Chapter two
Conducting Materials
Introduction
Materials which allow current to pass through them easily
are called conducting materials.
Factors to be considered for selection of conducting
materials are resistivity, temperature, coefficient of
resistance, ductility, solderability, resistance to corrosion,
melting point, tendency to oxidation, ….
Metals and conduction by electrons. (classical theory: The Drude model)
Electrical conduction involves the motion of charges in a material under the
influence of an applied electric field.
A material can generally be classified as a conductor if it contains a large number of
“free“ or mobile charge carriers.
In metals, due to the nature of metallic bonding, the valence electrons from the
atoms form a sea of electrons that are free to move within the metal and are therefore
called conduction electrons.
In the presence of an electric field, the conduction electrons attain an average
velocity, called the drift velocity, which depends on the field.
Good electrical conductors, such as metals, are also known to be good thermal
conductors. The conduction of thermal energy from higher to lower temperature
regions in a metal involves the conduction electrons carrying the energy.
Consequently, there is an innate relationship between the electrical and thermal
conductivities.
The electrical current density is the net amount of charge
flowing across a unit area per unit time. i.e.
q
J , clum / m 2 Where, ∆q - the net quantity of charge, coulomb
At A - cross sectional area, m2
∆t – time, sec
Drift of electrons in a conductor in the presence of an applied
electric field. Electrons drift with an average velocity vdx in
the x-direction. (Ex is the electric field.)
Resistivity
The property of material which hinders the flow of electric current is
known as resistance.
While Resistivity is the resistance of a material of unit length and unit
cross sectional area.
However, the electrons are hindered in their movement through the
conductor by collisions with the ions which cause heating of the
material. This characteristic is called electrical resistance.
Resistance depends upon its cross section area, its length, and the
material of which it is composed of resistivity (ρ).
ρ∗𝑙 R∗𝐴
𝑅= & ρ= where the unit of R and ρ are Ω and Ω-m respectively.
𝐴 𝑙
where ρ is the resistivity of the material.
Reciprocal of resistivity is known as conductivity (σ).
Temperature coefficient of resistance (α0)
Resistance of most of the conducting materials increases with increase
in temperature of the material; where as most semiconductors
decrease resistance when temperature increase.
The change in resistance of a material per ohm per degree change in
temperature is called temperature coefficient of resistance(α0) and
given as;
Equation of motion of an electron
The motion of electrons is random when no electric field is applied.
If we apply an electric field across a metal, electrons move to positive
direction of the field and current is produced.
Consider an electron within a metal under the applied field ‘E’. The
force expressed by the electron due to the applied electric field, E is;
𝐹 = 𝑒𝐸 (1)
where e=charge on the electron.
The force with which the electron moves (from newton’s laws)
𝑑𝑣
𝐹=𝑚 (2)
𝑑𝑡
where m=mass of an electron, v =velocity of the electron
From (1) and (2) we have
𝑑𝑣
𝑚 = 𝑒𝐸
𝑑𝑡
Integrating both sides;
𝑒𝐸
= 𝑣𝑑 𝑚
𝑡𝑑
𝑒𝐸
𝑣= 𝑡+𝑘
𝑚
Since flow of current is zero in absence of filed, K=0
𝑒𝐸
:. 𝑣= 𝑡 … … … . (3)
𝑚
Mobility of electron
The average velocity of the electrons in a conductor is directly
proportional to the applied electric field
The constant of proportionality μ is called mobility of the electrons
and given by:-
𝑒𝑡
𝜇= (4)
𝑚
where e is charge of an electron, m is mass of the electron and
t is collision time.
Current Density in metals
Consider N number of free electrons distributed uniformly throughout
a metal or conductor of length L and cross-sectional area A.
Now, the number of electrons passing through any area per
second,=N/T. Therefore, total charge passing through any area per
second called current.
Current = charge on an electron * number of electron per second
crossing any area
𝑒𝑁
𝐼= … … … … … … (5)
𝑇
Multiplying and dividing R.H.S. of the above equation by the total
length of the charge travel.
We have
𝑒𝑁 𝐿 𝑒𝑁𝑣
𝐼= ∗ = ………. 6
𝑇 𝐿 𝐿
The current density is current per unit cross sectional area
𝐼 𝑒𝑁𝑣
𝐽= = = 𝑒𝑛𝑣 … … … … 7
𝐴 𝐿𝐴
𝑁
Since “n” is concentration of electron =
𝐿𝐴
𝑒𝐸
But we know the velocity of electron from (3), 𝑣 = 𝑡 now equation
𝑚
(7) becomes
𝑒 2 𝑛𝐸𝑡
𝐽= …………… 8
𝑚
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 … … … … … 9
𝑒𝑁𝑣
Where ‘𝜎’ = or 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇 … … … … . (10)
𝐸
Fermi-Dirac distribution function
Metals are composed of distributed positive ions of the nucleus and cloud of
electrons moving throughout the solid. [Drude Lorentz Model].
