UNIVERSIDADE PÚNGUÈ

Faculty of Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities

Challenges and Opportunities in Teaching English as a Third Language in Mozambican

Secondary Schools. A Case of Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio

Licenciatura em Ensino de Inglês com Habilitações em Ensino de Língua Portuguesa

Monograph

Inês Nhamo Manuel

Chimoio
September, 2025
 Inês Nhamo Manuel

Challenges and Opportunities in Teaching English as a Third Language in Mozambican

Secondary Schools. A Case of Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio

Monograph to be submitted to the Department of

Linguistics and Translation in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the Honours Degree in
English Language Teaching at Universidade Púnguè,
under the supervision of Charnaldo Ndaipa, PhD.

Chimoio
September, 2025
Table of contents

DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................... 6

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... 7

DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................... 8

ABBREVIATION LIST ............................................................................................................ 9

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................. 10

RESUMO ................................................................................................................................. 11

1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 12

1.2 Background to the study .................................................................................................... 12

1.3 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................... 14

1.4 Research Objectives ........................................................................................................... 14

1.4.1 General Objective ........................................................................................................... 14

1.4.2 Specific Objectives ......................................................................................................... 14

1.5 Research Questions ............................................................................................................ 15

1.5.1 General Research Objective............................................................................................ 15

1.5.2 Specific Research Objectives.......................................................................................... 15

1.6 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................... 15

1.7 Limitations of the Study..................................................................................................... 15

1.8 Delimitations of the Study ................................................................................................. 16

1.9 Definition of Key Terms .................................................................................................... 16

1.10 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 16

CHAPTER TWO: THE REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE ............................... 18

2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 18

2.2 Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................................... 18

2.2.1 Interlanguage Theory and Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis .......................................... 18

2.3 Language Interference in Multilingual Classrooms........................................................... 19

2.4 Effects of Language Interference on English Learning ..................................................... 21

2.5 Teaching Strategies to Mitigate Language Interference .................................................... 22

2.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 25

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 26

Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 26

3.1 Research Paradigm............................................................................................................. 26

3.2 Research Approach ............................................................................................................ 27

3.3 Research Design................................................................................................................. 28

3.4 Sampling Technique .......................................................................................................... 29

3.5 Sample................................................................................................................................ 29

3.6 Data Generation Methods .................................................................................................. 29

3.6.1 Face to face Semi-Structured individual Interviews ....................................................... 30

3.6.2 Non-Participant Observation .......................................................................................... 30

3.6.3 Document Analysis ......................................................................................................... 30

3.7 Data Analysis Procedures .................................................................................................. 30

3.8 Ethical Considerations ....................................................................................................... 32

3.8.1 Permission ....................................................................................................................... 33

3.8.2 Informed Consent............................................................................................................ 33

3.8.3 Anonymity ...................................................................................................................... 33

3.8.4 Confidentiality ................................................................................................................ 33

3.9 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 33

CHAPTER IV: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...................... 34

4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 34

4.2 Findings.............................................................................................................................. 34

4.3 Classroom Observation and Document Analysis .............................................................. 37

4.4 Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 37

4.5 Summary of the Chapter .................................................................................................... 39

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE............................ 40

5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 40

5.2 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 40

5.3 implications for practice..................................................................................................... 41

5.4 Summary of the Chapter .................................................................................................... 42

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 43

APPENDIX I: PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET ..................................................... 51

APPENDIX II: INTERVIEW GUIDE .................................................................................... 55

APPENDIX III: OBSERVATION GUIDE ............................................................................. 56

APPENDIX IV: DOCUMENT ANALYSIS PROTOCOL ..................................................... 57

 6

DECLARATION

I, Inȇs Manuel, student at Universidade Púnguè, Chimoio, hereby declare that the
present monograph is the result of my personal research carried out under the guidance of my
supervisor, Dr. Charnaldo Ndaipa. It is being submitted for the award of an Honours Degree in
English Language Teaching at Universidade Púnguè. This monograph has not been submitted
for any Degree or Examination at any other University. This work does not contain other
people’s data or information unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other
people. This work does not contain other person’s writing unless specifically acknowledged as
being sourced from other researchers.

Chimoio, ____/_____/ 2025

________________________________________
Inȇs Nhamo Manuel
 7

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I thank God Almighty for granting me the strength, health, and
wisdom to complete this academic journey. Without His grace, this achievement would not
have been possible. I extend my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Charnaldo Ndaipa,
whose patient guidance, insightful feedback, and unwavering support shaped this research from
its inception to its conclusion. His mentorship has been invaluable in helping me navigate
challenges and maintain focus throughout the study. I am profoundly thankful to my family for
their unconditional love and encouragement. Special thanks go to my parents, siblings, and
close friends, who continuously motivated me during difficult times and provided moral and
emotional support.

I would also like to express my gratitude to Lecturer Antonio B. Companhia for his
academic support, motivation, and valuable guidance throughout my studies. His
encouragement and advice have greatly contributed to my academic growth.

Lastly, I acknowledge the teachers at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School, who

willingly shared their experiences and insights. Without their participation, this research would
not have been possible.
 8

DEDICATION

This monograph is dedicated with deep gratitude and love to my mother, Olga Luis
Amadeu, whose unwavering support, sacrifices, and faith in me have been the driving force
behind all my achievements. Her strength, patience, and unconditional love continue to inspire
me every day.

To my dear siblings Nicholas, Tanaka, and Faith thank you for being my source of joy,
laughter, and motivation. Your presence in my life reminds me of the beauty of family and the
importance of perseverance.

To my wonderful friends from the academy Ermelinda, Isaias, and Detéria, I am

sincerely grateful for your friendship, encouragement, and the unforgettable moments we
shared throughout this academic journey.

This accomplishment is not mine alone; it belongs to all of you who stood by me with
love, faith, and kindness.
 9

ABBREVIATION LIST

L1 First Language

L2 Second Language

L3 Third Language

EFL English as a Foreign Language

MoEC Ministry of Education and Culture

FL Foreign Learners

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

CLT Communicative Language Teaching

 10

ABSTRACT

This study explored the challenges and opportunities in teaching English as a third
language (L3) at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio. Anchored in Interlanguage
Theory (Selinker, 1972) and the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (Lado, 1957), the research
sought to examine the main difficulties teachers face, the influence of students’ native
languages (L1 and L2) on their learning of English, and the strategies and opportunities
available to enhance English instruction. A qualitative single case study design was adopted,
and data were collected through semi-structured interviews with seven English teachers,
classroom observations, and document analysis. Thematic analysis was employed to interpret
the data. The study revealed four major challenges: overcrowded classrooms, teacher and
student demotivation, limited teaching resources, and political and institutional neglect.
Findings also showed that learners’ L1 and L2 negatively influenced their acquisition of
English through phonological, syntactic, and lexical interference, although occasional positive
transfer was noted. Despite these difficulties, teachers employed strategies such as pair work,
role-play, translanguaging, and vocabulary practice to support learners. Furthermore, English
as an L3 was found to offer significant opportunities, including improved communication,
enhanced academic and professional prospects, and increased cultural awareness. The study
concludes that improving English language teaching requires stronger institutional and policy
support, timely teacher remuneration, provision of adequate resources, and continuous
professional development. These findings contribute to the understanding of multilingual
education in Mozambique and offer insights for improving English instruction in similar
contexts.
Keywords: English as a Third Language, Language Interference, Multilingualism, Teaching
Strategies, Mozambique.
 11

