1.1 What is Structural Engineering?

A structure is a system of connected parts used to support a load. Examples include buildings,
bridges, towers, ship and aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels, and electrical supporting
structures. Structural engineering focuses on designing these structures to be safe, aesthetically
pleasing, and functional while considering economic and environmental factors. This design
process requires an understanding of material properties and the principles of mechanics that
govern how materials respond to loads.

1.2 Types of Structures

Structures can be classified based on their form and how they transmit loads. The following are
common types of structures:

Tension Structures: Members in tension structures experience pure tension under load.

Compression Structures: Columns and arches are common compression structures.

Trusses: Trusses consist of slender members connected by hinges or pins, forming triangular
arrangements.

Shear Structures: Shear walls resist lateral forces like wind and earthquakes by developing
shear stresses.

Bending Structures: Beams and rigid frames experience bending stresses under load.

Frames: Frameworks distribute and transmit forces through interconnected structural

members.

1.3 Loads on Structures

1.3.1 Load Classification

Dead Loads: Self-weight of the structure and permanent attachments.

Live Loads: Temporary or moving loads such as people and vehicles.

Environmental Loads: Forces from wind, snow, earthquakes, and hydrostatic pressure.
 Introduction to structures

1.3.2 Load Transmission and Load Paths

Vertical (Gravity) Load Path: Transmits dead and live loads downward.

Lateral (Horizontal) Load Path: Transfers lateral loads through bracing elements and
diaphragms.

1.4 Equilibrium

Newton's Third Law of Motion supports the force-reaction concept

(equilibrium).

Newton's Third Law states that for every action, there is an equal
and opposite reaction.
This principle is fundamental to understanding equilibrium, where
all forces acting on an object are balanced.
If an object A exerts a force on object B, object B simultaneously
exerts an equal and opposite force on object A.
In equilibrium, these forces cancel each other out, resulting in no
net force and no acceleration.

1.4.1 Principles of Equilibrium

Concurrent Force Systems: A concurrent force system exists when the lines of action of all forces
pass through a common point. For equilibrium:

ΣH = 0 (sum of horizontal forces)

ΣV = 0 (sum of vertical forces)

Non-Concurrent Force Systems: Equilibrium involves balancing force components and

moments:

ΣH = 0 (sum of horizontal forces)

ΣV = 0 (sum of vertical forces)

ΣM = 0 (sum of moments)

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1.4.2 Equilibrium of Concurrent Force Systems

For a system of concurrent forces to be in equilibrium:

ΣH = 0 or ΣFx = 0 (sum of horizontal forces)

ΣV = 0 or ΣFy = 0 (sum of vertical forces)

Unknown forces in concurrent systems can be determined by:

Assuming both forces are tensile.

Setting up ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0.

Solving the equations simultaneously.

Activity 1.1: A B
45° 30°
The diagram illustrates a concurrent force system
where a 2kN force acts through point O. The lines of
action of two other forces, A and B, also pass through 0
point O.
Determine the magnitudes and directions of forces A
and B to ensure the system is in equilibrium.
2kN
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 Introduction to structures

Activity 1.2:
120N
The diagram depicts a concurrent force system
P
where three forces are known. Two additional 30°

forces, P and Q, act through a common point. 75° 100N

Horizontal
Determine the magnitudes and the nature of 45°

Vertical
forces P and Q required to maintain
160N
equilibrium for the entire system.
Q

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 Introduction to structures

1.4.3 Equilibrium of Non-Concurrent Force Systems

In the previous topic, we explored the equilibrium of concurrent force systems, where all forces
intersect at a single point. To solve these problems, we utilized the equilibrium equations:
ΣFx = 0 (Sum of horizontal forces is zero)
ΣFy = 0 (Sum of vertical forces is zero)
However, when dealing with non-concurrent force systems, where the lines of action of forces do
not intersect at a single point, these equations alone are insufficient. To analyse such systems,
we must introduce the concept of the "moment of a force."
[Link]. Moment of a Force
Definition: The moment of a force about a point is the measure of its tendency to cause rotation
about that point. It is calculated as the product of the force's magnitude and the perpendicular
distance from the point to the line of action of the force.

