Spatial Reference Systems

Global Positioning Systems

GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Lecture #2: Spatial Reference Systems and Global Positioning Systems

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa

Department of Human Geography

University of Toronto Scarborough

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Spatial Reference Systems

Global Positioning Systems

Agenda

Spatial Reference Systems

Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Global Positioning Systems

GPS: smart phone apps

GPS: dedicated devices

GPS: data formats

Plus:
Ï Assignment 1: overview.
Ï Plan for today’s tutorial.
Ï Mentimeter quizz

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)
Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Introductions (Mentimeter)

In groups of 2 or 3, according to where you are sitting - everybody in a group!

Ï Introduce yourselves to each other:
Ï name
Ï something you enjoy doing outside school and
Ï share the names of the cities/towns where you have lived
Ï roughly pin those places in the map on screen (Mentimeter)

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Fernando’s brief, partial geo-bio: Peruvian & Canadian towns

I’ve lived in

-5.1783, -80.6549 Context matters:

-15.4997, -70.1297 Ï Narrative georeferences are probably more useful
-12.0467, -77.0431 here.
-16.4057, -71.5401 Ï Does the precision of these georeferences make
-18.0068, -70.2460
sense?
43.6532, -79.3832

All coordinates transcribed from Google Maps.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)
Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Accuracy and Precision

Following Longley et al. (2015, p. 115):

Ï Accuracy: are the answers correct when compared to a known
standard? Centre of circle in the diagrams.
Ï Precision:
Ï (surveyors and GPS): how repeatable (or similar) are the results when
doing multiple measurements of the same thing? Clustering in
diagram A shows higher precision than in diagram B.
Ï (science, more generally): to what degree of exactness is an answer
specified? Often, how many decimals are included in a measurement
when dealing with quantitative data.

Image: Longley et al. (ibid., p. 115)

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Context: Geographic Data

Shown: a single entity or feature in a vector model (Bolstad 2012, p. 27).

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)
Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Cartesian Grid: 2 dimensions

10
Cartesian grid:
8 Ï Indicates directions of 2 primary axes (or more for

6
B higher dimensions): x (usually horizontal) and y
(usually vertical). Axes are usually at 90◦ to each
other.
4 Ï Measures constant units in each direction. Units do

2
A not vary with location.
Ï Shows origin (location of 0,0) as basis of other
measurements.

0 2 4 6 8 10

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Earth model: Geoid

The shape of the earth is most accurately

modelled as a geoid which, according to US
National Geodetic Survey (NGS) is “the
equipotential surface of the Earth’s gravity field
which best fits, in a least squares sense, global
mean sea level” (US National Oceanographic
and Atmospheric Administration 2001).

(ibid.)

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)
Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Earth model: Geoid

An uneven, undulating representation of the earth’s

surface shape based on the variations of the earth’s
gravitational forces, in turn caused by regional
variations in density and other factors (Bolstad 2016,
p. 91).

(Bolstad 2012, p. 78)

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Earth models: Geometric datums

ellipsoid

Ï The geoid is complex to work with as the

basis of locational computations.
Ï Instead, geometric models are used to
approximate the geoid, typically ellipsoids sphere
(oblate spheroids) or, to reduce complexity
even further, spheres.

But each modelling step is a simplification and potentially introduces errors compared to reality.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)
Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Ellipsoid parameters

Ellipsoid a (m) b (m) flattening

Clarke 1866 6,378,206.4 6,356,583.8 1/294.98
GRS80 6,378,137.0 6,356,752.3 1/298.26
WGS84 6,378,137.0 6,356,752.3 1/298.26

(Bolstad 2012, p. 75)

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Spatial Reference Systems: definitions

Spatial Reference System: agreed method for specifying locations on earth (or on a portion of the
earth). Two important components:
1. Model of the earth’s shape and size.
2. Coordinate system, establishing agreement about:
Ï Origin of the system: x=0, y=0 and, if vertical measures as well, z=0.
Ï Known locations and their accurately measured coordinates.
Ï units of measure (e.g., degrees latitude/longitude, metres)

