UNIT II Linear Programming Problem

2.1 Linear Programming Introduction : Linear programming can be defined as: “A

mathematical method to allocate scarce resources to competing activities in an optimal manner
when the problem can be expressed using a linear objective function and linear inequality
constraints.” A linear program consists of a set of variables, a linear objective function indicating
the contribution of each variable to the desired outcome, and a set of linear constraints describing
the limits on the values of the variables.

2.2 COMPONENTS OF LPP

[Link] Equations :
All of the equations and inequalities in a linear program must, by definition, be linear. A linear
function has the following form: a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 +. . + anxn = 0----(where 1,2,3,---n as
subscript.)
 In general, the a’s are called the coefficients of the equation; they are also sometimes
called parameters. The important thing to know about the coefficients is that they are fixed
values, based on the underlying nature of the problem being solved.
 x’s are called the variables of the equation; they are allowed to take on a range of values
within the limits defined by the constraints.
 Linear equations and inequalities are often written using summation notation, which makes
it possible to write an equation in a much more compact form. The linear equation above,
for example, can be written as follows:

[Link] Decision Variables : The variables are sometimes called decision variables because the
problem is to decide what value each variable should take. Typically, the variables represent the
amount of a resource to use or the level of some activity.
The variables will be represented as x1, x2, . . ., xn . (where 1, 2,….,n as subscript.)
[Link] Objective Function : The objective of a linear programming problem will be to maximize
or to minimize some numerical value. The objective function indicates how each variable
contributes to the value to be optimized in solving the problem. The objective function takes the
following general form:
For example Max Z/Min Z= c1x1+c2x2+-----cnxn is an objective function.

4. Constraints : A number of equalities or inequalities in terms of decision variables which

determine the limitations of resources are called constraints. It is being expressed as linear equation
(i.e. =) on inequalities (i.e. > or<; type) in terms of decision variables. Thus, constraints of a linear
programming problem are linear equalities or inequalities arising out of practical limitations.

[Link] Non-Negativity Constraints

For technical reasons beyond the scope of this book, the variables of linear programs must always
take non-negative values (i.e., they must be greater than or equal to zero). In most cases, where,
for example, the variables might represent the levels of a set of activities or the amounts of some
resource used, this non-negativity requirement will be reasonable – even necessary. In any case,
the non-negativity constraints are part of all LP formulations, and you should always include them
in an LP formulation. They are written as follows:
xi ≠ 0 i = 1, 2, . . ., n
where xi = the ith decision variable.

[Link] solution : A basic solution is any solution of a linear programming problem satisfying
certain specified technical conditions.

[Link] Solution: - Any solution to graphical method of L.P.P. which satisfies the non-
negativity restrictions of the problem is called a feasible solution to a general L.P.P.

[Link] feasible solution : In Linear Programming (LP), a basic feasible solution is one that also
belong to the feasible region or problem area can be represented by a feasible solution in
implementing the Simplex Method satisfying non-negative conditions.
[Link] solution: - Any feasible solution to graphical method of L.P.P. which optimizes
(maximizes/ minimizes) the objective function of L.P.P. is called an optimum solution to the L.L.P.

2.3 Mathematical Formulation of LPP :

Mathematically, the general linear programming problem (LPP) may be stated as:

Maximize or Minimize Z = c1x1 + c2x2 + . . . + cnxn

subject to

a11x1 + a12x2 + . . . + a1nxn (≤, =, ≥) b1

a21x1 + a22x2 + . . . + a2nxn (≤, =, ≥) b2

...

am1x1 + am2x2 + . . . + amnxn (≤, =, ≥) bm

where x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ≥1

2.4 Steps in the Mathematical Formulation of LPP :

There are mainly four steps in the mathematical formulation of linear programming problem as a
mathematical model. We will discuss formulation of those problems which involve only two
variables.

i. Identify the decision variables and assign symbols x and y to them. These decision
variables are those quantities whose values we wish to determine.

ii. Identify the set of constraints and express them as linear equations/in equations in terms
of the decision variables. These constraints are the given conditions.
 iii. Identify the objective function and express it as a linear function of decision variables.
It might take the form of maximizing profit or production or minimizing cost.

iv. Add the non-negativity restrictions on the decision variables, as in the physical
problems, negative values of decision variables have no valid interpretation.

v. Arrange the system of equation in a consistent form and place all the variables on the
left side of the equations.

2.5 FORMULATION OF LPP

It consists the following steps

Step 1. Identify decision variables

Step 2. Write objective function

Step 3. Formulate constraints

For the formulation of LPP consider the following example :

Example 1. A furniture dealer deals in only two items–tables and chairs. He has Rs 50,000 to
invest and has storage space of at most 60 pieces. A table costs Rs 2500 and a chair Rs 500. He
estimates that from the sale of one table, he can make a profit of Rs 250 and that from the sale of
one chair a profit of Rs 75. He wants to know how many tables and chairs he should buy from the
available money so as to maximize his total profit, assuming that he can sell all the items which
he buys.

Mathematical formulation of the problem

Let x1 be the number of tables and x2be the number of chairs that the dealer buys. Obviously, x1
and x2 must be non-negative,
i.e x1, x2≥ 0 ... (1) (Non-negative constraint)
The dealer is constrained by the maximum amount he can invest (Here it is Rs 50,000) and by the
maximum number of items he can store (Here it is 60). Stated mathematically,
2500x1+ 500x2 ≤ 50000
or 5x1 + x2 ≤ 100 ... (3) (investment constraint)
and x1 + x2≤ 60 ... (4)(storage constraint)
The dealer wants to invest in such a way so as to maximize his profit, say, Z which stated as a
function of x1, x2 is given by
Z = 250x1+ 75x2... (5) (objective function)
Mathematically, the given problems now reduce to:

Maximize Z = 250x1 + 75x2

subject to the constraints:
5x1 + x2 ≤ 100
x1+ x2 ≤ 60
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Example 2. A firm produces three products. These products are processed on three different
machines. The time required to manufacture one unit of each of the three products and the daily
capacity of the three machines are given in the table below:

Machine Time per units (in minutes) Machine capacity in minutes / day
Product 1 Product 2 Product 3
M1 2 3 2 440
M2 4 - 3 470
M3 2 5 - 430

It is required to determine the daily number of units to be manufactured for each product. The
profit per unit for product 1, 2 and 3 is Rs. 4, Rs.3 and Rs.6 respectively. It is assumed that all the
amounts produced are consumed in the market. Formulate the mathematical (L.P.) model that will
maximize the daily profit.

Formulation of Linear Programming Model

Step 1: From the study of the situation find the key-decision to be made. In the given situation key

decision is to decide the extent of products 1, 2 and 3, as the extents are permitted to vary.

Step 2: Assume symbols for variable quantities noticed in step 1. Let the extents (amounts) of

products 1, 2 and 3 manufactured daily be x1, x2 and x3 units respectively.

Step 3: Express the feasible alternatives mathematically in terms of variable. Feasible alternatives

are those which are physically, economically and financially possible. In the given situation

feasible alternatives are sets of values of x1, x2 and x3 units respectively.

Where, x1, x2 and x3 ≥ 0.

since negative production has no meaning and is not feasible.

Step 4: Mention the objective function quantitatively and express it as a linear function of

variables. In the present situation, objective is to maximize the profit.

i.e., Maximize Z = 4X1+ 3X2 + 6X3

Step 5: Put into words the influencing factors or constraints. These occur generally because of

constraints on availability (resources) or requirements (demands). Express these constraints also

as linear equations/inequalities in terms of variables. Here, constraints are on the machine

capacities and can be mathematically expressed as,

Maximize Z = 4X1+ 3X2 + 6X3

Subject to the constraints:

2X1+ 3X2 + 2X3 ≤ 440

4X1+ 0X2 + 3X3 ≤ 470

2X1+ 5X2 + 0X3 ≤ 430

Example 3: A factory manufactures two products Table (A) and Chairs (B). For manufacturing
one unit of A, 15 machine hours and 25 labour hours are required. For manufacturing product B,
25 machine hours and 15 labour hours are required. In a month, 300 machine hours and 240
labour hours are available. Profit per unit for A is Rs. 50 and for B is Rs. 40. Formulate as LPP
to maximize the profit.
Resources Products Availability in hours
Table (A) Chair (B)
Machine 15 25 300
Labour 25 15 240
Profit per unit in Rs 50 40

Solution: Formulation of LPP:

