in use on the internet today. Since IP
addresses were first invented there has been several major revisions to them, and IPv4 is
the fourth of those overhauls. IP addresses use Binary code in order to communicate on
networks between computers, and IPv4 uses what is known as 32Bit format as part of this.

This means that the total number of unique IP addresses using the IPv4 format is
equal to 2^32 addresses, which is around four billion addresses. Since each and every
device that connects to the internet needs a unique IP address, this means that only four
billion devices can connect to the internet in total. This is not ideal, since the internet and
the amount of people using it is always expanding and it is expected that the number will
soon outnumber four billion. Therefore, IP address systems are continually being updated
and refurbished to suit the growing needs of the world’s computer users and potential
future users.

[Link] IPv6

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 IPv6 is the newest and most recent type of IP address that has been invented to use
on the internet today. Because IPv4 only provides four billion possible unique IP addresses,
IPv6 was developed to expand this amount and provide other, better updates to the service
as well. IPv6 uses what is known as a 128-Bit format, meaning that the total number of
unique IP addresses using the IPv6 format is equal to 2^128 addresses, approximately three
hundred and forty trillion trillion addresses.

This means that far more devices in the future can connect to the internet with a
unique address. IPv6 also offers users other benefits, such as improved network capabilities
and more secure connections between computers. IPv6 has been around since mid-2012
and the changeover is still in process, and will likely take several more years to complete.
This is because it takes time to lengthen the addresses of devices which already have IPv4,
however all new devices produced since that time which are capable of connecting to the
internet have embraced IPv6 as the industry standard and been made with it preinstalled.

2.2.5 Default Gateway

When information is transferred across networks, including across the internet, it

does not go straight from one point to another. Instead, it is sent from one point to another
to another until it finally reaches its destination. These interim points are known as
gateways, or sometimes nodes, and without them it would be impossible to transfer
information effectively. A default gateway is the main entry and exit point for information
on a network.

For example, on a home broadband network connecting to the internet, the default
gateway is the router in the home which transfers information from the home network out
into the internet. Sometimes a gateway can be located at the service station of the
company which provides a network’s internet services – this is common when a network
does not have its own router, such as older dialup connections.

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 2.3 IOS Commands and Router
Configurations
2.3.1 What is IOS

Router IOS (Internetwork operating System) is the operating system by which the
router can be accessed and configured. But this operating system is different from
operating system that we have in our desktop.

IOS is a command line operating system to configure routers. Router IOS is designed,
coded, and binds to work with the routing protocols, so we can use IOS to configure the
routing protocols. Router IOS stores as bin file in the flash memory of the router. We have to
remember the commands to configure the router for specific actions.

The Internetwork Operating System (IOS) is usually stored as a system image within a
router’s flash memory. The startup configuration file called startup-config is stored in non-
volatile RAM, and the actual operating configuration of the router (its routing tables,

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queues, and so on) are stored in ordinary RAM. Cisco routers can typically run in three
different operating environments:

2.3.2 Router Memory

A router contains 3 types of memory:

• Running-Config Memory
• Startup-Config Memory
• Flash Memory

 Running-Config Memory
Running-Config memory stores the running configurations of the router. It is
volatile memory, which means it gets erased when the router’s power is off. Running-
Config memory is called VRAM (Volatile Random Access Memory). It is similar to
RAM in our laptops or desktop.

 Startup-Config Memory
Startup-config memory stores the saved configurations of the router. Startup
config memory is Non-Volatile Memory, which means it can store the data of
configurations in routers until it is deleted. It is called the NVRAM (Non-Volatile
Random-Access memory). It’s similar to the hard disk in our desktops.

 Flash Memory
Flash memory is the memory of the router in which the operating system
of the router (i.e., router IOS) is stored. Router IOS is [Link] file format (e.g.,
[Link]). It can be backed up to another server or storage device.

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 2.4 Routing and Routing Protocols

2.4.1 Routing, Static Routing, Dynamic Routing :

What is static routing?
Static Routing is a type of routing which occurs when a router sends and receives
information using a manually configured entry system. This means that the way in which
the router chooses which path to send data down is determined by a code which is entered
manually in the routing table.
Static routes use fixed paths to transmit data, which means that when a fault occurs,
data will not automatically be rerouted unless the path is repaired. Because of this, static
routes are not always the best choice for a complex network which is likely to encounter
faults. It can however simplify networks sometimes, as static routes never change or time
out.

What is dynamic routing?