RESUMO

Este estudo explorou os desafios e oportunidades no ensino da língua inglesa como

terceira língua (L3) na Escola Secundária Eduardo Mondlane em Chimoio. Ancorado na Teoria
do Interlíngua (Selinker, 1972) e na Hipótese da Análise Contrastiva (Lado, 1957), o estudo
buscou examinar as principais dificuldades enfrentadas pelos professores, a influência das
línguas materna (L1) e segunda língua (L2) na aprendizagem do inglês, bem como as
estratégias e oportunidades para melhorar o ensino da língua inglesa. Foi adoptado um desenho
qualitativo de estudo de caso único, e os dados foram colectados através de entrevistas
semiestruturadas com sete professores de inglês, observações em sala de aula e análise
documental. A análise temática foi utilizada para interpretar os dados. O estudo revelou quatro
desafios principais: turmas superlotadas, desmotivação de professores e alunos, recursos de
ensino limitados e negligência político-institucional. Os resultados também mostraram que a
L1 e a L2 dos alunos influenciam negativamente a aquisição do inglês, através de interferências
fonológicas, sintácticas e lexicais, embora tenha sido observada alguma transferência positiva.
Apesar das dificuldades, os professores empregaram estratégias como trabalho em pares,
dramatizações, translanguaging e prática de vocabulário para apoiar os alunos. Além disso,
constatou-se que o inglês como L3 oferece oportunidades significativas, incluindo melhor
comunicação, melhores perspectivas académicas e profissionais e maior consciência cultural.
O estudo conclui que a melhoria do ensino da língua inglesa requer maior apoio institucional e
político, pagamento pontual dos professores, fornecimento de recursos adequados e
desenvolvimento profissional contínuo. Estes resultados contribuem para a compreensão da
educação multilíngue em Moçambique e oferecem pistas para melhorar o ensino de inglês em
contextos semelhantes.
Palavras-chave: Inglês como Terceira Língua, Interferência Linguística, Multilinguismo,
Estratégias de Ensino, Moçambique.
 12

CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction

This study aims to get an in-depth understanding of the challenges and opportunities in
teaching English as a third language in Mozambican Secondary Schools. This chapter presents
the problem and its context. It further presents the background of the study, statement of the
problem, research question, research objectives, significance of the study, limitations,
delimitation of the study, definition of terms and finally the chapter summary.

1.2. Background to the study

English has become the dominant global language in education, business, science, and
technology (Holborow, 1999; Crystal, 2012; Roldán & Peláez, 2017). It is the most widely
spoken second or foreign language, serving as a bridge for international communication
(Crystal, 2003; Borne, 1996). In many countries, English is taught as a second language (L2)
alongside a native language, but in multilingual societies, it is often learned as a third language
(Bourne, 1996). The process of acquiring a third language is influenced by several factors,
including the learners’ proficiency in their first and second languages, the availability of
teaching resources, and the educational policies in place (Cenoz & Jessner, 2000; Herdina &
Jessner, 2000). In today’s globalized world, language plays a vital role in daily life, and
knowing only one language is not enough. Acording to Cenoz et al. (2001), globalization and
migration are key factors driving the need for multilingualism.

Research suggests that learning an L3 can be more complex than acquiring an L2, as
learners may experience cross-linguistic interference from both their first and second languages
(De Angelis, 2007; De Angelis & Selinker, 2001). However, multilingual learners often
develop cognitive advantages, such as greater linguistic flexibility and problem-solving skills,
which can support their English learning process (Bialystok, 2001).

In Africa, English plays a crucial role as a language of instruction, governance, and

international communication. Many African countries, such as Nigeria, Kenya, Zimbabwe,
Zambia, Botswana, Ghana, Liberia, and South Africa, have adopted English as an official
language alongside local languages. In these contexts, students often learn English as a second
or third language, depending on national language policies and the linguistic environment
(Bamgbose, 2011; De Kadt, 2021).
 13

However, challenges remain in the effective teaching and learning of English due to
factors such as inadequate teacher training, limited access to quality teaching materials, and the
dominance of local languages in students’ daily lives (Simango, 2019; Banda & Webb, 2020).
One of the prominent challenges is resource scarcity, encompassing both physical resources
like textbooks and teaching materials and intangible assets such as ongoing professional
development opportunities and continuous support for teachers (Ramnarain & Hlatswayo,
2020). The advent of technology presents an additional layer of challenges. Technology holds
enormous potential to enrich language instruction, yet a lack of access to digital resources,
insufficient training in implementing technology in teaching, and the digital divide among
learners represent significant hurdles (Chigona & Chigona, 2020). In some cases, students face
linguistic interference from both their mother tongue and the official language, leading to
difficulties in mastering English. Despite these challenges, English is increasingly seen as a
tool for social mobility and access to global opportunities, motivating many students and
policymakers to strengthen English language education in schools (Earls, 2016).

Mozambique presents a unique linguistic landscape where Portuguese is the official

language, but the majority of the population speaks local languages such as Xichangana,
Emakhuwa, Gitonga, Cisena, Elomwe, Echwabo, Cishona, Xitswa, Xirhonga, Cinyanja,
Cinyungue, Cicopi, Ciyao, Shimakonde, Ekoti, Kimwani, Kiswahili, Swazi, Cisenga and Zulu
as their first language (Lopes, 2004). English is taught as a foreign language in secondary
schools and is often the third language for students who have already acquired Portuguese as
their second language.

The teaching of English in Mozambican secondary schools faces several challenges.

Many students have limited exposure to English outside the classroom, making it difficult for
them to practice and develop proficiency. Additionally, teachers often work with insufficient
resources, such as textbooks and audio-visual materials, which hinder effective instruction.
Another major issue is the influence of Portuguese and local languages, which can cause
linguistic interference and make English acquisition more complex (Mawere, 2012; Passos,
2009; Nhapulo, 2013). Despite these challenges, the teaching of English in Mozambique offers
significant opportunities. English proficiency is increasingly important for higher education,
employment, and international communication. As Mozambique strengthens economic ties
with English-speaking countries in Southern Africa, such as South Africa, Malawi, Tanzania,
Zambia and Zimbabwe, the demand for English proficiency is growing (Gonçalves & Chauma,
2020).
 14

This study focussed on Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio, where

students and teachers experience the realities of teaching and learning English as a third
language. By examining the challenges and opportunities in this specific context, the study
aimed to contribute to the improvement of English language education in Mozambique.

1.3. Statement of the Problem

Despite the growing importance of English in Mozambique, many secondary school

students struggle with acquiring proficiency in the language (Gonçalves & Chauma, 2020).
Teachers at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School often face difficulties in teaching English
due to factors such as a lack of resources, students’ limited prior exposure to English, and the
interference of Portuguese and local languages in learning. Additionally, many students have
low motivation due to the perception that English is not immediately relevant to their daily
lives.

While several studies have examined the teaching and learning of English in
Mozambique (Mawere, 2012; Nhapulo, 2013; Gonçalves & Chauma, 2020), little research has
focused on the specific challenges and opportunities of teaching English as a third language in
secondary schools. This study filled that gap by investigating the difficulties teachers and
students encounter and identifying strategies to improve English language instruction in
multilingual settings.

1.4. Research Objectives

1.4.1. General Objective

The current study seeks to:

✓ To explore the challenges and opportunities in teaching English as a third language at

Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio.

1.4.2. Specific Objectives

✓ To identify the main challenges faced by teachers in teaching English as a third

language at Eduardo Mondlane secondary school.
✓ To detect possible strategies and opportunities for improving English language
instruction at Eduardo Mondlane secondary school.
 15

1.5. Research Questions

1.5.1. General Research Objective

✓ What are the challenges and opportunities faced in teaching English as a third language
at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School?

1.5.2. Specific Research Objectives

✓ What are the main challenges encountered in teaching English as a third language at
Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School?
✓ What strategies and opportunities can enhance English language instruction at Eduardo
Mondlane secondary schools?

1.6. Significance of the Study

This study plays a crucial role for the following reasons, it is expected to propose
strategies that will help secondary school teachers enhance the opportunities for teaching and
learning English as a third language. The study will also provide valuable insights for
policymakers and stakeholders in designing policies that promote the learning of English in
secondary schools. Moreover, it will contribute/add to the existing body of literature on the
challenges and opportunities faced by teachers in teaching English as a third language. Finally,
the findings of this study will assist teachers in developing better teaching strategies that
address the unique challenges of teaching English as a third language.

1.7. Limitations of the Study

This study faced several limitations. The lack of previous studies on this topic in the
Mozambican setting was the first limitation as the study itself is innovative in that the
researcher based her foundation in foreign studies and established her own direction. The
research focused on one particular school, which did not fully represent all secondary schools
in Mozambique. Another limitation was associated with the adopted research approach that
uses a small sample size which undermines the transferability of the findings (Jorge & Matins,
2014). The findings of the current study cannot be transferred to other contexts or to the entire
population as the study was limited to teachers from one particular school. In other to mitigate
these limitations, this study used critical case sampling to ensure the transferability of the
findings (Patton, 2002). Member checking and triangulation were used to mitigate biases and
check the consistency in the research findings.
 16

1.8. Delimitations of the Study

The study focused specifically on Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio. It

examined only secondary school teachers, excluding primary schools and higher education
institutions. The research primarily investigated linguistic and pedagogical challenges rather
than broader educational policy issues.

1.9. Definition of Key Terms

Third Language (L3)

De Angelis (2007) defines a third language as any language learned after acquiring a
first (L1) and second language (L2). For the purpose of this study, English is considered a third
language for students who have Portuguese as their L2 and a local language as their L1.

Multilingualism

According to Cenoz & Jessner (2000), multilingualism refers to the ability of

individuals or communities to use multiple languages in communication. In this study,
multilingualism refers to the linguistic environment where students use local languages,
Portuguese, and English.

Language Interference

Weinreich (1953) describes language interference as the influence of one language on

another, often resulting in errors or difficulties in language acquisition. This study focused on
how Portuguese and local languages affect students’ ability to learn English.

Teaching Strategies

Brown (2007) defines teaching strategies as methods and approaches used by educators
to facilitate language learning. In this research, teaching strategies refer to the techniques used
by teachers to overcome the challenges of teaching English as an L3.

1.10. Summary

The current chapter presented the research problem and setting of the present study.
The chapter further presented the background of the study, statement of the problem, research
objectives, and questions. It also presented the significance of the study, limitations of the
study, delimitations of the study, definition of key terms and a summary. The next chapter
 17

presents the theoretical framework underpinning the study and relevant studies on the research
title.
 18

CHAPTER TWO: THE REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

2.1. Introduction

This study explored the challenges and opportunities in teaching English as a third
language at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio. The previous chapter presented
the research problem and setting of this study. It further presented the background of the study,
statement of the problem, research objectives, and questions. It also presented the significance
of the study, limitations and delimitations of the study, definition of key terms and a summary.

The current chapter presents the theoretical framework that informs the present study
and reviews related international literature on the types and causes of language interference, its
impact on learners’ English proficiency, and the strategies teachers employ to mitigate its
effects. The chapter concludes with a Summary.

2.2. Theoretical Framework

2.2.1. Interlanguage Theory and Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis

This study is anchored in Interlanguage Theory (Selinker, 1972) and the Contrastive
Analysis Hypothesis (Lado, 1957), which collectively explain the cognitive and structural
mechanisms behind language interference.

According to Cook (1999) “Interlanguage refers to the knowledge of the L2 in the

speaker’s mind as the L1 does. But this L2 interlanguage exists in the same mind as the L1
does” (p. 190). According to Richards et al. (1996), Interlanguage is the type of language which
can be produced by FL/L2 learners who are in the process of acquiring or learning a new
language. Within the cognitive perspective, Interlanguage refers to the separateness of an L2
learner’s system, a system which includes a structural status between the native language and
target language (Brown, 1994). It reflects L2 learners’ attempts at building up a linguistic
system which progressively and gradually approaches the target language system (Fauziati,
2011).

Selinker (1972) introduced Interlanguage Theory to explain how learners create a

transitional linguistic system influenced by their first (L1) and second languages (L2), as well
as the target language (L3). He notes that “the interlanguage of a learner is a separate linguistic
system, with rules that are not simply a mixture of the first and second languages” (Selinker,
1972, p. 214). In the Mozambican context, learners’ interlanguage may reflect structural
patterns from both Portuguese and local languages, often resulting in non-standard English
 19

forms. More recent scholars such as Tarone (2014) have expanded upon this by highlighting
how interlanguage variation can shift depending on context, task, or interlocutor, making it a
dynamic system rather than a linear progression.

In parallel, the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis posits that the greater the structural
difference between two languages, the more likely negative transfer (interference) will occur.
As Lado (1957) explains, “those elements that are similar to the learner’s native language will
be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult” (p. 2). This theory
helps predict and interpret errors made by learners who attempt to apply Portuguese or local
linguistic rules to English. Ellis (2008) concurs, suggesting that the predictability of transfer-
related errors often depends on typological distance and learner awareness of linguistic
contrasts.

Lado (1957) claims, “individuals tend to transfer the forms and meaning and the
distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language
and culture” (p. 2). This notion of “transfer” means “carrying over the habits of his mother-
tongue into the second language” (Corder, 1974, p.158). Ellis (1965) also suggests that the
psychological foundation of CAH is transfer theory, substituting the first language for the prior
learning and the second language for the subsequent learning. The contrastive hypothesis states
that the structure of the first language affects the acquisition of the second language (Lado,
1957; Fries, 1945). The term “contrastive hypothesis” refers to the theory itself while
“contrastive analysis” focuses on the method of implementation of the hypothesis. On the other
hand, “contrastive analysis hypothesis” emphasizes both the theory and method
simultaneously.

Both theories inform the study’s understanding of how multilingual learners negotiate
English, often experiencing interference when their existing language systems conflict with
English grammar, syntax, or phonology.

2.3. Language Interference in Multilingual Classrooms

When learning a second language, the learner might present language interference.
Language interference is defined as “the transference of elements of one language to another
at various levels including phonological, grammatical, lexical, and orthographical elements of
language” (Vintoni, 2016, p. 94). Another important concept regarding language interference
is language transfer. According to Wang (2017), “transfer is the influence resulting from
 20

similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been
previously acquired” (p. 16). This means that the language repertoire a learner has can
influence the learning of the target language, however, this is not always a disadvantage. There
could be negative transfers which are interferences that obstacle learning, and positive transfers
which can facilitate the learning process (Butler, 2012). In multilingual settings, learners are
frequently influenced by prior linguistic systems when acquiring an additional language.
Language interference, also called negative transfer, involves applying rules or patterns from
L1 or L2 to L3, resulting in errors or misunderstandings.

Weinreich (1953) provides a foundational definition, stating that interference occurs

"whenever bilinguals attempt to use rules from one language in the context of another, leading
to deviations from either norm" (p. 1). In Mozambique, where most learners speak a local Bantu
language (L1) and Portuguese (L2), these two systems heavily influence the acquisition of
English (L3). Grosjean (1982) supports this view, asserting that bilingual speakers rarely
compartmentalize languages perfectly, leading to inevitable blending or interference,
especially when one language is dominant.

Several forms of interference are evident. These include: Phonological interference,

Syntactic interference, and Lexical interference (Grosjean,1982).

Phonological interference

English phonemes such as /θ/ (as in think) and /ð/ (as in this) are absent in Portuguese
and many local languages. Learners often replace them with /t/ and /d/, respectively. According
to Odlin (1989), “substitution of unfamiliar sounds with more familiar ones is a predictable
outcome of cross-linguistic influence” (p. 115). Celce-Murcia et al. (2010) emphasize that
phonological transfer is most persistent at early stages of acquisition, and often fossilizes
without targeted pronunciation instruction.

Syntactic interference

As part of language transfer, there is another concept that Wang (2017) mentioned,
which is syntactic interference. This concept refers to the L1 influencing at the sentential level
of the L2 sentence. Students often transfer sentence structures from Portuguese. For instance,
they may produce “She have a book” due to influence from the Portuguese “Ela tem um livro”,
where the verb tem does not change across subjects. As Chimbutane (2011) explains,
“Grammatical structures from Portuguese frequently appear in students’ English writing and
 21

speaking, particularly in verb tense and agreement” (p. 104). This aligns with Swan and Smith
(2001), who explain that verb inflection errors are common among speakers of Romance
languages due to overgeneralization of L1 patterns.