Within metals are large number of energy bands close together with different
probability of occupation by electrons.
The probability that a particular quantum state of energy E is occupied at a
temperature T is given by the so called Fermi dirac function
1
𝑓 𝐸 = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1+𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝐾𝑇
Where K= Boltzmann constant=8.62*10-5 eVk-1=1.38*10 -23Jk-1
T = Temperature in Kelvin scale
𝐸𝐹 = The Fermi energy level
f(E) = Probability of distribution
Figure2.1: Probability of occupancy by an electron
of different temperature other than 00 𝐾
Factors that affect resistance
Frequency effect on resistivity of conductors
In a conductor with cross sectional are A, distribution of ac current
within the conductor is not uniform.
The current density near the surface is greater than at its core.
As it is known, this is because of the magnetic field effect of a current
carrying conductor which induces eddy current.
The induced eddy current establishes its own field which opposes the
field of original ac current. Thus,
The amount of magnetic Skin depth is due to the
field which threads along circulating eddy current
the cross-section varies cancelling the current
with the diameter ( flow in the center of a
distance from the center conductor and reinforcing
of the conductor). it in the skin.
Due to this phenomena, inductance 𝒅𝑳 = 𝒅ψ/di is larger at the center
and smaller at the surface. Thus the inductive reactance XL = 2ПfL
also varies accordingly. Therefore, the distribution of current becomes
not uniform; smaller at the central region and larger at the surface.
(SKIN EFFECT)
The SKIN EFFECT is the decline in current density versus depth. It
causes to increase the effective resistance with frequency of the
current.
According to Maxwell’s equation for conductive medium, the skin
depth δ is expressed as:-
1
Where, ω – angular frequency of the current
σ – conductivity
1
µ - permeability
2
Thus the highest the frequency of the current, the smaller the skin
depth and leads to increased resistance of the wire.
The skin depth is a measure of the distance over which the current falls
1/e (0.37) of its original value.
Examples
In a copper wire, the skin
depth at various
δ – skin depth frequencies is shown
below.
2a Frequency δ
60 Hz --------- 8.57 mm
10 kHz ------- 0.66 mm
10 MHz ------ 21 μm
If δ is known, the cross-sectional area approximately is: -
A a (a ) 2a
2 2
, δ << a and δ2 neglected.
Thus, for a unit length of a conductor, resistance for ac current is:-
1
Rac , Where ρ – ac resistivity at the frequency of
A 2a interest.
As frequency increases, skin depth δ decreases and thus Rac
increases. i.e. as the current is restricted to flow at the surface, the
effective cross-sectional area decreases.
Classification of conducting Materials
Conducting materials are broadly classified into two categories
a) Low resistivity conducting materials
Low resistance reduces voltage drop and power losses(I2R).
Low resistivity conducting materials are used as conducting materials
in transmission lines, low voltage distribution lines, winding wires
for transformers and electrical machines, etc.
e.g. Copper, aluminum, steel, their alloys etc.
b) High resistivity conducting materials
Used in applications which require large resistance such as in heating
elements, filaments, film resistors, loading resistances and rheostats,
starter resistances of motors, resistances for precision measuring
instruments etc.
e.g. Tungsten, nichrome, carbon, manganese, platinum, constantan etc.
Copper: It is most widely used metal because of its high conductivity.
Silver has the lowest resistivity but due to its high cost it is not used as
conductor material.
Properties of Copper:-
It is reddish in color
It is non magnetic
It can easily be soldered and welded
highly malleable and ductile. So, it can be drawn into very
thin wires, sheets and bars
Applications of Copper:
It is used in making wires of cables for transmission and distribution
of electric power
Used for windings of electrical machines and transformers.
Rolled copper bars are used for making bus bars
In comparison to aluminum;
Aluminum has tensile strength much lower than copper. This results
in a tendency in the breaking of aluminum conductors under tension
as well as developing kinks (sharp twists).
Resistivity of copper is lower than aluminum, thus losses are less in
copper conductors.
It has low contact resistance
Properties of aluminum:
It is soft and white colored metal.
It is malleable and ductile, hence can be drawn into thin wires and rods.
It offers high resistance to corrosion due to the oxide layer formed on its
surface when exposed to atmosphere. But aluminum oxide layer has
relatively higher resistivity and acts as insulator.
Applications of Aluminum:
It is used in overhead transmission lines, domestic wiring, and flexible
wires.
In overhead transmission lines it is used in the form of A.C.S.R
conductors (aluminum conductor steel reinforced).
It is mostly suitable to make bus-bars, rotor bars of squirrel cage
induction motors.
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