Dynamic Routing (also called Adaptive Routing) is another type of routing which
occurs when routers send and receive information using a system which learns about the
different destinations on the network and decide at run time which is the best one to use.
This means that the way in which the router sends data changes depending on which is the
best route to use for that particular data, and for which sections of the network are working
correctly and can be reached easily.

This type of routing is often supported by software applications connected to the

router, as it is a more complex way of transmitting data and requires extra computing
support. It is beneficial for complex systems which are expecting to encounter faults
occasionally, since it takes into account network and device failures and can work around
them without constant need for repair.

What is routing table?

A Routing Table is a set of rules used by routers to make decisions about where and
how to send data over a connected network. It stores information about how networks and
subnets can be reached. Both IP Routers and other routers use these tables, since all
routers perform some sort of routing on the network and need to transfer data across the
network. The routing table determines both how far away the destination IP address is that
the data is being sent to (known as the ‘next hop’), as well as how it is going to be sent. This
involves information about how efficient each possible path is, which routes are available
for access, and the interface that the device needs to use to forward the data properly.

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2.4.2 Default Route and Static Routes Configuration
 Static and Default Routes
Like in regular life, to reach to a destination, we need to know the route to it, else
we get lost, so is in the world of Networks. For the data or packet to traverse to another
location, it must know the route; else it gets lost / dropped.
For Network devices to communicate they should be able to reach each other and
to do this you can use the following.
1. Directly Connected
2. Static Routing
3. Dynamic Routing
Directly Connected:
Directly connected devices are physically connected devices with each other. These
devices can see each other in their routing tables and communicate. We must have the IP
addresses configured on the interfaces; in the routing table you will see the IP address of
the directed connected interface.
Static Routing:
This is the Routing where the route to a network is entered manually by your
network administrator. The administrator sees the network design and accordingly decides
to add routes for communication. Using the help of the static route, the administrator tells
the device what path it should take to reach some other device. This is a tedious process if
you network begins to grow over 10 devices as the network administrator will have to enter
these routes for all the devices to communicate with each other.

Dynamic Routing:
This is a method in which we use the Dynamic routing protocols and it is these
protocols that perform some computations and decide a best path to reach a destination.
Here the network administrator role is to configure the Dynamic routing protocol. Choosing
the best path and changing path if any failures etc. is taken care by the routing protocol
dynamically. This eases of the load of a network administrator.

We have different dynamic routing protocols like:

RIP: Routing Information Protocol
IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
EIGRP: Enhanced IGRP
OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

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34 | P a g e
 2.5 Switching
2.5.1 Switch Configuration
If we have to configure the switch and connect three PCs at the Port F0/1,
F0/2, and F0/3, we will take the Switch of 8 Ports. After booting the Switch, the
switch will have the prompt similar to a router.

Switch> enable
Switch# configure terminal
Switch (Config)# hostname Norman _Switch
Norman_Switch(config)# interface f0/1
Norman_Switch(config-if)# switchport mode access
Norman_Switch(config-if)# exit
Norman_Switch(config)# interface f0/2
Norman_Switch(config-if)# switchport mode access
Norman_Switch(config-if)# exit
Norman_Switch(config)# interface f0/3
Norman_Switch(config-if)# switchport mode access
Norman_Switch(config-if)# exit
Norman_Switch(config)# exit
Norman_Switch#
All the ports will be UP and all three PCs can ping each other, as they are in a LAN.

 Switch Memory
Similar to a router, a switch also has three types of memory:
• Running-config, which stores the running-configuration Volatile memory.
• Startup-config, which stores the saved configuration. It is non-volatile memory.
• Flash memory, in which the IOS is stored in a .bin file.

 Switch Security:
Port security
Consider a Switch that has two PCs Connected with the following MAC
Address:

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 Configureing the Switch interface with port security. If other PCs are
connected to it, the pPort will be shut down. This means other PCs can’t connect to
the Switch.
Switch> enable
Switch# configure terminal
Switch(Config)# hostname Norman
Norman(Config)# interface range f0/1-2
Norman(Config-if)# switchport mode access
Norman(Config-if)#exit
Norman(Config)# interface f0/1
Norman(Config-if)# switchport port-security mac-address 0090.2B53.C7A9
Norman(Config-if)# switchport port-security violation shutdown
Norman(Config-if)# exit
Norman(Config)# interface f0/2
Norman(Config-if)# switchport port-security mac-address 0001.427D.48AD
Norman(Config-if)# switchport port-security violation shutdown Norman(Config-
if)# exit
Now, if another PCpc connects to F0/1 or F0/2 of the switch, it will not be able to
connect.
These above ports will shut down.