Lexical interference

One of the most controversial aspects of language teaching is the debate between using
or not translation inside the classroom. “In terms of using translation as a learning strategy,
translation has often been classified as one of the cognitive learning strategies” (Liao, 2006, p.
193). In this context, the translation would be defined as “converting the target language
expression into the native language; or converting the native language into the target language”
(Liao, 2006, p. 194). As previously mentioned, translation can be used as a strategy in language
learning. However, some researchers believe that translation between the L1 and L2 can cause
language interference.

False cognates and direct translations can lead to misuse of vocabulary. For example,
learners may say “pretend” when they mean “intend”, mirroring the Portuguese pretender. Ellis
(1994) confirms that “learners often rely on lexical approximations from known languages,
especially when vocabulary knowledge is limited” (p. 305). Ringbom (2007) adds that such
lexical transfer is more prevalent in initial stages of vocabulary acquisition, especially under
time pressure or in oral communication.

The causes of interference are rooted in both linguistic and contextual factors: limited
exposure to English, low proficiency in Portuguese or L1, lack of metalinguistic awareness,
and inadequate instructional support. These factors necessitate effective teaching approaches
tailored to the multilingual reality of the classroom. Saville-Troike (2006) also points to socio-
affective variables such as motivation and attitudes toward the target language as amplifiers of
transfer, especially when learners are unsure about the boundaries between language systems.

2.4. Effects of Language Interference on English Learning

The effects of interference are seen across all language domains: speaking, writing,
listening, and reading. Interference impacts both accuracy and fluency, often resulting in
fossilized errors that persist without corrective intervention.

Second-language learners tend to copy their native language (Loewen & Sato, 2019).
Students communicate just in their original language and translate the target language. These
 22

pupils need an additional second language to practise and struggle to speak the target language.
Delbio et al., (2018) found that students may speak their regional language in school. This may
require language learning support. From birth, children learn by listening to their parents speak
their native language. Biswajit says the regional language is more important than English.
Students learn English at their grade level but need help to write error-free phrases. Second
language difficulties cause intralingual and developmental mistakes. The learner's native
language influences second-language acquisition.

Chimbutane (2011) notes that “many students in Mozambique struggle to internalize

English rules due to interference from Portuguese and local languages, especially in grammar
and pronunciation” (p. 117). These difficulties can hinder learners’ ability to construct
grammatically correct sentences, leading to low confidence and poor academic performance.
James (1998) emphasizes that persistent errors are often reinforced when learners receive
insufficient feedback or when errors are unnoticed due to shared L1 among peers.

Furthermore, limited oral practice and overreliance on translation-based learning

methods exacerbate these challenges. As Cummins (2000) states, “students who lack
opportunities for meaningful interaction in the target language are more likely to fall back on
familiar linguistic patterns” (p. 86). Krashen’s Input Hypothesis (1985) supports this notion,
asserting that language acquisition thrives on comprehensible input in natural settings rather
than mechanical translation drills.

In standardized assessments and classroom tasks, interference often leads to: Recurrent
grammar mistakes (e.g., incorrect tenses, missing auxiliary verbs). Mispronunciations that
obscure meaning Confusion in comprehension tasks due to literal translations.

The cumulative effect is reduced communicative competence and underperformance in

English, which has long-term academic and social implications. Heugh (2011) contends that
such underachievement often perpetuates systemic inequality in postcolonial multilingual
societies, where English remains the gatekeeper to higher education.

2.5. Teaching Strategies to Mitigate Language Interference

Teaching strategies play a critical role in mitigating language interference, particularly

in multilingual classrooms. In this context, learning strategies refer to deliberate mental
processes or behaviors that learners employ to accomplish specific linguistic goals. According
 23

to Nunan (2016), strategies are internal mechanisms used by learners to support their
acquisition of language, emphasizing their cognitive and goal-directed nature.

The concept of strategy, originally rooted in military planning, has evolved in the
educational field to signify structured instructional approaches. Ahmadi and Prasetya (2018)
describe strategies as general frameworks guiding actions toward predetermined educational
outcomes. These frameworks are shaped by instructional materials, teacher procedures, and
student learning contexts.

Brown, Rosenthal, and Dynega (2018) suggest that effective learning strategies can
enhance the efficiency, autonomy, and enjoyment of the learning experience. They assert that
strategies are adaptable tactics used to address specific learning challenges and vary
significantly across individuals. Such strategies typically involve the processing, storage, and
retrieval of linguistic input.

Oxford (2003) argues that strategies are only effective when they are aligned with the
task at hand, suit the learner’s preferred style, and are employed in coordination with
complementary methods. This alignment is essential to ensure that strategies facilitate
meaningful learning rather than hinder progress.

Friedman and Schneider (as cited in Snowman, 1988) define learning strategies as
sequenced, intentional procedures that help learners meet language objectives. These
procedures must be flexible enough to apply across various contexts, ensuring that learners can
generalize what they’ve acquired. Lestari (2016) reinforces this idea by stating that teaching
strategies encompass all tools, methods, and stages implemented by educators to deepen
students' understanding and language use.

To explore teaching strategies used to address language interference in English

learning). Addressing interference requires strategic, informed pedagogy. Scholars advocate
for teaching methods that acknowledge learners’ linguistic backgrounds while guiding them
toward mastery of English.

Brown (2007) emphasizes that “teachers must diagnose the sources of students’ errors
and adapt their strategies to reduce the negative impact of cross-linguistic influence” (p. 124).
One effective strategy is contrastive analysis, which helps students recognize structural
differences between languages. Lightbown and Spada (2013) support this, noting that “teachers
who use contrastive examples can reduce students’ reliance on incorrect patterns” (p. 98).
 24

Similarly, Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011) argue that contrastive approaches can
enhance learners’ metalinguistic awareness and facilitate error correction.

Another useful approach is Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which focuses

on real- world use of English rather than rote learning. Richards and Rodgers (2001) explain
that CLT “prioritizes fluency and meaning over formal accuracy, creating conditions where
learners experiment and internalize new structures” (p. 168). Nunan (2004) reinforces that CLT
is especially effective in multilingual contexts where learners benefit from collaborative and
task- based learning.

Translanguaging, a more recent pedagogical approach, encourages learners to draw

from all their languages to make sense of content. García and Wei (2014) argue that
“translanguaging legitimizes students’ full linguistic repertoire, promoting deeper cognitive
and linguistic engagement” (p. 80). Canagarajah (2011) suggests that translanguaging also
fosters identity affirmation and inclusivity in classrooms where linguistic diversity is often
marginalized.

Code-switching is also used to clarify difficult concepts, particularly at early

proficiency levels. Ferguson (2003) found that “strategic use of learners’ L1 can bridge
understanding without undermining the goal of English acquisition” (p. 42). Cook (2001)
similarly notes that judicious use of the L1 can scaffold L2 development by reducing cognitive
load during complex explanations.

Lastly, error correction remains critical. Lyster and Ranta (1997) suggest that “prompt
and targeted feedback helps students notice and repair errors influenced by L1 or L2” (p. 50).
Ellis, Loewen, and Erlam (2006) differentiate between explicit and implicit correction,
advocating for a balanced approach depending on learners’ developmental level and classroom
context.

Despite these strategies, implementation challenges remain. Teachers may lack training
in multilingual pedagogy, and overcrowded classrooms reduce opportunities for individualized
support. Nonetheless, where strategies are used effectively, they can significantly reduce the
impact of language interference.
 25

2.6. Summary

This chapter presented the theoretical framework underpinning the present study and it
reviewed international studies on the challenges and opportunities in teaching English as a third
language at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio. The following chapter presents
the research methodology.
 26

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The previous chapter presented the theoretical framework that informs the present study
and reviewed empirical literature related to teaching English as a third language in multilingual
contexts, focusing on language interference, its effects, and pedagogical strategies. This chapter
presents the research methodology that guided the present study. It outlines the research
paradigm, research approach, research design, sampling technique, sample, data generation
methods, data analysis procedures, and ethical considerations. The chapter concludes with a
summary.

3.1. Research Paradigm

This study was guided by the interpretivist research paradigm, which assumes that
reality is socially constructed through human interaction and interpretation. According to Guba
and Lincoln (1994), interpretivism emphasizes understanding the lived experiences of
participants from their own perspectives. In other words, the interpretivist research paradigm
allows researchers to view the world of study through the perceptions and experiences of the
research participants (Thanh & Thanh, 2015). This paradigm is appropriate for the current
study as it seeks to explore how teachers at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School perceive and
respond to the challenges and opportunities in teaching English as a third language in a
multilingual environment. This suggests that the role of the researcher in the interpretivist
paradigm is to “understand, explain, and demystify social reality through the eyes of different
participants” (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p. 19).

According to Denzin & Lincoln (2013) the interpretive research paradigm is

underpinned by several philosophical assumptions. These include the ontology, epistemology
and methodology. Epistemologically, interpretivist holds that knowledge is co-constructed
between the researcher and participants through dialogue and reflexivity (Creswell & Poth,
2018). The researcher therefore adopted methods that allow for close engagement with
participants, such as face to face semi-structured individual interviews.

The interpretivist methodological assumption posits that qualitative researchers use

multiple methods of data generation (Denzin, & Lincoln, 2000). This stud y triangulated
findings through the use of non-participant observations, face to face semi-structured
individual interviews and documents analysis. Furthermore, the process was supported through
 27

the use of member checking (Merriam, 1998) in an effort to reduce any personal influence or
bias that may occur. Following each interview, each participant was provided a copy of the
transcribed data to verify that they are accurate for both words provided and their subsequent
intended meaning (Cresswell, 2009). The use of multiple methods increases transferability
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994) within and across each bounded case.

The ontological assumption relates to the nature of reality and its characteristics
(Creswell & Poth, 2018: 20) and it asks questions such as what is the nature of reality? (Denzin
& Lincoln, 2013). This study focused on language interference and its effects. In addition, the
study focused on the pedagogical strategies to teaching English as a third language in
multilingual classroom. For this study, this means that we construct knowledge through our
lived experiences and through our interactions with other members of society (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2018).

3.2. Research Approach

This study adopted a qualitative research approach. Qualitative research is particularly

suitable for exploring complex social phenomena in naturalistic settings and is focused on
understanding meaning from the perspective of participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
qualitative approach allowed the researcher to gain rich and nuanced insights into teachers’
experiences of teaching English in a multilingual classroom setting.

The approach involved the collection of non-numeric, descriptive data through face-to-
face individual semi-structured interviews, non-participant observations, and document
analysis. This aligns with Creswell and Poth’s (2018) assertion that qualitative research is ideal
for exploring “how” and “why” questions in educational contexts.

Kumar (2011) explains that the main focus in qualitative research is to “understand,
explore, discover, and clarify situations, feelings, perceptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and
experiences of a group of people” (p. 104). In a similar vein, Yin (2016) articulates that
qualitative research most of all involves studying the meaning of people’s lives, as experienced
under real-world conditions as people perform their everyday roles and how such participants
express themselves through their own diaries, journals, writing, and photography. Therefore,
this study collected data from teachers in their respective school and also the researcher had an
opportunity to observe teachers and learners in their classrooms.
 28

3.3. Research Design

This study employed a qualitative, descriptive single-case study design to achieve its
objective of exploring the challenges and opportunities in teaching English as a third language
at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio. The case study design is selected for its
strength in offering in-depth understanding of complex phenomena within real-world contexts
(Yin, 2014). Unlike statistical surveys that generalize across populations, a case study provides
a rich, detailed account of a bounded system, allowing the researcher to focus intensively on a
specific setting, condition, or group (Stake, 1995). In this case, the focus was on one secondary
school operating in a multilingual educational environment.

The single-case study design is considered suitable for investigating educational

practices that cannot be manipulated and that are best understood through the perspectives and
lived experiences of those directly involved (Yin, 2018). Given that the research investigated
how teachers manage linguistic diversity and experience language interference, the design
aligns with Yin’s (2014) argument that case studies are particularly well-suited for answering
“how” and “why” questions. The qualitative methodology supports the study’s aim to collect
in-depth data from participants who have first-hand knowledge of the phenomenon under
investigation.

Auerbach and Silverstein (2003) argue that qualitative research is best suited for
understanding diverse human experiences and social issues, particularly when researchers are
not seeking a universal or singular truth. In this study, it was assumed that multiple, valid
realities exist and that each participant’s account contributed to a broader understanding of the
challenges and possibilities within multilingual English instruction. Additionally, the design
acknowledges the importance of allowing participants, English teachers working in a
linguistically diverse setting to speak as experts of their own practice. This aligns with Creswell
and Poth’s (2018) view that qualitative research is an appropriate approach when the aim is to
learn directly from individuals through their narratives, reflections, and contextualized
knowledge.

The single-case design enabled the researcher to concentrate deeply on one school and
extract detailed descriptions of instructional practices, pedagogical strategies, and structural
challenges. The in-depth nature of the case study is expected to yield meaningful insights that
did not only describe the current situation but also informed future improvements in English
language instruction in similar multilingual contexts
 29

3.4. Sampling Technique

This study used purposive sampling, specifically critical case sampling, which involved
selecting individuals most likely to provide rich and relevant data (Patton, 2015). Participants
were selected based on the following criteria. The study selected participants who offered
particularly valuable insights (Laurie & Jensen, 2016). In addition, this study used purposive
sampling which is a non-probability technique in which the units observed are selected on the
basis of the researcher’s judgment about the most useful or representative (Babbie, 2011).
Furthermore, purposeful sampling demands the researcher to think critically about the
parameters of the population studied and to choose the sample case of people who have
profound information about particular issues being studied (Cohen et al, 2011; Silverman,
2010). The researcher used critical case sampling method. Critical case sampling entails the
selection of important cases that are likely to yield the most information and have the greatest
impact on knowledge development (Silverman, 2009).

The inclusion criteria for participants in this study entails (i) teachers with a minimum
of five years of teaching English at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School, (ii) possession of a
professional teaching qualification, and (iii) teachers that have first-hand experience with L1
and L2 interference at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School and, (iv) willingness to
participate.

3.5. Sample

A total of seven (7) English language teachers were selected to participate in this study.
This sample size is considered adequate for qualitative case study guidelines, where t he
emphasis is on data saturation rather than generalizability (Yin, 2018). In addit ion, the
researcher kept adding participants till saturation was reached. In other words, the simple size
was determined by data saturation, the point at which no new themes emerged (Guest, Bunce,
& Johnson, 2006).

3.6. Data Generation Methods

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the research problem, the study utilized three
data generation methods: face to face semi-structured individual interviews, non-participant
classroom observations, and document analysis.
 30

3.6.1. Face to face Semi-Structured individual Interviews

This study conducted face to face semi-structured individual interviews with the 7
participants who were purposively sampled. Creswell and Poth (2018) note that a variation for
conduct face to face semi-structured individual interviews is for both the interviewee and
interviewer being physically located in the same room, talking face-to-face. In this study all
the interviews were face-to-face with the researcher and the teachers. The researcher asked
open-ended questions which were conversational but as the interviewer managed to stay within
the study boundaries guided by the frames of the study protocol (Yin, 2014). The open-ended
questions were instrumental as they were flexible for probing where necessary. Each interview
lasted between 30 to 45 minutes and was audio-recorded with participants’ consent.

3.6.2. Non-Participant Observation

Non-participant observation was used in this study. Classroom observations were

conducted without the researcher participating in teaching activities. This method allowed for
the documentation of teaching practices, language use, and instances of language interference.
Observations were guided by a checklist and supported by field notes. The researcher was a
non-participant. In non-participant observation, the inquirer’s goal is to remain aloof and to
have little or no contact with the participants of the research (Cohen et al, 2011; Maree, 2016).
In this study, the individual participants were observed in their classes during lesson delivery
and the researcher was detached from the teaching activities by sitting at the back of the
classroom in order to observe the learners as they collaborated with the teacher in the
classroom.

3.6.3. Document Analysis

Relevant documents such as lesson plans, teaching materials, and school policy
documents were analysed to triangulate data and provide insights into the formal frameworks
guiding English language instruction. As Yin (2014) notes, in a research document are
important for corroboration and these augment evidence from other sources. This study used
the data obtained from documents to corroborate and augment data generated through face-to-
face semi-structured individual interviews and non-participant observations.

3.7. Data Analysis Procedures

Given the qualitative nature of this study, data was analysed using the thematic analysis
framework developed by Braun and Clarke (2006). This method is recognized for its flexibility
 31

and analytical rigor in interpreting qualitative data across educational and social science
research.

The thematic analysis helped identify patterns of meaning within teachers’ experiences,
reflecting how they navigate the challenges and opportunities of teaching English as a third
language at Eduardo Mondlane secondary school.

The analysis followed six distinct but recursive steps: (1) familiarization with the data,
(2) generation of initial codes, (3) searching for themes, (4) reviewing themes, (5) defining and
naming themes, and (6) producing the report.

The first step is familiarization with the data. All interviews’ notes were audio-recorded
and then transcribed verbatim to ensure the integrity of participants’ responses. The researcher
manually transcribed the interviews and subsequently read through the transcripts multiple
times. This step of familiarization enabled the researcher to immerse himself in the data, noting
initial patterns and developing a preliminary understanding of participants’ perspectives (Braun
& Clarke, 2006). Field notes from classroom observations and excerpts from document
analysis (such as lesson plans and language policy documents) were also typed and organized
chronologically to maintain the natural flow of events observed. This multimodal corpus served
as the basis for triangulation during the coding process.

The second step is generation of initial codes. The coding step began with an inductive
approach, whereby the researcher identified and labeled segments of data that appeared
meaningful or relevant to the research objectives. Each transcript was coded line by line, with
specific attention paid to repeated words, phrases, ideas, or contextual indicators that relate to
issues such as language interference, pedagogical strategies, or teachers’ perceptions of
multilingualism. Initial coding was done manually to retain interpretive depth and researcher
reflexivity (Saldaña, 2016). During this step, codes were clustered under preliminary thematic
categories, referred to as parent nodes, with more specific subcategories as child nodes.

The third step is searching for themes. In the third step of thematic analysis, the
researcher employed axial coding to group related codes and categories under overarching
themes (Creswell & Poth, 2018). This process supported the construction of a structured
thematic framework, connecting individual participant experiences to broader patterns and
contextual dynamics. Axial coding also allowed for a clearer understanding of how various
codes relate to the main research questions and to each other.
 32

The fourth step is reviewing refining themes. Once the initial themes have been
constructed, they were reviewed for internal consistency and conceptual clarity. This involved
returning to the original data to ensure that each theme accurately reflects the content and
context of participants’ statements. Redundant, overlapping, or weakly supported themes were
merged, revised, or removed as necessary. During this step, a thematic map was developed to
visualize the relationships among emerging themes and subthemes. This map helped organize
findings logically and facilitate the discussion of interrelated experiences among teachers
(Braun & Clarke, 2006).

The fifth step is defining and naming themes. In this step, the researcher wrote concise
definitions for each theme, accompanied by illustrative data excerpts from interviews,
observations, or documents. Theme names were grounded in participants’ own language and
expressions, wherever possible, and aligned with terminology found in the literature. The final
set of themes represented the core ideas that emerged from the data and that provide insights
into the phenomena under investigation.

The sixth and final step is producing the report. The final stage of analysis involved
synthesizing the themes into a detailed analytical report, which is presented in Chapter IV. This
report included a comprehensive description of each theme and subtheme, supported by direct
participant quotations and cross-referenced with observation and document data. Findings were
interpreted through the lens of the study’s theoretical framework, Interlanguage Theory and the
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, to explain how multilingual dynamics shape language
instruction. The report also compared and contrasted perspectives among different participants,
highlighting both common patterns and variations. This structured and recursive approach to
data analysis ensured that the findings are credible, contextually grounded , and representative
of the experiences of English language teachers in a multilingual Mozambican context

3.8. Ethical Considerations

Ethics help the researcher to protect the dignity and safety of the research participants
and the general public (Silverman, 2010). In order to protect the rights and well-being of the
participants, the researcher considered the study adhered to ethical principles involving
permission, informed consent, anonymity, and confidentiality.
 33

3.8.1. Permission

Permission was sought from Universidade Púnguè and the administration of Eduardo
Mondlane Secondary School. Formal approval was obtained prior to beginning data collection.

3.8.2. Informed Consent

Participants received information about the study’s purpose, their role, risks, and rights.
Written informed consent was obtained before participation begins. The researcher also
explained to the participants that participation is voluntary and free with no attached financial
subsidies, conditions or services.

3.8.3. Anonymity

To protect participant identity, pseudonyms were used throughout transcripts and

reports, and no identifiable personal data was disclosed. Therefore, the participants were
addressed as Teacher A, Teacher B, Teacher C, and so on to avoid revealing their real identities
to the readers.

3.8.4. Confidentiality

It is important for the researcher to maintain each participant’s privacy and this can be
done if researchers could keep records that identify individuals, use pseudonyms and destroy
interview tapes after some time in order to minimise accessibility by unauthorised persons.
(Silverman, 2010). In the study the researcher ensured confidentiality by explaining to the
participants that they need not to include their names on the interview guide, lesson plans which
they shared with the researcher for analysis. In addition, the researcher-maintained
confidentiality by concealing the names of participants during data analysis and interpretation
of interview responses. Confidentiality also was maintained by keeping all the voice records
and transcribed interviews on a computer which has password -protected digital files and
locked. All data was stored securely and only the researcher has access to the raw data.

3.9. Summary

This chapter outlined the methodological framework guiding this study. The
interpretivist paradigm, qualitative approach, and case study design were presented, along with
descriptions of the population, sampling procedures, data generation instruments, data analysis
methods, and ethical safeguards. The next chapter presents the findings generated through this
methodology.
 34

CHAPTER IV: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Introduction

This study explored the challenges and opportunities in teaching English as a third
language at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio. The previous chapter presented
the research methodology, including the research paradigm, approach, and design, sampling
techniques, data collection instruments, and procedures for analysis. It also addressed ethical
considerations. This chapter presents the findings from interviews with teachers, classroom
observations, and document analysis. The findings are presented and discussed in relation to
the research objectives and questions.

4.2. Findings

The first research question interrogated the main challenges encountered in teaching
English as a third language. Four themes emerged during the analysis of the challenges
encountered in teaching English as a third language. These include: large class sizes, low
motivation among teachers and learners, limited resources, and political and institutional
neglect.

Theme 1: Large class sizes

Participants consistently identified overcrowded classrooms, sometimes with more than

one hundred students, as a serious barrier to effective teaching and learning. Large class sizes
prevented individual attention and increased classroom noise and distractions. As two teachers
put it:

“The common challenges include a lack of student interest, very large classes,
sometimes with more than a hundred students in a very small classroom” (T A
and T E).

Theme 2: Low motivation among teachers and learners

Teacher demotivation, largely caused by delayed or insufficient salaries, was a

recurring challenge. Learners’ lack of interest compounded this issue. As explained in the
following extract:

“As teachers we are clearly demotivated because we have not been paid for
over three years” (T C).
 35

Theme 3: Limited resources

Teachers reported that instructional resources were largely insufficient, forcing them
to rely on their own materials and creativity. While they used songs, movies, and internet-based
resources, these were not adequate. The following excerpt demonstrates this perspective:

“I use my own materials, the internet, songs, and movies that I recommend for
them to watch at home. However, these resources are not sufficient” (T A and
T B).

Theme 4: Political and institutional neglect

Participants highlighted systemic neglect, pointing to political interference and

insufficient government support for education. As explained in the following extract:

“Education is being undermined by political issues. How can we provide quality

schools when there is a lack of interest from the government in supporting us?”
(T A, TC and T F)

The second research question examined how students’ native languages (L1 and L2)
influenced their learning of English as a third language (L3). Two themes emerged during the
data analysis. These include: negative influence of L1 and L2, and occasional positive
influence.

