CE3240 Data Communication and Networks
Week 2
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Communication Model
➢ The fundamental purpose of a communication system is the
exchange of data between two parties.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Communication Model
➢ Source: This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples
are telephones and personal computers
➢ Transmitter: A transmitter transforms and encodes the information in
such a way as to produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted
across some sort of transmission system
➢ Transmission system: This can be a single transmission line or a
complex network connecting source and destination
➢ Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system
and converts it into a form that can be handled by the destination device.
➢ Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Data Communication Model
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Network Model
➢ A network is a combination of hardware and software that sends
data from one location to another.
➢ The hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries
signals from one point of the network to another.
➢ The software consists of instruction sets that make possible
the services that we expect from a network.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Layered approach (Example)
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Layered approach (Example)
At the sender’s site At the receiver’s site
Higher layer: The sender writes the Lower layer: The carrier
letter, inserts the letter in an transports the letter to the post
envelope, writes the sender and
receiver addresses, and drops the office.
letter in a mailbox. Middle layer: The letter is sorted
Middle layer: The letter is picked up and delivered to the recipient's
by a letter carrier and delivered to mailbox.
the post office.
Lower layer: The letter is sorted at Higher layer: The receiver picks up
the post office; a carrier transports the letter, opens the envelope,
the letter. and reads it.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
OSI Model
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
The OSI Model
➢ The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model was developed by the
International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) as a model for a
computer protocol architecture and as a
framework for developing protocol
standards.
➢ The OSI model consists of seven layers.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting raw bit streams over a physical medium,
defining the mechanical, electrical, and functional aspects of data transmission. The
physical layer is also concerned with the following:
1. Bit Representation and Encoding – The physical layer represents data as a stream of bits (0s and
1s) and defines how these bits are encoded into electrical or optical signals for transmission.
2. Data Rate and Synchronization – It determines the transmission rate (bits per second) and
ensures synchronization between the sender’s and receiver’s clocks to maintain data integrity.
3. Line Configuration and Topology – The physical layer defines how devices connect to the
transmission medium, including point-to-point or multipoint connections. It also supports
different network topologies such as mesh, star, ring, bus, and hybrid.
4. Transmission Modes – It governs how data is transmitted between devices, supporting simplex
(one-way), half-duplex (alternating two-way), and full-duplex (simultaneous two-way)
communication.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Data Link Layer
The data link layer transforms the raw physical layer into a reliable
communication link, making it appear error-free to the network layer.
1. Framing – It organizes data into frames, breaking the bit stream into manageable units for
efficient transmission.
2. Physical Addressing – It adds a header to frames that identifies the sender and receiver,
ensuring proper data delivery within and across networks.
3. Flow Control – It regulates data transmission rates, preventing the sender from overwhelming
the receiver when processing speeds differ.
4. Error Control – The data link layer detects and corrects errors, retransmitting lost or damaged
frames and preventing duplication using a trailer at the end of frames.
5. Access Control – It manages shared network resources, ensuring multiple devices on the
same link do not collide when sending data.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Network Layer
The network layer ensures that packets travel from the source to the final-
destination, even across multiple networks.
1. Logical Addressing – The network layer assigns logical addresses (such as IP
addresses) to packets, allowing them to be correctly identified and routed across
networks.
2. Routing – When multiple independent networks are connected (forming an
internetwork), the network layer uses routers and switches to direct packets toward
their destination.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Transport Layer
The transport layer ensures that a complete message is delivered from a specific process
on one computer to a specific process on another, unlike the network layer, which only
ensures packet delivery between devices.
1. Service-Point Addressing (Port Addressing) – To distinguish between multiple running
applications, the transport layer assigns a service-point (port) address, ensuring data reaches
the correct process on the receiving device.
2. Segmentation and Reassembly – Large messages are divided into smaller segments, each
with a sequence number to allow correct reassembly and to recover lost packets during
transmission.