Mathematically:
Moment of Force (M) = Force (F) x Perpendicular Distance (d) Force (F)
d
For equilibrium:
0
ΣM = 0 (sum of moments), Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise
moments

Moments are introduced to analyse non-concurrent force systems using:

ΣH = 0 (sum of horizontal forces)

ΣV = 0 (sum of vertical forces)

ΣM = 0 (sum of moments)

1.5 Moments- Rule of resultant

 The moment of a force about any point is the magnitude of the force multiplied by the
perpendicular distance (shortest distance) from that point to the line of action of the
force.

 The moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to turn or cause rotation about the
point under consideration.

 If the line of action of a force passes through the point about which moments are being
considered, the moment of the force about that point is zero.

The symbol ΣMA denotes "the sum of all clockwise or anticlockwise moments about a point.

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 Introduction to structures

Rule of Components

 The algebraic sum of the moments of the components of a force about any point is the
same as the moment of the force about that point.
A
Activity 1.3:
2m

A 10 kN force acts on a structure as 45°

B
C 2m
shown in the diagram. Determine the
moments of this force about points A,
B, and C.
10kN
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 Introduction to structures

Activity 1.4: 1m 2m 1m

Calculate (ΣMa) clockwise 4kN 6kN

and (ΣMa) anticlockwise
respectively. 2kN 8kN

1.5m

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Rule of the Resultant

 The sum of the moments of any number of forces about any point is the same as the
moment of their resultant about that point.
x̅ R

F1 F2 F3 F4

0
x1
x2
x3
x4

This principle is particularly useful to locate the resultant of a system of parallel forces.

The magnitude of the resultant (R) of parallel forces F1, F2, F3, and F4 is equal to F1 + F2 + F3
+ F4. (R = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4)

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 Introduction to structures

If the location of R is denoted by x̅ , the distance from point 0 can be calculated as follows:

Rx̅ = F1 x1 + F2 x2 + F3 x3 + F4 x4.

Moment Principle with Respect to Equilibrium

 If a body is in equilibrium under the action of a number of forces, then the algebraic sum
of the moments of all the forces about any point equals zero. This can be expressed as
ΣM = 0.

 It can also be said that, considered about any point, clockwise moments equal
anticlockwise moments.

 This principle helps calculate unknown forces required to maintain the equilibrium of
forces not acting through a common point.

Activity1.5:

Determine the magnitude and the position of the resultant force system.
5 12 10 8 7

1m 1.5m 1m 2m

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 Introduction to structures

1.6 Statical Determinacy

1.6.1. Internal Stability

A structure is considered internally stable or rigid if it maintains its shape and remains a
rigid body when detached from its supports. Conversely, a structure is termed internally
unstable if it cannot maintain its shape and may undergo large displacements under
small disturbances when not supported externally. Most engineering structures are
internally stable, meaning they offer significant resistance to changes in shape.
Internal stability is a critical consideration in structural design. Internally stable
structures, often called rigid structures, are essential for ensuring safety and
functionality. On the other hand, internally unstable structures, or nonrigid structures,
require external constraints to maintain equilibrium and resist deformation.