Theme 1: Negative influence of L1 and L2

The influence of students’ mother tongues and Portuguese often hindered English
acquisition, especially in pronunciation, intonation, and grammar. As explained in the
following extract:

“The accent from their mother tongues affects their pronunciation in English”
(T G).

Theme 2: Occasional positive influence

In some cases, overlap between local languages and English created familiarity that
supported learning. As one teacher put it:

“The students’ first languages, such as Chimanica, include some English words
that can help” (T B).
 36

The Final research question explored strategies and opportunities for improving
English instruction. Four distinct themes emerged during the data analysis regarding the
strategies and opportunities for improving English instruction. These include: teaching
strategies, professional training and support, opportunities of English learning, and Institutional
support needed.

Theme 1: Teaching strategies

Teachers employed strategies such as pair work, role-play, spelling practice, reading
aloud, and vocabulary drills. These approaches fostered engagement and helped learners
practice English in real contexts. As explained in the following extract:

“I pair students to read and have conversations, and sometimes we do role-play

dramas” (T B, TD and TG).

Theme 2: Professional training and support

All teachers had received some training (from universities, embassies, or NGOs), which
enhanced their ability to adapt strategies for multilingual classrooms.

“I have received training through university studies, various short courses from
UK organizations, and seminars” (TA)

“I have participated in courses offered by the US Embassy, as well as training at

university” (TB)

“I was first trained in Chibata, then I attended university, and I have also
received training through the HCB programs more than three times” (TC)

“I have received training from the US Embassy, participated in government-

offered seminars in the past, and attended university” (TD)

Theme 3: Opportunities of English learning

Participants emphasized the benefits of English as L3 for learners’ futures, such as

access to global education, employment opportunities, and enhanced cultural awareness. As
one teacher said:

“Being multilingual also boosts cognitive abilities and cultural awareness” (T

C).
 37

Theme 4: Institutional support needed

Teachers stressed the need for more teaching materials, technology integration, timely
teacher payments, and reduced class sizes. As explained in the following extract:

“Providing adequate teaching materials, investing in teacher training, reducing

class sizes and ensuring timely payment of teachers” (T D, T E, TF and T G).

4.3. Classroom Observation and Document Analysis

Classroom observations confirmed that English (L3) was predominantly used, with
occasional switching to Portuguese (L2) for clarification. Code-switching and translanguaging
were evident, reflecting multilingual practices. However, student engagement was generally
poor. Teachers relied on strategies like pair work, group discussions, role-play, and scaffolding,
though overcrowded classrooms limited effectiveness.

Document analysis corroborated these findings: lesson plans included clear objectives,
some multilingual strategies, and culturally relevant content (e.g., Mozambican history).
However, there was little evidence of differentiation for diverse learners, and technology use
was minimal.

4.4. Discussion

Embedded in a qualitative research approach, the current study explored the challenges
and opportunities in teaching English as a third language at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary
School in Chimoio. Four themes emerged on the challenges teachers faced. The first group of
teachers highlighted overcrowded classrooms as a major barrier to effective learning. This
finding aligns with Chimbutane (2011), who observed that large class sizes in Mozambican
schools often prevent teachers from providing individual attention, thereby reinforcing errors
and reducing effective language practice. Similarly, James (1998) emphasized that limited
corrective feedback in such environments allows errors influenced by L1 or L2 to fossilize.

The second group of teachers described low motivation among both teachers and
learners. Teacher demotivation, caused by delayed salaries and poor working conditions,
corresponds with Heugh’s (2011) argument that systemic inequalities and poor institutional
support contribute to underachievement in multilingual postcolonial contexts. Learners’ lack
of motivation further exacerbates this challenge, echoing Cummins (2000), who stated that
 38

limited opportunities for meaningful interaction in the target language lead learners to rely on
familiar linguistic patterns from L1 or L2.

A third challenge was limited resources, where teachers resorted to their own materials
and creativity. This finding resonates with Odlin’s (1989) observation that insufficient
exposure to the target language amplifies phonological and lexical interference. Without
adequate resources, learners often default to translation-based strategies, which can lead to
misuse of vocabulary and interference, as Liao (2006) and Ellis (1994) observed.

The final challenge related to political and institutional neglect. Teachers pointed to
weak government support and political interference, echoing Heugh (2011), who argues that
language education policies in African contexts often perpetuate inequality by failing to
address multilingual realities.

On the influence of L1 and L2, two perspectives emerged. Some teachers stressed the
negative impact, such as mispronunciations caused by phonological transfer from Portuguese
and local Bantu languages. This finding confirms Odlin (1989), who noted that learners tend
to substitute unfamiliar sounds with familiar ones, and Chimbutane (2011), who found
persistent interference from Portuguese grammar in Mozambican learners’ English. On the
other hand, a few teachers acknowledged occasional positive transfer, where similarities
between languages facilitated comprehension. This aligns with Butler (2012), who
distinguished between negative and positive transfer, and Grosjean (1982), who argued that
bilinguals sometimes draw productively from overlapping linguistic systems.

The findings also revealed strategies and opportunities for improving English teaching.
Teachers reported using pair work, role-play, and vocabulary drills, which align with Nunan’s
(2004) support for Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in multilingual classrooms.
Translanguaging practices, such as code-switching between Portuguese and English, mirror
García and Wei’s (2014) perspective that translanguaging legitimizes learners’ full linguistic
repertoire and enhances engagement. Furthermore, some teachers received training from
universities and NGOs, which supports Brown’s (2007) assertion that teachers must adapt
strategies to reduce cross-linguistic interference.

Teachers also recognized the broader opportunities associated with English learning,
such as global mobility and employment, echoing Heugh’s (2011) point that, English functions
as a gatekeeper to higher education and economic advancement. However, they also
 39

emphasized the need for institutional support, particularly in terms of reducing class sizes,
timely salaries, and providing adequate teaching materials. This confirms Cummins’ (2000)
argument that supportive environments are essential for meaningful interaction and language
development.

4.5. Summary of the Chapter

This chapter presented the research findings of this study. The challenges faced by
teachers included overcrowded classrooms, low motivation, limited resources, and institutional
neglect. The influence of students’ L1 and L2 was found to be both negative (interference) and
occasionally positive (transfer). Teachers employed strategies such as role-play, pair work,
reading aloud, and code-switching to support learners, while also recognizing the opportunities
that English provides for learners’ futures. The discussion related these findings to the
theoretical framework of Interlanguage Theory and Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, as well
as prior empirical studies. The next chapter presents the conclusions and recommendations of
the study.
 40

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

5.1. Introduction

As indicated earlier, this study set out to explore the challenges and opportunities in
teaching English as a third language at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio. The
previous chapter presented and discussed the research findings on the main challenges teachers
face, the influence of students’ native languages (L1 and L2) on English learning, and the
strategies and opportunities for improving English instruction. This chapter presents the
conclusions drawn from the findings. It further provides recommendations for teachers, the
Ministry of Education and Human Development, policymakers, and future researchers.

5.2. Conclusion

The study concludes that teaching English as a third language in Mozambican

secondary schools is shaped by structural, linguistic, and institutional challenges. Overcrowded
classrooms, sometimes with more than one hundred students, limited teaching resources, and
delayed or insufficient teacher payments significantly hinder the teaching and learning process.
These challenges negatively affect both teacher motivation and student engagement, resulting
in poor classroom participation and performance.

The study also concludes that students’ first (L1) and second languages (L2) strongly
influence their learning of English (L3). While some lexical overlaps occasionally support
learning, the majority of influence is negative, manifesting in mispronunciations, grammatical
errors, and syntactic transfer from Portuguese and local languages. This confirms that language
interference is a persistent barrier to acquiring English proficiency.