1. The objective is to maximize the total profit by selling units of Table(X) and Chair(Y) which
are produced under the given production machine and labour constraints.
[Link] Variables:
Let X1 be the total units of table to be manufactured.
and X2 be the total units of chair to be manufactured.
[Link] function: Total Profit (Z = 50X1 + 40X2) must be maximized. Thus,
Maximize P= 50X1 + 40X2 is the objective function.
[Link]:
(i) Machine Constraints:Total hours available for machine (i.e. 15X1+ 25X2 must be less than
or equal to the time available i.e. 300 hours. Thus,
15X1+ 25X2 ≤ 300
(ii) Labour Constraints:Total hours available for labour (i.e. 25X1+ 15X2must be less than or
equal to the time available i.e. 240 hours. Thus,
25X1+ 15X2 ≤ 240
Thus the LPP format is,
Maximize Z = 50X1+ 40X2
Subject to the constraints:
15X1+ 25X2 ≤ 300
25X1+ 15X2 ≤ 240
X1 ≥ 0, X2 ≥ 0
For Equation1 : X1=40, X2=20

For Equation 2 : X1=30, X2=40

4. A nutrition scheme for babies is proposed by a committee of doctors .babies can be given two
types of food (I and II) which are available in standard sized packets weighing 50 grams. The cost
per packet of these foods are Rs. 2 and Rs. 3 respectively. The vitamin availability in each type of
food per packet and the minimum vitamin requirement for each type of vitamin are given in the
table below. Formulate the LPP to determine the optimal combination of food types with the
minimum cost such that the minimum requirement of vitamin in each type is satisfied.

Vitamin availability per packet

Vitamin Food type 1 Food type II Minimum daily
required vitamin
1 1 1 6
2 7 1 14
Cost/packet 2 3
(Rs)

Solution :

Let X1 and X2 be the number of packets of food types I and II respectively to be suggested .

Since cost is given Rs. 2 and 3 resp. hence we want to minimize the total cost

The objective function is Min Z = 2X1 +3 X2

Constraint for vitamin 1 : X1+X2>=6

Constraint for vitamin 2 : 7X1+X2>=14

Formulation of LPP

Min Z = 2X1 +3 X2

Subject to

X1+X2>=6

7X1+X2>=14

X1,X2 >=0

2.6 SOLUTION OF LPP: GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF LPP

The steps involved in Graphical method of solving a LPP
Step 1. Formulate the linear programming problem.
Step 2. Graph the feasible region and find the corner points. The coordinates of the corner
points can be obtained by either inspection or by solving the two equations of the
lines intersecting at that point.
Step 3. Make a table listing the value of the objective function at each corner point.
Step 4. Determine the optimal solution from the table in step 3.
If the problem is of maximization (minimization) type, the solution corresponding to the
largest (smallest) value of the objective function is the optimal solution of the LPP.

Note : You may denote the variables as X,Y etc or X1,X 2 etc.
Graphical Solution for the problem of Maximization
Example 1:Solve the following LPP problem graphically.
Maximize Z = 250x + 75y
subject to the constraints:
5x + y ≤ 100
x + y ≤ 60
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
We will now solve this problem graphically. Let us graph the constraints stated as linear
inequalities: 5x + y ≤ 100 ... (1)
x + y ≤ 60 ... (2)
x ≥ 0 ... (3)
y ≥ 0 ... (4)
Step I: Convert the given inequalities into equalities:
5x + y = 100 ...(1)
x + y = 60 ...(2)
x = 0 ... (3)
y = 0 ... (4)

Step II: To find the coordinates of each line equation.

Consider
5x + y = 100 ...(1)
Let us consider y = 0
5x = 100
x = 100 / 5
x = 20
Now, let us consider x = 0
y = 100
Therefore, the coordinates of the line 5x + y = 100 are (20, 100)
Consider
x + y = 60 ...(2)
Let us consider y = 0
x = 60
Now, let us consider x = 0
y = 60
Therefore, the coordinates of the line 5x + y = 100 are (60, 60)
Step III: To plot a graph.

Step IV: To find the common feasible region.

 The graph of this system (shaded region) consists of the points common to all half planes
determined by the inequalities. Each point in this region represents a feasible choice open
to the dealer for investing in tables and chairs. The region, therefore, is called the feasible
region for the problem. Every point of this region is called a feasible solution to the
problem.
  Thus, we have, Feasible region The common region determined by all the constraints
including non-negative constraints x, y ≥ 0 of a linear programming problem is called the
feasible region (or solution region) for the problem. In above figure the region OAED
(shaded) is the feasible region for the problem. The region other than feasible region is
called an infeasible region.