 Creating Password:

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 These commands are similar to router commands.
Switch> enable
Switch# configure terminal
Switch(Config)# enable secret norman123
For Console
Switch(config)# line console 0
Switch(config-line)# password norcon123
Switch(config-line)# login
Switch(config-line)# exit
For Telnet
Switch(config)# line vty 0 1
Switch(config-line)# password nortel123
Switch(config-line)# login
Switch(config-line)# exit
Switch(config)# service password-encryption
Switch(config)# do show running-config
Switch(config)# do write memory (for saving configurations)
Switch(config)# do show startup-config

2.5.2 VLAN
 VLAN – VIRTUAL LAN
A VLAN is a Virtual LAN, which means it creates a LAN virtually which cannot
be seen physically but based on the operations and functioning, you feel as if we
have multiple LANs. some other concepts to understand VLAN better.
1. Collision Domain
2. Broadcast Domain
A hub in a network operates as half-duplex that means it can either send or
receive traffic at a time. In such a case if we have two devices that try to
communicate simultaneously we have a collision. (Only one device can
communicate at a time). The ports on a hub belong to same collision domain i.e. a
physical segment where collision can occur is called the collision domain.

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4 computers connected to a Switch, have 4 collision domains, one for each port.
Thus simultaneous communication (full-duplex) is possible without collisions. So
with the use of switches we break the collision domain, in effect reducing collisions.
Both Hubs and Switches belong to one broadcast domain, which means that
a broadcast or multicast is forwarded out each port of the device. A logical segment
of network in which a broadcast or multicast propagates is called the broadcast
domain.

Configurable VLANs range from 2 – 1001

We need to assign individual switch ports to a VLAN. A VLAN can have one or
multiple ports. Only devices in same VLAN can communicate with each other.

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As per the above picture:

If you see we have logically divided one Physical Switch (Switch A) to two
logical switches. (Blue and Green VLANs operate as separate switches)
Since devices in same VLAN can communicate, A-1 and A-2 and communicate
with each other and A-7 and A-8 can communicate with one another.
Devices in Blue VLAN cannot communicate with VLAN Green, because now
there are two separate networks and need a Router to communicate.
As we configure these VLANs manually on ports and hence called Port-based
(untagged) VLANs. We have to assign each port on a switch to a VLAN.

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 CHAPTER-3

NEO ALPHAMETRIC
INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED -
Company Profile

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 About NEO ALPHAMETRIC
INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED

NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED is a private limited company

and was incorporated on Oct 20, 201 5 in India. It is registered at registrar of
companies, ROC Hyderabad. Its registered address is Plot No.9, Survey No.275, 279
Arunodaya Nagar, Hayathnagar, Rangareddi, Hyderabad, Telangana, India, 500068.
Its corporate identification number is (CIN) U72200TG201 5PTC101312 and its
current status is Active.

Its industry classification as per MCA is software Publishing, Consultancy and

Supply [Software publishing includes production, supply and documentation of
ready-made (Non-Customized) Software, Operating systems software, Business &
other Applications software, Computer games software for all platforms.
Consultancy includes Providing the best solution in the form of custom software
after analyzing the user's needs and problems. Custom software also includes made-
to-order software based on orders from specific users also, included are writing of
software of any kind following directives of the users; software maintenance,
webpage design].

 NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED's last Annual General

Meeting (AGM) was held on Sep 30, 2024 as per records from Ministry of
Corporate Affairs (MCA). NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED's
authorized share capital is Rs. 31,000,000 and its paid-up capital is Rs.
31,000,000. The current board of directors of NEOALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH
PRIVATE LIMITED consists of Rama Goud Biragoni, Pavankumar Chepuri, Ajay
Kumar Patha and Laxman Patha.
 As of Jan 2026, the authorized signatories of NEO ALPHAMETRIC
INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED include Rama Goud Biragoni, Ajay Kumar Patha
and Pavankumar Chepuri.
 NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED generated a revenue of
INR 5.41 Cr for the financial year ending on Mar 31, 2024, reflecting a I-year
revenue CAGR of 13% and an EBITDA CAGR of -1 1%.

Financials of NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED

NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED generated a revenue of 5.41

Cr for the financial year ending on Mar 31, 2024. The revenue of NEO ALPHAMETRIC
INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED has a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of 13% in
the last 1 year.

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 How NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH
PRIVATE LIMITED is linked to "Study of
Computer Networking Fundamentals and
Configuration,"
1. Corporate Link to Networking Education:
Neo Alpha metric Infotech operates as a specialized IT infrastructure and
training provider. The "Study of Computer Networking Fundamentals and
Configuration" refers to the technical framework they implement at their TCS
iON Digital Zones and within their internal IT consultancy services.
2. Networking Fundamentals Implemented:
According to their operational standards, the company focuses on four core
networking elements to maintain their high-security exam centers.
3. Hardware Integration:
Deployment of managed switches, routers, and firewalls to handle high
density traffic during digital assessments.
4. Configuration and Security Standards:
The "Configuration" aspect of their study emphasizes maintaining a "Locked
Down" environment required for TCS iON centers:
 IP Addressing: Systematic IP address allocation across devices to prevent conflicts
during large-scale testing.
 Network Security Fundamentals: Implementing access restrictions and perimeter
security to protect data integrity and prevent unauthorized access.
 VLAN Management: Utilizing Virtual LANs (VLANs) to segment guest traffic from
critical examination data.
5. Key Operational Identifiers Primary Center:
Located in Hayathnagar, Hyderabad, serving as a hub for both
hardware deployment and networking training.
Service Scope: They provide custom software maintenance and IT
consultancy, often involving the setup of Local Area Networks (LANs) for
corporate and educational clients.
 Protocol Stacks: Utilization of the TCP/IP protocol suite to ensure
standardized communication between independent client nodes and central
servers. Network Layering: Strict adherence to Layered Architecture (L1 to
L4):

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L1 (Physical): High-speed cabling and Wi-Fi connectivity.
L2 (Data Link): Advanced MAC-based switching for local traffic management.
L3 (Network): Robust IP routing to ensure data reaches the correct destination.

Historical and operational

milestones:
1. Historical Timeline & Foundation –
 Establishment (2015):
The company was incorporated on October20, 2015, by founders
Rama Goud Biragoni and Ajay Kumar Patha. The initial focus was on
providing custom software solutions and web development for local
businesses in Hyderabad.
 Infrastructure Shift (2016-2017):
Shortly after incorporation, the company pivoted toward IT
Infrastructure Management. This period marked the beginning of their
partnership with TCS iON, transforming their Hayathnagar facility into a
"Digital Zone."
 Expansion (2018-Present):
Between 2018 and 2022, the company expanded its hardware
capacity. According to their financial records, they secured significant funding
to upgrade their networking hardware to support massive, simultaneous
computer-based tests (CBTs).
2. Core History of "Study & Configuration" Core Operations In the context of
their "Networking Fundamentals" documentation:
The company's history is categorized by the specific technical
systems they deployed:
 Phase 1:
Basic LAN Setup Initially, the company's history focused on simple
Peer-to-Peer networking. They utilized basic Star Topologies to connect
workstations to a central server for data processing.

 Phase 2:
Transition to Client-Server Architecture As they began hosting
national-level exams (GATE, JEE, Bank PO), their history shifted to a robust
Client Server Model. This required a fundamental change in their
"Configuration" history— moving from unmanaged switches to managed
networking layers to ensure zero downtime.
 Phase 3:
Security & IP Configuration History The company historically moved
away from dynamic IP allocation (DHCP) for critical tasks, adopting a Static IP

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 Configuration history for all nodes in their Digital Zones to ensure traceability
and security during high-stakes exams.

3. Key Technical Milestones (Based on Project Content):

The "Study of Computer Networking" within this company typically
highlights the following historical hardware implementations: Period
Networking Focus Hardware/Protocol implemented 2015-2016 1 nitiaI
connectivity standard Cat5 cabling, unmanaged Hubs/ Switches. 2017-
2019 High Density Networking Cat6/ Cat6 a cabling, implementation of
VLANs to separate traffic 2020 Present Advanced Security integration of
Hardware Firewalls and Layer 3 Switching for better routing.

 Summary of Organizational Identity Historically

Neo Alpha metric Infotech has functioned as a bridge between
Theoretical Networking Concepts and Practical Large-Scale Application.
 The "Study" component:
Historically used to train staff and interns on the OSI Model, specifically
focusing on the Physical Layer (cabling) and Network Layer (IP addressing).
 The "Configuration" component:
Historically documented through their "Standard Operating Procedures"
(SOPs) for setting up examination nodes that are isolated from the public internet.

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 CHAPTER-4

Presentation of Data Analysis and

Interpretation.