1.6.2. Static Determinacy of Internally Stable Structures

An internally stable structure is statically determinate externally if all its support
reactions can be determined by solving the equations of equilibrium. For a plane
structure to remain in equilibrium under a general system of coplanar loads, it must be
supported by at least three reactions that satisfy the three equations of equilibrium
(∑Fx=0, ∑Fy=0, and ∑M=0). Hence, a plane structure that is statically determinate
externally must be supported by exactly three reactions.
Statically Unstable (r < 3): The structure cannot remain in equilibrium under a general
system of loads.
Statically Determinate (r = 3): All reactions can be determined using the three
equilibrium equations.
Statically Indeterminate (r > 3): Not all reactions can be determined using the three
equilibrium equations. The degree of external indeterminacy is given by:

1.6.3 Static Determinacy of Internally Unstable Structures

Internally unstable structures require additional support reactions to be fully
constrained. The presence of internal hinges or rollers introduces equations of
condition that can supplement the equilibrium equations to determine the reactions:
Internal Hinge: Provides one equation of condition (∑M=0 about the hinge). Hence
ec=1 for a hinge

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 Introduction to structures

Internal Roller: Provides two equations of condition (∑Fx=0 and ∑M=0). Hence ec=2
for an internal roller.
For an internally unstable structure with equations of condition and external reactions:

The structure is statically unstable externally if (r < 3 + ec): The structure cannot be
fully constrained.
The structure is statically determinate externally if (r = 3 + ec): All reactions can be
determined using the equilibrium equations and equations of condition.
The structure is statically indeterminate externally if (r > 3 + ec): Not all reactions can
be determined. The degree of external indeterminacy (ie ) is calculate using the
formular: ie = r−(3+ec).

1.7 Geometric Instability

Even if a structure satisfies the conditions for static determinacy or indeterminacy, it
can still be geometrically unstable. This occurs if the reactions are parallel, concurrent,
or if internal hinges are arranged in a manner that prevents stability. To ensure
geometric stability:
Reactions must be neither parallel nor concurrent.
Internal hinges or portions with three or more collinear hinges must be supported
externally.

Activity 1.8:

Classify each of the structures shown in fig 1.0 as externally unstable, statically
determinate or statically indeterminate. If the structure is statically indeterminate
externally, the determine the degree of external indeterminacy.

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 Introduction to structures
A B A C
B

Hinge
(a)
(b)

A B
C Hinge Hinge

(c) Roller
(d)

Hinge

Hinge

Hinge
(e)

Hinge
Hinge

Hinge Hinge

(f) (g)

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 Introduction to structures

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Support Reactions
Support reactions are calculated by resolving forces and applying equilibrium equations to
ensure stability.

 If a body is in equilibrium under the action of a number of forces then:

o ΣH = 0
o ΣV = 0
o ΣM = 0
 Hinged support reactions are normally determined by calculating the horizontal and
vertical components of the reaction first.
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 Introduction to structures

 These two components are then combined vectorially to yield the reaction.
 The two components can be obtained by applying the horizontal and vertical
equilibrium conditions to the system once all the other forces are known.
Beam Supports
 When calculating reactions at the supports of horizontal beams, the law of moments is
applied about the left support point to calculate the reaction at the right support.
 Then the law of moments is applied to the right support point to calculate the reaction at
the left support.
 The calculations should be checked by making sure that the downward loads, added
together, are equal to the sum of the upward reactions at the supports.
 The weight of a beam (or body) is always represented by a vertical-downward force of
which the line of action passes through the center of gravity of the beam.
 If the beam is of "uniform" cross section, the center of gravity will always be at the center
of the length of the beam, irrespective of the positions of the supports.
 If the mass of the beam is not mentioned at all it is ignored in the calculations.
 The total weight of a uniformly distributed load is always represented by a vertically
downward point load acting in the center of the length over which the load is
distributed.

1.8 Analysis of Pin-Jointed Frames

Pin-jointed frames (trusses) are analysed using:

Method of Joints: Applies equilibrium equations at joints.

Method of Sections: Analyses a cut section to calculate forces.

Graphical Method: Visually solves for forces in simple cases.

This topic will be discussed in detail in chapter 3.