 Feasible solutions point within and on the boundary of the feasible region represent feasible
solutions of the constraints. In the fig, every point within and on the boundary of the
feasible region OAED represents feasible solution to the problem.

 For example, the point (10, 50) is a feasible solution of the problem and so are the points(0,
60), (20, 0) etc.

 Any point outside the feasible region is called an infeasible solution. For example, the point
(60, 0) and the point (0, 100) are infeasible solutions ofthe problem.
Therefore, the common feasible region is OAED
Step V: To Find Optimum solution
Points Objective Function Profit in Rs
Maximize Z = 250x + 75y
O(0,0) 250(0) + 75(0) 0
A(20,0) 250(20) + 75(0) 5000
E(10,50) 250(10) + 75(50) 6250 (Maximum Value)
C(0,60) 250(0) + 75(60) 4500

Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal value (maximum or minimum) of the
objective function is called an optimal solution. Now, we see that every point in the feasible region
OAED satisfies all the constraints as given in (1) to (4), and since there are infinitely many points,
it is not evident how we should go about finding a point that gives a maximum value of the
objective function Z = 250x + 75y. To handle this situation, we use the following theorems which
are fundamental in solving linear programming problems.
Hence the optimal solution is,
Maximize Z = 6250
X = 10
Y = 50

Hence the maximum profit to the dealer i.e. Rs 6250 results from the investment strategy (10,
50), i.e. buying 10 tables and 50 chairs.

Example 2 : Solve the following LPP problem graphically

Minimize Z = 40x + 20y

subject to the constraints:

2x + 5y ≥ 500
10x + 4y ≥200
x + y ≥300
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0

Step I: Convert the given inequalities into equalities:

2x + 5y = 500 ... (1)
10x + 4y =200 ...(2)
x + y = 300 ...(3)
x, y ≥ 0 ... (4)
Step II: To find the coordinates of each line equation.
Consider
2x + 5y = 500 ...... (1)
Let us consider y = 0
2x = 500
x = 500 / 2
x = 250
Now, let us consider x = 0
5y = 500
y = 500 / 5
y = 100
Therefore, the coordinates of the line 2x + 5y = 500are (250, 100)
Consider
10x + 4y =200 ...(2)
Let us consider y = 0
10x = 200
x = 200 / 10
x = 20
Now, let us consider x = 0
4y = 200
y = 200 / 4
y = 50
Therefore, the coordinates of the line 10x + 4y =200 are (20, 50)
Consider
x + y = 300 ... (3)
Let us consider y = 0
x = 300
Now, let us consider x = 0
y = 300
Therefore, the coordinates of the line x + y = 300 are (300, 300)
Step III: To plot a graph
Step IV: To find the common feasible region
The common feasible region is EF

Step V: Feasible solution:

Points Objective Function Cost in Rs
Minimum Z = 30x + 50y
E(300,0) 30(300) + 50(0) 9000
F(0,300) 30(0) + 50(300) 15000
In above table the minimum cost is Rs 9000. The objective function is to minimize the total cost.
Hence,
 Minimum Z = 9000
X = 300
Y=0

Example 2 : Solve the following LPP problem graphically

Minimize Z = 4x + 2y
Subject to : x + 2y ≥ 200
3x + y ≥ 300
4x + 3y ≥ 600
x≥0,y≥0

Step I: Convert the given inequalities into equalities:

x + 2y = 200 ... (1)
3x + y =300...(2)
4x + 3y = 600 ...(3)
x, y ≥ 0 ... (4)

Step II: To find the coordinates of each line equation.