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 4.1 Presentation of Data Analysis and
Interpretation.
This chapter shows the presentation and analysis of primary data collected
through a survey among 41 respondents by the means of questionnaire to get a
sample opinion of customers who patronize the services of E-commerce. And on the
basis of the answers received from annexed questionnaire the following analysis has
been made and the final data interpretation is done.
4.1.1 GENDER-WISE RRSPONDENTS:
TABLE – 1
Sr. no. GENDER NO. of respondents %of respondents
1 FEMALE 13 31.7%
2 MALE 28 68.3%
Total 41

Interpretation:
The first question is designed to find out the gender of the respondents,
whose respondents are taken as sample to conduct this project work. Tehe above
table and graph reveals the number of male and female respondents, and by
analyzing the same conclude the following: -
68.3% of respondents are males, with the female constituting 31.7%.
That is, male respondents are higher than that of female be 6.6% respondents. Thus,
we can say that majority of the respondents are male.

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 4.1.2 AGE-WISE RRSPONDENTS:
TABLE – 2

Sr. no. AGE NO. of respondents %of respondents

1 18-25 35 85.37%
2 26-35 4 9.76%
3 36-45 1 2.4%
4 45+ 1 2.4%
Total 41 100%

Interpretation:
Here the data has been presented to show the age group of different
respondents; by analyzing the above table and graph, we can interpret the following:
o 85.4% of the respondents belong to the age group of below 25.
o 9.8% of the respondents belong to the age group of between 25-35.
o 2.4% of the respondents belong to the age group of 36-45 and 46 +
It shows that the overall respondents belong to the age group of 18-25.

4.1.3 AGE-WISE RRSPONDENTS:

TABLE – 3
Sr. no. Current Occupation NO. of respondents %of respondents
1 Junior network engineer 4 9.76%
2 Trainee 1 2.44%
3 Desktop support 1 2.44%
4 Student 31 75.61%
5 Other 4 9.76%
Total 41

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Interpretation:
Here the data has been according to the occupation:
o Junior Network Engineer is about 9.8%.
o Students are about 75.6% which is the highest of all the respondents.

 4.1.4 WORK EXPERIENCE-WISE RESPONDENTS:

 TABLE – 4
Sr. no. Experience Level NO. of respondents %of respondents
1 0–1 year 34 82.9%
2 1–2 years 2 4.9%
3 2–4 years 2 2.44%
4 4+ years 3 7.3%
Total 41

 Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey's 41 respondents (82.9%)
are only between 0 and 1 year of experience in networking. A small number of
respondents (7.3 %) are 4+ years experience in networking and other have 1 to 4
years of experience
 4.1.5 MODE OF AWARENESS USED PRIMARILY:
 TABLE – 5
Sr. no. MODE OF AWARENESS NO. of respondents %of respondents
1 Academic Degree 19 46.3%
2 Online Certifications 7 17.1%
3 On the job Training 2 4.9%
4 Self-study 13 31.7%

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 Total 41

 Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents (46.3%)
gain the awareness about networking through Academic Degree. A small number of
respondents (31.7 %) know about networking through self-study and 17.1% gain
knowledge about networking through online certification while others through on
job training.

 4.1.6 TIME OF USE OF NETWORKING IN DAILY LIFE:

 TABLE – 6

Sr. no. Use of networking NO. of respondents %of respondents

1 Daily 22 53.7%
2 weekly 10 14.6%
3 Rarely 6 24.4%
4 Never 3 7.3%
Total 41

 Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents (53.7%)
use the network daily. Next largest number of respondents (24.4%) use network
weekly and 14.6% respondents use network rarely, while 7.3% of respondents never
use network.

 4.1.7 RATING OF AWARENESS OF CISCO THREE LAYER

HIERARCHICAL MODEL:
 TABLE – 7

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 AWARENESS OF CISCO THREE
Sr. no. NO. of respondents %of respondents
LAYER HIERARCHICAL MODEL
1 Very less 12 29.3%
2 Less 4 9.8%
3 Manageable 12 29.3%
4 Good enough 4 9.8%
5 Very well 9 22%
Total 41

 Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents (29.3%)
are very less and manageably aware about Cisco Three Layer Hierarchical Model.
Next largest number of respondents (22%) are less aware about Cisco Three Layer
Hierarchical Model, while 9.8% of respondents are good enough or very well aware
about Cisco Three Layer Hierarchical Model.