Note: A coordinate system may be accompanied by a description of how locations are

transferred from the globe to a plane (i.e., flat map). This is called the projection. I’m glossing
over this part of the story until week 4.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 48 N
Max = 1.648 m
Ave = 0.34156 m
Std = 0.27893 m
o
42 N 1m
o
Spatial Reference Systems 40Geographic
No o o o o o o
126 W Coordinates108
130 W (Latitude
W and Longitude)
90 W 72 W 54 W 45 W
Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)
Figure 1: Errors in the NAD83 horizontal control network in Canada as represented by differences with respect to high
accuracy GPS surveys tied almost directly to the fundamental reference frame of NAD83 defined by the VLBI stations.

Spatial Reference: definitions

75oN

o
70 N

FAIR
YELL
WHIT
60oN

Geodetic Datum: model of the shape of the

earth along with well-known locations and their 50oN PENT
ALGO
coordinates that “fix” the relationship between HAYS

the ellipsoid and (part or all of) the world. 40oN

PLAT
GREE
WEST

MARY
Examples:
FTDA
Ï North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27) 30 N
o

RICH
25oN o
Ï North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83). 170 W
o
150 W
o
125 W
o
100 W
o
75 W
o
50 W

Figure 2: VLBI stations used to derive the new ITRF96-NAD83 transformation.

See Bolstad (2016, p. 101) for discussion of
Image: Craymer et al. (2000): Select, well-known
NAD83 variants.
stations with highly accurate clocks. Part of the
control network used to recalibrate and unify
the NAD83 Datum in 1996. Result is Canada’s
spatial reference: NAD83 (CSRS)
Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Location relative to an Ellipsoid

Location coordinates on the globe: angular longitude and latitude (Dent 1999, p. 32). Often re-
ferred to as a Geographic Coordinate System.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)
Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Example: Use of Geographic Coordinate System

Atlas of Canada, 4th Edition, pp. 45–46

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Example: Use of Geographic Coordinate System

Ï Geographic coordinates and grid used directly on the map.

Ï Is this like a standard Cartesian grid? Why or why not? Atlas of Canada, 4th Edi-
Ï Estimate the coordinates of the blue dot. tion, pp. 45–46 (detail)

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)
Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) for Canada

Part of worldwide UTM. Each

zone has a distinct central merid-
ian and uses false Eastings and
Northings. Reduces east-west
distortions but extended east-
west areas span multiple zones
making them difficult to work
with in this system. See Dent et al.
(2009, pp. 58–60) and Natural Re-
sources Canada (2008).

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

UTM Grid Coordinates: in each zone

Grid or Map Coordinates: a 2-dimensional Cartesian coordinate

system with origin adjusted for each zone.
Ï Toronto is in UTM Zone 17 N:
Ï Central meridian: 81◦ W
Ï Ideal Longitude range: 84◦ W to 78◦ W
Ï Ottawa is in UTM Zone 18 N:
Ï Central meridian: 75◦ W
Ï Ideal Longitude range: 78◦ W to 72◦ W

Image: (Bolstad 2012, p. 75)

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)
Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

CanMatrix Map Example: adjoining map areas

Ï Northings increase moving north.

Ï Eastings increase moving east.
Ï How to read the map grid (blue
text)?
Ï What are the map coordinates for
the blue dot?

Map detail: CanMatrix 31D 1:250K (NRCAN), 1998

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

CanMatrix Map Example: adjoining map areas

Adjoining edges of two maps. Align

two roads near top. What is hap-
pening with the Eastings on the two
Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS maps??
I
 Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)
Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

CanMatrix Map Example: adjoining map areas

UTM Zone 17 N Coordinates used:

Ï Central meridian: 81◦ W
Ï Ideal Longitude range: 84◦ W to 78◦ W
Ï This map is on boundary of ideal range.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

CanMatrix Map Example: adjoining map areas

UTM Zone 18 N Coordinates used:

Ï Central meridian: 75◦ W
Ï Ideal Longitude range: 78◦ W to 72◦ W
Ï This map is on boundary of ideal range.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 Spatial Reference Systems Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)
Global Positioning Systems Grid or Map Coordinates (Northings and Eastings)

CanMatrix Map Example: adjoining map areas

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

Northings are similar (not exact): origin based at Equator for both UTM zones.
Eastings are not similar: based on specific origin for each zone.
GPS: smart phone apps
Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

Global Positioning Systems

Image: Bolstad (2012, p. 184); more info: [Link]

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I
 GPS: smart phone apps
Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

2-Dimensional trilateration: how receiver location is found

2-dimensional equivalent to 3D satellite positioning:

finding distances from marked point to transmitters
with known locations (“the satellites”) on a flat
surface.
Ï For a stationary object knowing the distance to
a single satellite provides range but not
position: could be anywhere on the circle.
range Ï Add a second satellite with known delay and the
object can only be at one of the intersections of
the circles defined by the (delay) distances.
- delay known
Ï Add a third and the position of the object can be
- direction not known
calculated: one point where all three circles
intersect.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

range
GPS: smart phone apps
Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
- delay known Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

- direction not known

Global Positioning Systems

In the 3-D world, the added dimension

requires one additional satellite to acquire
an “instantaneous” position estimate.
range Given a short period of time, the motion of
3 satellites allows you to eliminate one of
the two intersection points from 3 satellite
- delay known
ranges. Location can be determined with
- direction not known
time.

(Bolstad 2012, p. 184)

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 GPS: smart phone apps
Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

GPS Sources of Inaccuracy

GPS receivers may not record accurate position estimates. Some causes:
Ï errors in transmission of satellite ephemerides (journal of positions).
Ï signal errors (e.g., scrambled ephemeris data, possibly because of poor reception) causing
delay miscalculations.
Ï atmospheric or ionospheric delays (signal doesn’t travel at the speed of light because the
atmosphere is not a vacuum).
Ï Signal reflections off obstacles (e.g. concrete buildings) causing increased delays for
satellite signals.
Ï Unknown handling of satellite information and calculation methods by consumer-grade
electronics and apps.
Short version: GPS inaccuracy can and will require you to think about the “true” location of
things. What scale do you need to work at so that the inaccuracy of measurements doesn’t
overwhelm the precision of your measurements.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

GPS: smart phone apps

Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

Improved accuracy: differential GPS

To improve accuracy of GPS readings, use GPS to measure the location of a well-known location
(e.g., survey marker) and compare the reading to the locations surveyed coordinates. Use the
difference found to adjust all nearby computed locations measured about the same time.
Assume that all readings are subject to approximately the same inaccuracies.

Based on CSRS, Canada maintains active and passive control stations for survey work.
Ï Canadian Active Control System (CACS): https:
//[Link]/geod/data-donnees/[Link]?locale=en
Ï Passive Control Networks (e.g., Canadian Base Network): http:
//[Link]/geod/data-donnees/[Link]?locale=en

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 GPS: smart phone apps
Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

GPS: Common terminology

Waypoint: a single marked location (see green Track: a sequential collection of locations, form-
pin). ing a polyline (see orange track).

Screen shots from GPS Essentials (Android App)

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

GPS: smart phone apps

Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

GPS: sample smart phone app interface

GPS Essentials (Android App) Screenshots:

(left) main menu screen showing way-
points, tracks, and satellites options; and
(right) the satellites view.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 GPS: smart phone apps
Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

GPS: sample smart phone app interface

GPS Essentials (Android App) Screenshots: (left) track

list showing record button; and (right) waypoint list
showing “+” button to add another. Circled menu
contains additional functions like “export”. Export via
email, file sharing services (e.g., Dropbox), etc.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

GPS: smart phone apps

Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

GPS: dedicated hand-held (Garmin)

Differences from smart phone apps:

Ï When on, it records. You can periodically “save”
current track to break up recorded track into
multiple pieces.
Ï Simultaneously, record tracks and mark waypoints.
Ï USB interface for transferring collected data (on this
unit); others provide USB and wireless interfaces.
Ï Fairly rugged package (shock protecting case and
water resistant).

Garmin Etrex 10 manual: [Link]

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 GPS: smart phone apps
Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

GPS Data Formats

When transferring GPS data for mapping, almost all applications will offer several different data
formats. Use these:
Ï GPs eXchange format (GPX): a de facto standard for exchanging GPS data between devices
and services, based on eXtensible Markup Language (XML).
Ï Keyhole Markup Language (KML): originally a de facto standard for geographic markup
(data and annotations) promoted by Google. Eventually standardized through the the Open
Geospatial Consortium (OGC). Also a file format based on XML.
Some free apps will allow you to record tracks but will force you to upgrade to a paid version to
export. The apps listed in Assignment 1 seem to support data exports in the free version.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

GPS: smart phone apps

Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

Creating GPS Data: examples

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

“Earth writing” with GPS: the inac-

 GPS: smart phone apps
Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

Mentimeter

End of Lecture Exercise (Mentimeter)

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

GPS: smart phone apps

Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

Announcements

Ï Volunteer Notetakers have

Volunteer Note Takers Needed
been requested for this AccessAbility Services
course. AccessAbility Services is recruiting volunteer note takers to assist
Ï There will be two Teaching students with disabilities.
Volunteers play an essential role in allowing students to access
Assistants working with us course materials, which they may otherwise not have access to.
in the the course this year:
Ï Sana Riaz – Co-Curricular Record (CCR) Approved Position

[Link]@[Link] [Link] to [Link]/utscnotes and select myAIMS Notetaker Log-In

[Link] the simple step-by-step process to register.
Ï Brenn Anderson-Gregson [Link] notes files into the AccessAbility Services myAIMS note taking portal

– [Link]- If you have questions please contact AccessAbility Services

(416) 208-2662 or [Link]@[Link]
son@[Link]

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 GPS: smart phone apps
Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

Notes / Readings

Today’s Tutorials:
Ï ArcGIS overview: setting up projects, adding and symbolizing data.
Ï Creating data with GPS or mobile devices.

Next week:
Ï Vector and raster data.
Ï Data design issues.
Ï Reading:
Ï Longley et al. (2015, 62–69 (§3.5–§3.6));
Ï Longley et al. (ibid., 152–159 (§7.1–§[Link])).
Ï During next week’s tutorial, we will discuss importing your GPS data into ArcGIS for
mapping. Try to have GPS data (even bad tracks) when you come to next week’s tutorial
sessions. We will not be spending time that session creating GPS data.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

GPS: smart phone apps

Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

References I

Bolstad, Paul (2012). GIS fundamentals: A first text on Geographic Information Systems. 4th ed. White Bear Lake,
MN: Eider Press.
— (2016). GIS fundamentals: A first text on Geographic Information Systems. 5th ed. White Bear Lake, MN: Eider
Press.
Craymer, M., R. Ferland, and R. Snay (2000). “Realization and Unification of NAD83 in Canada and the U.S. via the
ITRF”. Towards an Integrated Global Geodetic Observing System (IGGOS). Ed. by Rummel, Reinhard,
Hermann Drewes, Wolfgang Bosch, and Helmut Hornik. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg,
pp. 118–121. ISBN: 978-3-642-59745-9.
Dent, Borden D. (1999). Cartography: Thematic Map Design. 5th ed. Boston: WCB/McGraw-Hill.

Dent, Borden D., Jeffrey S. Torguson, and Thomas W. Hodler (2009). Cartography: Thematic Map Design. 6th ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Longley, Paul A., Michael F. Goodchild, David J. Maguire, and David W. Rhind (2015). Geographic Information
Science & Systems. 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN: 978-1-118-67695-0. Available at
[Link]

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I

 GPS: smart phone apps
Spatial Reference Systems
GPS: dedicated devices
Global Positioning Systems
GPS: data formats

References II

Natural Resources Canada (2008). “The UTM Grid - Universal Transverse Mercator Projection”. Available at http:
//[Link]/earth-sciences/geography-boundary/mapping/topographic-mapping/10568,
accessed Sept. 2013.
US National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (2001). “What is the geoid?” Available at
[Link] accessed Sept. 2014.

Fernando Calderón-Figueroa GGRB30: Fundamentals of GIS I