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 Introduction to structures

Concurrent forces
Calculate the magnitude and the nature the respective unknown forces

1.1 1.2 1.3 1kN

0.5kN 1.4
Q
1.5kN S P
8N 45° 45° O 45°
0 45° O P 5N
T 120°
O
75° 60°
60° 30°
30° 20kN
Q
P 50kg 10N
Q 1kN

1.5 Two poles, AC and Ab stand in a vertical plane on level ground with their upper ends tied
together at point A. The length AB is 4m, AC = 3m and BC =3m. determine the force
exerted by each pole when a weight of 15kN is suspended from A.

1.6 The diagram shows a mass M suspended from the C

end of a jib AB which is held in position by a tie BC.
Determine the maximum value of the mass in kg 3m

and the corresponding force in the jib if the B

A
permissible tension in the tie BC is 8kN 4m
M

1.7 A body weighing 10kN is suspended by a rope. The

rope is now pulled by a horizontal force P so that the
30°
rope is inclined at 300 to the vertical as shown in the
sketch.
P
Calculate the magnitude of P and the tension in the
inclined portion of the rope.
Body

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 Introduction to structures

1.8 Find the force in the tie and jib under a

load of 5kN as shown in the sketch.
Load
3m

D A
1.9 The end of a light rope ABCD are connected to
60° 30°
the same horizontal beam A and D. Masses of
1kg, and M are then suspended at B and C so that
75° B
the ropes forms angles as shown in the diagram. C
M
Calculate the magnitude of mass M.
1kg

Non-concurrent forces
2m
1.10 Determine the moment of the 10kN force
about point. State whether it is clockwise 1m
or anticlockwise
60°

10kN

1.11 Determine the moment of the

5 13kN
13kN force about point A. State its 10m 12
3
mode. A 4

50kN
1.12 Determine moments of the 30°
1m
50kN force about A. State its
2m
mode.

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 Introduction to structures
10kN

1.13 Determine the algebraic sum of the 5kN

10kN
moments of all the forces shown about 2m
60°
point A. State the mode of the final A 2m 3m
answer.
12kN
8kN
10kN

45°
1.14 Determine clockwise moments and
anticlockwise moments about A.
A B
2m 1m 1m

2kN

2kN 4kN

1.15 Determine clockwise moments and

anticlockwise moments about A.
30° 60° 60° 30°

A B
2m 2m 2m

Determine the magnitude and the position of the following resultant force systems

10kN 10kN 10kN

12kN 1.16 8kN 1.17

3m 1m 2m

1.18 1.19
10kN 12kN 12kN 10kN 5kN 6kN 7kN 8kN 9kN

2m 1m 2m 1m 1m 1m 1m

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 Introduction to structures

Answers:
1.1 P = 15.45N (T), Q = 15.45N (C)
1.2 S = 0.62kN (T), T = 0.62N (T)
1.3 Q = 13.27kN (T), P = 23.96kN (T)
1.4 P = 10.98kN (T), Q = 6.38kN (T)
1.5 AB = 2.25kN, AC = 13.5kN
1.6 6.4kN, 489.3kg
1.7 P = 5.77kN, Q = 11.55kN
1.8 8.66kN, 5.03kN
1.9 0.15kg
1.10 12.32kN.m (anticlockwise)
1.11 112kN.m
1.12 6.7kN.m (anticlockwise)
1.13 37.09kN.m (clockwise)
1.14 Ma = 4Rb (anticlockwise), Ma = 37. 21kN.m (clockwise)
1.15 Ma = 9Rb (anticlockwise), Ma = 42. 59kN.m (clockwise)
1.16 20kN; 1.2m from the beginning of the beam
1.17 30kN; 1.333m form the beginning of the beam
1.18 44kN; in the centre of the beam
1.19 35kN; 2.286m from the beginning of the beam

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References
ASCE. (2017). ASCE Standard Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and
Other Structures. ASCE/SEI 7-16.

Hibbeler, R. C. (2014). Structural Analysis. 8th ed. Pearson Education.

Kassimali, A. (2014). Structural Analysis. Cengage Learning.

McCabe, J., et al. (2009). Basic Structures for Engineers & Architects. Taylor & Francis.

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