Consider
x + 2y = 200 ...... (1)
Let us consider y = 0
x = 200

Now, let us consider x = 0

2y = 200
y = 200 / 2
y = 100
Therefore, the coordinates of the line 2x + 5y = 500are (200, 100)
Consider
3x + y =300 ...(2)
Let us consider y = 0
3x = 300
x = 300 / 3
x = 100
Now, let us consider x = 0
y = 300
Therefore, the coordinates of the line 3x + y =300 are (100, 300)
Consider
4x + 3y = 600 ... (3)
Let us consider y = 0
4x = 600
x = 600 / 4
x = 150
Now, let us consider x = 0
3y = 600
y = 600 / 3
y = 200
Therefore, the coordinates of the line 4x + 3y = 600 are (150, 200)

Step III: Plot a graph

Step IV: To find the common feasible region
The common feasible region is DA
Step V: Feasible solution:
Points Objective Function Cost
Minimize Z = 4x + 2y
D(0,300) 4(0) + 2(300) 600
A(200,0) 4(200) + 2(0) 800
In above table the minimum cost is Rs 600. The objective function is to minimize the total cost.
Hence,
Minimum Z = 600
X=0
Y = 300
2.7 Important Terms with Respect to the Graphical Method :
a)Alternative Optimal solution or multiple solution :-Alternative solutions occur because the
optimal value occurred at one of the extreme points (corner points). But situations may arise, when
the optimal solution obtained is not unique. This case may arise when the line representing the
objective function is parallel to one of the lines bounding the feasible region.

1. Maximization Z=4X1+3X2
Subect to 4X1+3X2 <=24
X2<=6
X1<=4.5
X1,X2>=0

Step 1 : Convert inequality into equality form

4X1+3X2 =24
X2=6
X1 =4.5

Step 2 : To find the coordinates of each line equation.

4X1+3X2 =24 (X1 = 6 , X2 =8)
X2=6 (X1 = 0 X2 =6)
X1 =4.5 (X1 = 4.5, X2 =0)

Step 3: Plot a graph

Step IV: To find the common feasible region.
The common feasible region is OBCD
Step V: Optimum solution
Points Objective Function Profit in Rs
Max Z=4X1+3X2

O(0,0) 4(0) + 3(0) 0

A(500,0) 4(4.5) + 3(0) 18
B(500,0) 4(4.5) + 3(2) 24 (Maximum Value)
C(0,100) 4(1.5) + 3(6) 24(Maximum Value)
D(0,6) 4(0) + 3(6) 18

Here are multiple solutions at two adjacent points B and C. Hence the optimal value occurs at
every point of segment BC.
Max Z = 24
X1= 4.5 , X2 = 2
X1= 1.5 , X2 =6
b)Unbounded Solutions:-It is a solution whose objective function is infinite. If the feasible
region is unbounded then one or more decision variables will increase indefinitely without
violating feasibility, and the value of the objective function can be made arbitrarily large.

Consider the following example

Minimize z = 3x1+ 5x2

subject to

2x1+ x2 ≥ 7
x1+ x2 ≥ 6
x1+ 3x2 ≥ 9
x1, x2 ≥ 0

Step 1 : Convert inequality into equality form

2x1+ x2 = 7
x1+ x2 = 6
x1+ 3x2 = 9

Step 2 : To find the coordinates of each line equation.

2x1+ x2 = 7 (X1 = 7/2 , X2 =7)
x1+ x2 = 6 ( X1 = 6 , X2 =6)
x1+ 3x2 = 9 ( X1 = 9 , X2 =3)

Step 3: Plot a graph

Step IV: To find the common feasible region.
The common feasible region is ABCD

Step V: Optimum solution

Points Objective Function Profit in Rs
Max Z=3X1+5X2

A(9,0) 3(9) + 5(0) 27

B(4.5,1.5) 3(4.5) + 5(1.5) 21
C(1,5) 3(1) + 5(5) 28
D(0,6) 3(0) + 5(7) 35

In this case, no maximum of the objective function exists because the region has no boundary for
increasing values of x1and x2. Thus, it is not possible to maximize the objective function in this
case and the solution is unbounded.
c) Infeasible Problem :- In some cases, there is no feasible solution area, i.e., there are no points
that satisfy all constraints of the problem. An infeasible LP problem with two decision variables
can be identified through its graph. For example, let us consider the following linear programming
problem.

Minimize z = 200x1 + 300x2

subject to

2x1 + 3x2 ≥ 1200

x1 + x2 ≤ 400
2x1 + 1.5x2 ≥ 900

x1, x2 ≥ 0

Step 1 : Convert inequality into equality form

2x1 + 3x2 = 1200
x1 + x2 = 400
2x1 + 1.5x2 = 900

Step 2 : To find the coordinates of each line equation.