Despite these difficulties, the study found that teachers at Eduardo Mondlane
Secondary School employ a variety of creative strategies such as role-play, peer reading, group
work, vocabulary practice, and translanguaging to engage learners. Teachers also recognized
the cognitive, academic, and professional opportunities that multilingualism, and particularly
English, offers to students in a globalized world. However, they stressed that such opportunities
can only be realized through stronger institutional and policy support, including adequate
teaching resources, smaller class sizes, regular teacher training, and timely teacher
remuneration.
 41

5.3. Implications for Practice

For Teachers

✓ Teachers are recommended to continue adopting interactive strategies such as pair

work, role-plays, and group discussions to enhance student engagement and
minimize the effects of language interference.
✓ Teachers are also encouraged to use translanguaging and contrastive analysis
methods to help learners identify differences and similarities between L1, L2, and
L3, thereby reducing errors and improving metalinguistic awareness.
✓ Teachers should make greater use of free digital resources, such as online
dictionaries, audiobooks, and videos, to supplement the lack of printed teaching
materials.

For the Ministry of Education and Culture

✓ The Ministry is recommended to provide adequate teaching materials, including

textbooks, visual aids, and multimedia tools, specifically designed for multilingual
classrooms.
✓ The Ministry should prioritize reducing class sizes and hiring more English teachers
to improve the teacher-student ratio and ensure more individualized learning
support.
✓ Timely and fair payment of teachers must be guaranteed to improve motivation and
the quality of teaching.
✓ The Ministry should also expand in-service professional development programs,
focusing on multilingual pedagogy and strategies to address language interference.

For Policymakers

✓ Policymakers are recommended to enact policies that promote multilingual education

and recognize English as a crucial skill for national and international development.
✓ Curriculum reforms should integrate multilingual strategies and emphasize
communicative language teaching to address the specific realities of Mozambican
classrooms.
✓ Policies should prioritize educational equity by ensuring that both urban and rural
schools receive adequate resources and infrastructure for effective English instruction.
 42

For Future Researchers

✓ Future researchers are recommended to investigate the long-term impact of language

interference on students’ academic and professional trajectories.
✓ Research should also explore the effectiveness of translanguaging and code-switching
strategies in mitigating L1 and L2 interference in English learning.
✓ Further studies could compare public and private schools to identify best practices and
contextual differences in teaching English as a third language.

5.4. Summary of the Chapter

This chapter presented the conclusions derived from the research findings and offered
recommendations for teachers, the Ministry of Education and Culture, policymakers, and future
researchers. The study highlights that while challenges such as large class sizes, lack of
resources, and language interference remain significant, there are also opportunities to improve
English language instruction through innovative teaching practices, institutional support, and
policy reforms.
 43

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APPENDIXES
 52

APPENDIX I: PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET

DEAR POTENTIAL PARTICIPANT

My name is Inȇs Nhamo Manuel, and I am an undergraduate student in the faculty of
arts, social sciences and humanities at Universidade Púnguè, Chimoio Campus. I am
conducting this study as part of my field research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of honours degree in English Language Teaching at Universidade Púnguè, under the
supervision of Charnaldo Ndaipa, PhD.

Title of the Study

Challenges and Opportunities in Teaching English as a Third Language in Mozambican

Secondary Schools: A Case of Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to explore the challenges faced by teachers and the potential
opportunities that exist in teaching English as a third language in a multilingual context. The
study will provide insights into classroom practices and inform improvements in English
language education in Mozambican secondary schools.

Eligibility Criteria

You are invited to participate in this study if:

✓ You are currently teaching English at Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School.

✓ You have at least five years of teaching experience.
✓ You are qualified with a teaching diploma or equivalent certification.

Activities and Time Commitment

If you agree to participate, you will be asked to:

Participate in a face-to-face, semi-structured interview that will last approximately 30

to 45 minutes. Allow the researcher to observe one or more of your English lessons without
interfering with your teaching. Provide access to non-confidential teaching documents, such as
lesson plans or language policy materials.
 53

Risks and Privacy

There are no known risks associated with this study. However, minimal risks may
include:

Personal discomfort during the interview. Possible concern about being observed while
teaching.

To minimize these risks:

Your identity will be protected using pseudonyms. No personally identifiable

information will be disclosed in any reports. You may skip any question or withdraw from the
study at any time without any consequences. All data collected will be securely stored and will
be accessible only to the researcher and the supervisor.

Benefits

While there is no direct benefit to you, your participation will contribute to educational
research and may help inform policy or practice related to multilingual English language
instruction in Mozambican schools.

Voluntary Participation

Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. You have the right to decline
participation or withdraw at any point without any penalty or effect on your professional
standing.

Contact Information
To stay informed about the conclusive research findings of this study, kindly reach out to
Inȇs Manuel by 84…………./86……….. or Email: ………………@[Link] If you
wish to obtain any further information or want to reach out to the researcher about whatever
aspect of this study, kindly contact my supervisor by 84…………./86………. or use the
Email: ………………@[Link]
I appreciate your time spent reading this information sheet and for your involvement in this
study.
Inȇs Nhamo Manuel
_______________________________
 54

Consent Statement
By signing below, I acknowledge that:
I have read and understood the information provided above.
I voluntarily agree to participate in this study.
I understand my rights and how my information will be protected.
Participant’s Signature:
___________________________________

Date:
______/_______/_______
 55

APPENDIX II: INTERVIEW GUIDE

Title: Challenges and Opportunities in Teaching English as a Third Language in

Mozambican Secondary Schools: A Case of Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio.

INTERVIEW GUIDE

Face-To-Face Semi-Structured Individual Interview Questions

This interview guide is designed to elicit teachers’ perceptions and experiences

regarding the challenges and opportunities in teaching English as a third language at Eduardo
Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio.

General Introductory Questions

1. Can you tell me about your experience teaching English at this school?
2. What languages do your students speak as their first and second languages?
Main Interview Questions
3. What are the most common challenges you face when teaching English as a third language?
4. How do your students’ native languages (L1 and L2) influence their learning of English
(L3)?
5. What resources are available to support your teaching of English, and are they sufficient?
6. What teaching strategies have you found effective in overcoming these challenges?
7. Can you describe any support or training you have received to help teach in a multilingual
environment?
8. Are there any observable benefits or opportunities for students learning English as an L3?
9. What kind of institutional or policy support would improve English teaching in your view?
10. Is there anything else you would like to share about your experience or suggestions for
improving English instruction?
 56

APPENDIX III: OBSERVATION GUIDE

OBSERVATION GUIDE

Title: Challenges and Opportunities in Teaching English as a Third Language in Mozambican

Secondary Schools: A Case of Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio.

Purpose: This schedule will guide the non-participant observation of English language classes
to examine teaching practices, language use, and challenges encountered in real classroom
settings.

OBSERVATION ASPECT REMARK

1. Languages used during instruction (L1,

L2, L3).
2. Evidence of code-switching or
translanguaging.
3. Student engagement and participation.
4. Teaching strategies employed to manage
multilingualism.
5. Teacher response to language
interference/errors.
6. Use of teaching materials (texts, visuals,
etc.).
7. Classroom environment and interaction
patterns.
8. Instances of student misunderstanding due
to language transfer.
9. Teacher explanation techniques and
scaffolding.
10. Any unplanned challenges or innovative
strategies observed.
 57

APPENDIX IV: DOCUMENT ANALYSIS PROTOCOL

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS PROTOCOL

Title: Challenges and Opportunities in Teaching English as a Third Language in Mozambican

Secondary Schools: A Case of Eduardo Mondlane Secondary School in Chimoio.

Purpose: This protocol is intended to guide the analysis of relevant documents such as lesson
plans, English syllabi, policy guidelines, and instructional materials to assess alignment with
multilingual teaching needs.

OBSERVATION ASPECT REMARK

1. Clarity of learning objectives.
2. Inclusion of multilingual strategies or
language awareness components.
3. Language used in instructional content
(L1, L2, L3).
4. Cultural or linguistic responsiveness of
materials.
5. Evidence of differentiation or scaffolding
for diverse learners.
6. Integration of technology or
supplementary resources.