 4.1.8 BETTER SUBSTITUTE FOR NETWORKING:

 TABLE – 8
Sr. no. Substitute for network NO. of respondents %of respondents
1 Cloud Networking 22 53.7%
2 Software Defined networking 10 14.6%
3 Virtual Private Networks 6 24.4%
Total 41

 Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents (56.1%)
suggest Cloud Networking as substitute of networking. Next largest number of
respondents (34.1%) suggest Software Defined networking, while 9.8% of
respondents suggest Virtual Private Networks as substitute of networking.

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  4.1.9 GROWTH POTENTIAL:
 TABLE – 9
Sr. no. Substitute for network NO. of respondents %of respondents
1 Yes 27 65.9%
2 No 11 7.3%
3 May be 3 26.8%
Total 41

 Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents (65.9%)
thinks that networking has potential to grow. Next largest number of respondents
(26.8%) can’t say about the potential of network. But 7.3% respondents thinks that
networking does not has potential to grow.
 4.1.10 RESPONSIBLE FACTOR FOR NON-ACCESSIBILITY OF
COMPUTER:
 TABLE – 10
Sr. no. Substitute for network NO. of respondents %of respondents
1 Lack of awareness 15 34.1%
2 Lack of security 12 29.3%
3 Lack of knowledge 14 36.6%
Total 41

 Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents (65.9%)
thinks that Lack of awareness is Responsible Factor for Non-Accessibility of Computer
networking. Next largest number of respondents (34.1%) thinks that Lack of
knowledge is Responsible Factor for Non-Accessibility of Computer networking. While
29.3% respondents thinks that Lack of security is Responsible Factor for Non-
Accessibility of Computer networking.

 4.1.11 DOES CURRENT SUTUATION MADE LIFE EASIER? :

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  TABLE – 11
Sr. no. Responses NO. of respondents %of respondents
1 Yes 27 65.9%
2 No 2 4.9%
3 May be 9 22%
4 Can’t say 3 7.3%
Total 41

 Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents (65.9%)
thinks that networking made life easier. Next largest number of respondents (22%)
doubts whether networking made life easy or not. But 7.3% respondents can’t say
about the usefulness of network in day-to-day life. While 4.9% respondents thinks
that networking does not make life easier.

 4.1.12 SATISFACTION LEVEL FOR CURRENT NETWORKING STATUS:

 TABLE – 12
Sr. no. Responses NO. of respondents %of respondents
1 Completely 9 22%
2 Partially 10 24.4%
3 Ok-ok 16 39%
4 Not much 4 9.8%
5 Not at all 2 4.9%
Total 41

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 CHAPTER- 5
Findings, suggestions & Conclusion

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 Findings
After studying the topics covered in this networking course, the
following findings were observed:

1. Strong Foundation in Networking Basics

The course provides a clear understanding of fundamental
concepts such as the OSI model, Ethernet, network devices, and
topology.

2. Importance of TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP protocol suite plays a critical role in modern
networking. Concepts like IP addressing, subnetting, IPv4, and IPv6 are
essential for network communication.

3. Practical Importance of Cisco Technologies

The inclusion of the three-layer hierarchy model and IOS configuration
highlights the practical relevance of technologies developed by Cisco
Systems in real-world networking environments.

4. Routing and Switching as Core Skills

Routing (static and dynamic) and switching (VLAN configuration)
are essential for network design, traffic management, and security.
5.

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 6. Need for Hands-On Practice
Networking concepts become clearer and more effective when
supported with practical configuration and lab work.

Suggestions
Based on the study of this course, the following suggestions are
recommended:

1. Increase Practical Lab Sessions

More hands-on configuration practice using routers and switches
will strengthen understanding.

2. Use Network Simulation Tools

Practice with tools like Packet Tracer or GNS3 to simulate real
networking environments.

3. Include Advanced Topics

Future improvements may include:
• Network security basics
• Firewall configuration
• Wireless networking
• Cloud networking fundamentals

4. Regular Assessments and Case Studies

Including real-world case studies will improve problem-solving
skills.

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 5. Encourage Certification Preparation
This syllabus aligns well with entry-level certifications like CCNA,
so structured preparation can be beneficial.

Conclusion
In conclusion, this networking course provides a
comprehensive foundation in computer networking concepts. It
covers essential topics such as Ethernet technologies, the OSI
model, TCP/IP protocols, routing, switching, and VLAN
configuration.
Understanding these concepts is crucial for building,
managing, and troubleshooting modern computer networks.
The inclusion of practical configuration topics, especially
related to Cisco networking devices, makes the course industry-
relevant and career-oriented.
Overall, this course serves as a strong base for students
who wish to pursue advanced networking studies or
professional certifications in networking.

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