2x1 + 3x2 = 1200 (X1 = 600 , X2 =400)
x1 + x2 = 400 (X1 = 400 , X2 =400)
2x1 + 1.5x2 = 900 (X1 = 450 , X2 =60)

The region located on the right of PQR includes all solutions, which satisfy the first and the third
constraints. The region located on the left of ST includes all solutions, which satisfy the second
constraint. Thus, the problem is infeasible because there is no set of points that satisfy all the
three constraints.
 2.8 Advantages of LPP
i. It helps decision - makers to use their productive resource effectively.

ii. The decision-making approach of the user becomes more objective and less subjective.

iii. In a production process, bottle necks may occur. For example, in a factory some machines
may be in great demand while others may lie idle for some time. A significant advantage
of linear programming is highlighting of such bottle necks.

2.9 APPLICATIONS OF LPP

[Link] and Agriculture : Farmers apply linear programming techniques to their work. By

determining what crops they should grow, the quantity of it and how to use it efficiently,

farmers can increase their revenue. In nutrition, linear programming provides a powerful tool

to aid in planning for dietary needs. In order to provide healthy, low-cost food baskets for

needy families, nutritionists can use linear programming. Constraints may include dietary

guidelines, nutrient guidance, cultural acceptability or some combination thereof.

Mathematical modeling provides assistance to calculate the foods needed to provide nutrition
at low cost, in order to prevent non-communicable disease. Unprocessed food data and prices

are needed for such calculations, all while respecting the cultural aspects of the food types. The

objective function is the total cost of the food basket. Linear programming also allows time

variations for the frequency of making such food baskets.

[Link] in Engineering : Engineers also use linear programming to help solve design
and manufacturing problems. For example, in airfoil meshes, engineers seek aerodynamic shape
optimization. This allows for the reduction of the drag coefficient of the airfoil. Constraints may
include lift coefficient, relative maximum thickness, nose radius and trailing edge angle. Shape
optimization seeks to make a shock-free airfoil with a feasible shape. Linear programming
therefore provides engineers with an essential tool in shape optimization.

[Link] Optimization : Transportation systems rely upon linear programming for cost
and time efficiency. Bus and train routes must factor in scheduling, travel time and passengers.
Airlines use linear programming to optimize their profits according to different seat prices and
customer demand. Airlines also use linear programming for pilot scheduling and routes.
Optimization via linear programming increases airlines' efficiency and decreases expenses.

[Link] Manufacturing : Manufacturing requires transforming raw materials into products

that maximize company revenue. Each step of the manufacturing process must work efficiently
to reach that goal. For example, raw materials must past through various machines for set
amounts of time in an assembly line. To maximize profit, a company can use a linear expression
of how much raw material to use. Constraints include the time spent on each machine. Any
machines creating bottlenecks must be addressed. The amount of products made may be affected,
in order to maximize profit based on the raw materials and the time needed.

[Link] Industry : Modern energy grid systems incorporate not only traditional electrical
systems, but also renewables such as wind and solar photovoltaics. In order to optimize the
electric load requirements, generators, transmission and distribution lin es, and storage must be
taken into account. At the same time, costs must remain sustainable for profits. Linear
programming provides a method to optimize the electric power system design. It allows for
matching the electric load in the shortest total distance between generation of the electricity and
its demand over time. Linear programming can be used to optimize load-matching or to optimize
cost, providing a valuable tool to the energy industry.

2.10 LMITATIONS OF LPP

[Link] of relations: A primary requirement of linear programming is that the objective
function and every constraint must be linear. However, in real life situations, several business
and industrial problems are nonlinear in nature.

[Link] objective: Linear programming takes into account a single objective only, i.e., profit
maximization or cost minimization. However, in today's dynamic business environment, there is
no single universal objective for all organizations.
[Link]: Linear Programming assumes that the values of co-efficient of decision variables are
known with certainty. Due to this restrictive assumption, linear programming cannot be applied to
a wide variety of problems where values of the coefficients are probabilistic

[Link] parameters: Parameters appearing in LP are assumed to be constant, but in practical

situations it is not so.

[Link]: In linear programming, the decision variables are allowed to take non-negative
integer as well as fractional values. However, we quite often face situations where the planning
models contain integer valued variables. For instance, trucks in a fleet, generators in a powerhouse,
pieces of equipment, investment alternatives and there are myriad of other examples. Rounding
off the solution to the nearest integer will not yield an optimal solution. In such cases, linear
programming techniques cannot be used.