3. Connection Control – The transport layer can be either connectionless or connectionoriented.
4. Flow Control – It manages data transmission end-to-end, ensuring the sender does not
overwhelm the receiver, unlike the data link layer, which controls flow over a single link.
5. Error Control – The transport layer ensures process-to-process error detection and
correction, making sure the entire message arrives without damage, loss, or duplication,
typically through retransmission mechanisms.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Session Layer
The session layer manages and synchronizes communication
between systems, ensuring smooth interaction beyond the basic
transmission provided by the lower layers.
1. Dialog control – The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It
allows the communication between two processes to take place in either
halfduplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
2. Synchronization – The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synChronization points, to a stream of data.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of
the information exchanged between two systems.
1. Translation – The presentation layer ensures interoperability by
translating data between different encoding formats used by
sender and receiver systems.
2. Encryption – The presentation layer ensures data privacy through
encryption and decryption of transmitted information.
3. Compression – Data compression reduces the number of bits
contained in the information.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Application Layer
The application layer enables users (human or software) to interact
with the network.
1. Network Virtual Terminal: It allows remote login by creating a software
emulation of a physical terminal.
2. File Transfer, Access, and Management: Users can retrieve, modify, and
manage files on remote systems.
3. Mail Services: Provides email forwarding and storage functionality.
4. Directory Services: Offers distributed database sources for global information
access.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Summary of Layers
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
➢ The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model.
Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly
match those in the OSI model.
➢ The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four
layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
TCP/IP and OSI Model
1. Physical Layer in TCP/IP model
➢ Physical layer is responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame
across the link in the form of either electrical or optical signals.
➢ The logical unit between two physical layers in two physical layers
in two devices is a bit.
➢ There are several protocols that transform a bit to a signal.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
1. Data Link Layer in TCP/IP model
➢ The main functions are almost the same as of that for OSI model.
➢ The logical unit between two data link layers in two devices is a
frame.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
2. Network Layer in TCP/IP model
➢ The same main function of that in OSI model.
➢ The logical unit between two network layers in two device is a
packet.
➢ At the network layer supports the Internetworking Protocol (IP).
➢ IP uses four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Internetworking Protocol (IP)
➢ The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism
used by the TCP/IP protocols.
➢ It is unreliable and connectionless protocol – a best – effort
delivery service.
➢ The term best effort means that IP provides no error checking or
tracking.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Internetworking Protocol (IP) – supporting protocols
Address Resolution Protocol
➢ The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical
address with a physical address.
➢ ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet
address is known.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
➢ The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover
its Internet address when it knows only its physical address.
➢ It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time or
when a diskless computer is booted.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
Internetworking Protocol (IP) – supporting protocols
Internet Control Message Protocol
➢ The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by
hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the
sender.
➢ ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.
Internet Group Message Protocol
➢ The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the
simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
3. Transport layer in TCP/IP model
➢ Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two
protocols: TCP and UDP.
➢ IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet
from one physical device to another.
➢ The logical unit between two transport layers in two devices is a
segment or datagram.
➢ UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery
of a datagram or segment from end-to-end (from the source node
to the destination node).
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
3. Transport layer in TCP/IP model
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Advantages
➢ Connection oriented; that first establishes a logical connection
between transport layers at two hosts before transferring data.
➢ Provides flow control, error control, and congestion control.
Disadvantages
➢ Connection overhead
➢ Connection delay
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
3. Transport layer in TCP/IP model
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP):
Advantages
➢ Less overhead in the connection established.
➢ Lower delay in the connection established.
Disadvantages
➢ It is a connectionless protocol that transmits user datagrams
without first creating a logical connection.
3. Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP): is newly designed for
applications that are emerging in the multimedia.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
4. Application Layer in TCP/IP model
➢ The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined
session, presentation, and application layers in the OSI model.
➢ The logical unit between two application layers in two devices is a
message.
➢ Process (running program) – to – process communication is the
duty of application layer.
➢ Many protocols are defined at this layer such as: HTTP, FTP, SMTP,
DNS, TELNET.
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali
CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali