ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY

Text Book:
Allison: Electrical engineering materials

Target group:- 3rd year

Year:
Prepared by:
2013/2021
Muhabaw A.

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 CHAPTER ONE
REVIEW OF ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER

Outlines:
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Atomic Theory
1.3 Atomic models
1.4 Quantization of electron energy
1.5 Schrödinger equation
1.6 Atomic bonding
1.7 Classification of Electrical Engineering Materials

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 1.1 Introduction
 Materials used in the field of Electrical Engineering are called the Electrical

Engineering materials.

 An electrical engineer should know the properties of materials like mechanical,

electrical, magnetic, thermal, chemical, and physical used in electrical

engineering.

 This Knowledge helps him to choose the correct material for a given application.

 Hence, the materials available can be employed effectively and economically for

a specific purpose.
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 Factors that must be considered in selecting the suitable material
 Cost
 Availability
 Ease of manufacturing methods

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 1.2 Atomic Theory

 All matters(any thing that has mass and volume) whether solid, liquid or gas is
made up of smallest bits called atoms.
 An element (Hydrogen, Oxygen, Gold etc…) is defined as a substance (a
particular kind of matter with uniform properties).
 The smallest amount of an element is called atom.
 A molecule is formed when two or more atoms join together chemically (𝐻2 , 𝑂2 ,
𝑁2 , 𝐻2 O, etc...),
 A compound is a molecule that contains at least two different elements (𝐻2 O,
𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 , etc...).
 NB:- All compounds are molecules but not all molecules are compounds.
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 In modern atomic theory the central part of the atom is called "Nucleus" and
contains protons and neutrons.
 Nucleus of an atom bears positive charge and surrounded by a number of
negative particles called electrons.
 Electrons revolving around the nucleus in orbits or shells.
 The electrons in each orbit or level are associated with a definite amount of
energy. Thus, the orbits are referred to as energy levels.
 The energy levels are denoted by the letters K, L, M, N, O, P, etc.
 The K-level is nearest to the nucleus.
 The valency of an element is determined by the number of electrons it can receive
or give away from its outer most sub shell to another element in a reaction.
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 If the valency orbit contains 8 electrons, the atom is complete and stable.
 The number of electrons that can be accommodated in any orbit or level is given
by the formula 2𝑛2 , Where 'n' is the number of orbit or level.

Examples 1.1:
 Na- has 11 electrons: K, L &M Shell is occupied by 2, 8 & 1 electrons
respectively.
 Ca- has 20 electrons: K, L &M Shell is occupied by 2, 8,8& 2 electrons
respectively

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 1.3. Atomic models
 We know that atoms are made up of a positively charged nucleus in the center
surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
 Models help us to understand systems and their properties.
 An atomic model represents what the structure of an atom could look like.

1.3.1 Dalton’s Atomic Model

 John Dalton proposed that all matter is made of very small, indivisible and
indestructible objects called atoms.
 When Dalton proposed his model electrons
and the nucleus were unknown.
Fig 1.1: Dalton's atomic model

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 1.3.2 Thomson’s Atomic Model
 In this model, the atom is made up of negative electrons that float in a “soup” of
positive charge, much like plums in a pudding or raisins in a fruit cake.
 However, even with the Plum Pudding Model, there was still no understanding
of how these electrons in the atom were arranged.

Fig 1.2: Thomson's plum pudding atomic model

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 1.3.3 Rutherford’s Atomic Model
 Rutherford’s model described the atom as a tiny, dense, positively charged core
called a nucleus surrounded by lighter, negatively charged electrons.
 This model is sometimes known as the planetary model of the atom.

Fig 1.3: Rutherford’s atomic model

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 1.3.4 Bohr’s Atomic Model
 Under Rutherford's model could not explain the very interesting observation
that atoms only emit light at certain wavelengths or frequencies.
 Niels Bohr solved this problem by proposing that the electrons could only orbit
the nucleus in certain special orbits at different energy levels around the nucleus.

Fig 1.4: Bohr’s atomic model

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 1.3.5 James Chadwick’s Atomic Model
 Rutherford predicted (in 1920) that another kind of particle must be present in
the nucleus along with the proton.
 He predicted this because if there were only positively charged protons in the
nucleus, then it should break into bits because of the repulsive forces between
the like-charged protons!
 To make sure that the atom stays electrically neutral, this particle would have to
be neutral itself.
 In 1932 James Chadwick discovered the neutron and measured its mass.

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 The common understanding of an atom was now a nucleus containing positively
charged protons and neutral neutrons with the rest of the atom being space in
which negatively charged electrons, with a mass so small compared to that of the
nucleus "orbit" the nucleus on energy levels corresponding to the amount of
energy the electrons hold.

Fig 1.5: James Chadwick’s atomic model

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 1.4. Quantization of electron energy
 The quantization of energy refers to the absorption or emission of energy in
discreet packets, or quanta.
 The quantization of energy, also known as "quantum theory,“ describes how
energy can only be lost or gained in multiples of a smallest possible unit of
energy, which is referred to as a "quantum."
 When an electron was to go from lower energy state to higher energy state, it can
only do so by absorbing a photon containing the exact energy difference.
 Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to
another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency ν
determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck
relation:
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∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 = ℎ𝑣 14
 According to Bohr’s model of atom
,for an electron in a hydrogen
atom:
Energy of the electron (𝐸𝑛 ):-
−𝑅𝐻
𝐸𝑛 = = −13.6𝑒𝑉/𝑛2
𝑛2

Where 𝑅𝐻 =2.179 x 10−18 J

Energy of emitted/absorbed photon(E)
𝐸 = ∆𝐸𝑛 = ℎ𝑣 = | − 𝑅𝐻 ( )| Fig 1.6: Quantization of electron energy
Example 1.2: What is (a) the frequency (in KHz) and (b) wave length of light
emitted when the electron in a hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from level n=6
to level n=2? h=6.63x10−34 J.S , 𝑅𝐻 =2.179x10−18 J ,c=3x108 m/s
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 Electron wave - particle duality
Various experiments showed that they posses properties of reflection, refraction,
diffraction and interference similar to that of light.
Reflection:– bouncing of a wave from a substance back to the source
Refraction:– deflection of a wave when goes through a substance
Diffraction:– A wave through a small holes produce glared shadow of the slit
Interference:– Two or more waves travelling in the same medium interfere
resulting interference ( constructive/ destructive)
 If electrons are treated as particles, since they are in motion they posses kinetic
energy 𝐸𝐾 and momentum P.
1 2
𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑉 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = mV 𝑃 = 2𝑚𝐸𝐾
2
𝑚2 𝑉 2 𝑃 2 𝑃 = 2𝑚𝐸𝐾
= =
2𝑚 2m
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 the circumference of the circular orbit of the electron should be an integral
multiple of the wavelength of DE Broglie wave .
 an electron wave carries a momentum which is inversely proportional to its wave
length. i. e. P  1/λ; where λ is wave length.
 And according to Broglie, it can be written as,

 Electron in motion interacts with the neighbouring environment, the energy it

carries in the direction of motion is expressed by its potential energy which is the
function of position.

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 The potential energy of an electron is the work done in bringing an electron from
infinity to a point distance,’ r’ from a positive charge of strength +e.
Total energy E = Ek + Ep

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 1.6. Atomic bonding
 A chemical bond, a lasting attraction between atoms ,hold atoms and molecules
of substances together.
 When it comes to bonding, everything is based on how many electrons an
element has or shares with its compound partner or partners.
 Octet rule which says that the atoms only need 8 electrons to be stable and duet
rule which says that the atoms only need two valence electrons to be stable.
 Valance electrons can become stable either by acquiring more electrons to bring
the total up to 8 or by losing all its electrons to another atom. This is how atomic
bonds are formed.
 Not all atoms bond the same way, so we need to learn the different types of bonds
that atoms can form.
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 There are three types of bonds: Ionic, covalent and metallic.
a) Ionic Bond:- Electrostatic attraction between ions of opposite charge.
 Electrons are transferred between metals and non metals.
 The electrostatic force is strong enough that even a large amount of energy might
not break it and make the valence electrons available for conduction. These
materials are most of the time insulators.
Example: NaCl

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b) Covalent Bond:-Sharing of electrons between two atoms.
 Electrons are shared between non metals.
 The atoms of materials having four or more than four electrons revolving in their
outermost orbits must share their electrons with the neighboring atoms.
 Due to unlike charge the two atoms attract each other with an electrostatic force.
 The electrons are so tightly bound in their orbits that a large amount of energy is
required to remove them from covalent bonding.
 Certain materials of this type normally behave as insulators but allow for more
valence electrons to be available for conduction by thermal energy.
 These materials are known as semi-conductors and have 4 valence electrons.
Example:- Ge, Si, etc.

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Examples:- 𝐶𝐻4 , 𝑁𝐻3 , 𝐻2 𝑂, 𝐻2 , 𝐶𝑙2 …

Methane Ammonia Water

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c) Metallic Bond-attraction b/n closely packed metal ions and “sea” of delocalized
electrons.
 Free flow of electrons between metals
 Generally, all metals have a small number of electrons in their outer shell, which
can easily be removed to form a metal ion.
 Elements which have one, two, or three valence electrons are very unstable.
Atoms of such elements give up their valence electrons to form an electron cloud
(delocalized electrons, electrons not attached to any atom) throughout the space
occupied by the atoms.
 After giving up their valence electrons, positive ions are left.
 Examples: Bonds between crystals of Ag, Au, Cu…
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 1.7 Classification of Electrical Engineering Materials
Electrical Engineering
materials

Semi- Magnetic
Conductors Insulators
Conductors materials

Intrinsic Semi- Ferromagnetic

Conductors
Paramagnetic
Extrinsic
Semi- Diamagnetic
Conductors
Anti-
ferromagnetic
Ferrites
Magnetic
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Conductors: These are those materials which offer such a small resistance that
they allow the electrical current to flow through them easily. All metals and their
alloys are good conductors of electricity.
Semi conductors: They occupy an intermediate position between conductors and
insulators.
E.g. Germanium, Silicon etc.
Insulators: Those materials which offer such a high resistance that they do not
allow current to pass through them.
Magnetic Materials: are materials which can affected by magnetic field.

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 1.8. Energy band theory
 An electron orbiting very close to the nucleus in the first shell is very much
tightly bound to the nucleus and possesses only a small amount of energy.
 Hence, first shell has lowest energy level. The greater the distance of an electron
from the nucleus, the greater is its energy.
 These valence electrons are coupled and possess highest energy level, their
associated energy levels merge into each other. This merging forms an energy
band.
 The graphical representation of the energy bands in solid is called energy band
diagram.
 The energy associated with bands is measured in electron volts, eV.

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𝟏𝒆𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱 27
 Out of all the energy bands, three bands are most important to understand the
behavior of solids.
 These are: Valence band, Conduction band & Forbidden band or gap.

Energy band
Conduction Band

Forbidden gap

Valence Band

Fig 1.8: The general energy band diagram of solid material

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Valence band:
 Is the energy band formed due to merging of the energy levels associated with the
electrons in the last shell (valence electrons).
 Under normal conditions, electrons on this band form covalent bond are not free
as mentioned earlier. But when certain energy is imparted to them, they become
free.
Conduction band: Is the energy band formed due to merging of the energy levels
associated with the free electrons.
 Under normal condition this band is empty and once energy is imparted, the
valence electrons jump from valence band to conduction band and become free
 While jumping from valence band to conduction band , the electrons have to
cross an energy gap.
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Forbidden band/gap:
 Is the energy gap which separates the conduction band and valence band.
 The energy imparted to the electrons must be greater than the energy which is
associated with the forbidden gap, EG ,to extract the electrons from valence band
and transfer them to conduction band.
 Note: electrons cannot exist in the forbidden gap.

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 The classification of materials as insulators, conductors or semiconductors is
mainly dependent on the widths of the forbidden energy gap.

Fig 1.9: energy band diagrams of different materials

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