NUCLEARCHEMISTRY

1.9, Fundamental particles

The atom consists of protons, neutrons and
particles are called fundamental particles eleorctrons. These
subatneutroinmioSe
particles. Several other particles, such as the position,
mesons etc are also called fundamental particles.
Afundamental particle is either a constituent particle of a
mucleus or aparticle which is produced from anucleus. The
properties of some of the fundamental particles are summarised
is table 1.1.
Table 1.1

Particle Symbol Charge Mass (amu)

Proton +1 1.007276
Neutron n 0 1.008665
Electron Bor
-je -1 0.000549
IPositron B or
fe +1 0.000549

Neutrinos Ve 0 <0.00002

1.10. The Atomic Nucleus

An atom consists ofa positively charged nucleus, surrounded
by acloud of oneor more negative charged electrons. The charges
balanceexactly and the atom is electrically neutral.
 The nucleus is made up of positively
charged
protons and electrically neutral neutrons. These
particles are called nucleons. Nucleus
The radius of the nucleus is of the order of
10l4 m.
Thedensity of the nucleus has been found to be
the aton.
1012 times that of
1.11. Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms ofthe same element having the same
number but different mass numbe. atomic
Since isotopes differ in mass number, they have
number of neutrons. different
No. of protons = Atomic number.
No. of neutrons=mass number - Atomic number
(The atomic number of an isotope is written on the
lower side
of the symbol while the mass number is
written on the upper side)
Example:i) Isotopes of hydrogen:
There are three isotopes known for hydrogen. They are
hydrogen deuterium and tritium.
Hydrogen H Deuterium H Tritium ,H
lp lp 1p
In 2n
Example:ii) Isotpes of uranium.
Thenaturally occuring uranium is a mixture of three isotopes.
 92U234 92U23s 9U238
92p 92p 92p
142n/ 143ry 146
Isotopes have the same number of protons and
Hence they have identical electrons
chemical properties. They occupy
identical positions in the periodic
1.12. Isobars
table.
Isobars are atoms of different
atomic number but same mass elenments having different
number.
Example: ,Bel0,B10 and Cl0are isobars
Nuclide No. of protons No. of electronsNo of
Bel0 4
neutrons
4
SBio 6
6C!0 5
6
6 4

Since isobars have different

number of protons and electrons
they have different properties.
in the periodic table.
Isobars occupy different positions
1.13. Isotones
Isotones are the atoms of different
elements having same
umber neutrons. They have different atomic
of
number and
different mass numbers.
Example: i) ,H and He
10
Nuclide Mass Atomic No. of Noof
No. No protons neutrons

3 1 3-|=2

2 2 4-2 =2
,Het 4

Example: ii),C and ,N4

Nuclide Mass Atomic No. of No of
No. No protons neutrons
6Cl3 13 6 6 13 -6=7

NI4 14 7 14 -7=7

Example: ii) ,si0, P and,S2

1.14. Nuclear isomers:
same
Nuclear isomers are the atoms of the same element with
atomic number and same mass number but have different
radioactive properties.
Example: Thorium - 234 emits a B-particle to give isomeric
protactinum (,Pa34) Aand Bwith different radiactive properties.
t=1.18 min
9jPa?34 (A)
Th234

9,Pa234(B) Ly=6.7 hrs

Characteristics of nuclear isonmers:

i) Nuclear isomers have different half-lives.
1) They are in a meta stable state.
ii) They emit different radiation,11
 1.15. Diferences between chemical and nuclear
Chemical reation
Nuclear reaction
reaction
1. In a chemical reaction In a
nuclear reaction
changes take place in cxtra takeplace
nuclear region
in the nucleus change
2. Valence electrons are Involves change in the
involved.
of
number
nucleons present in the
nucleus.
3. No loss of mass.
There is loss in mass.(mass
defect)
4. Involves small amount of
energy.
Involves very large amount of
energy.
5. No harmful radiations are
emitted. Harmful radiations such as a,ß
and y are emitted,
6. Can be carried out in the
Carried out in nuclear reactors.
laboratory.
7. Rate of reaction is affected Rate of
by external factors such as by
reaction isunaffected
temperature, pressure, etc. temperature, pressure, etc.
8. Different isotopes of the In nuclear reactions isotopes
same element have almost behave
same chemical reactivity. difterently.
|9. Chemical reactions arel Nuclear reactions are rare.
COMm0n.
12
1.16. Group displacement law
Soddy, on studying the natural radioactive series of
clements,arrived at aset of laws called group displacement laws.
i)When an a -particle is emitted in a radioactive change, the
product occupies a position two places to the lefi of its parent in
the periodic table:
2341.
Eg: 92
U’SH+Th
iü) When a B-particle is emitted ina radioactive change, the product
occupies one place to the right of its parent in the periodic table.
34
Eg: Th e+Pa
ii) When a radioactive element emits successively an
a-particle and two B- particles then the product and the original
element are isotopes.
Eg: 288U’ H + 2e +U
1.17. Mass defect
It is the difference in mass between the sum of the masses

(M')of all protons, all neutrons and allelectrons of an atom and

the actual mass (M).
Mass defect = AM = M-M
M'- Sum of the masses of all protons, all neutrons and
all electrons
M - Actual atomic mass
Mass defect is a measure of binding energy. Higher the
mass defect, larger willbe the binding energy and more stable is
the nucleus.
Problem: Calculate the mass defect of oxygen atom O which
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 has a mass of 15.994910amu.(n=1.008665 amu,
e-0.0005486 amu) p=l.007277 amo
Solution: Oxygen atom contains 8p, 8e and 8n
Mass of8proton =8x 1.007277 8.058216
Mass of 8neutron = 8x 1.008665
8.069320
Mass of 8electron =8x0.0005486 = 0.004388
M= 15.994910; M= 16.131924
Mass defect AM = 16.131924 -15.994910
=0.137014 amu.
1.18. Nuclear binding energy
When protons and neutrons combine together to form a
necleus, Some mass is lost (mass defect). This mass defect is
converted into energy and it is released. The energy released in
the process of combination of protons and neutrons to form a
nucleus is called binding energy.
Binding energy is the measure of nuclear forces. Higher the
binding energy, more stable willbe the nucleus.
Binding energy Mass defect AM x931.5 MeV
Binding energy pernucleon:
The binding energy of a nucleus, divided by the number of
nucleons, gives the binding energy per nucleon. It is a measure of
stability of the nucleus.
Binding energy Curve :
Aplot of binding energy per nucleon against mass number 1s
called binding energy curve.
14
 NUCLEON Fe

He PUSION
PEA
PISSION
ENEAGY

BINOING

H
H

50 100 160 200 260

MASS NUMBER

Significance :
low
i) Nuclei with very low and very high mass numbers have
binding energies. Therefore very light and very heavy nuclei
are less stable.
ii) The light nuclei tend to fuse while the heavier nucleiundergo
fission.
ii) The curve shows maximum binding energy for mass number
56. Hence nucleus of iron is most stable.
Problem:Calculate the binding energy per nucleon in helium
neutron
atom He which has a mass of4.00260 amu. (Mass ofl
= 1.008665 amu; mass of one H atom = 1.007825)Express the
result in Joules as well.

Solution :

Helium - atom contains 2p, 2n and 2e.

Mass of 2protons + 2 electrons = 2 Xmass of one H atom

15
Mass of2protons +2 electrons + 2 neutrons =
2x 1.007825 + 2x1.008665S=4.032980
Mass defect AM =M'-M
a.m.u.
M'=Masses of 2p +2e +2n =4.032980 a.m.u.
M=Actual mass of He=4.00260 a.m.u.
4.032980 - 4.00260
= 0,030380a.m.u.
la.m.u =931.5 MeV
Binding energy = AM x 931.5 MeV
= 0,03038 x 931.5
Binding energy of He nucleus =28.298 MeV
.:. Binding energy per nucleon = 28.298 =7.0745 MeV
4
=7.0745 x 10° eV
=7.0745 x106 x 1.602 x10-19 J
Problem: Calculate the mass defect and binding energy per
nucleon of Cwhich has an isotopic mass equal to 12.0 amu.
(mass of neutron=1.00893 amu, nass of hydrogen = 1.00787
amu; 1 amu =931.5 MeV)
Solution:Carbon atom contain óp, 6n and6e.
Mass of 6 protons + 6 electrons = 6 x mass of one Hatom
=6 x 1.00787
Mass of 6 protons + 6 electrons + 6 neutrons =
6x 1.00787 + 6x1.00893 = 12.10080 a.m.u.
Mass defect AM M'-M
12.10080 - 12.0
0.1008 a.m.u.
la.m.u = 931.S MeV
16
Binding energy = AM x931.5 MeV
0.1008 x 931.5
93.895
=7.825 MeV
:. Binding energy for C per nucleon = 12
1.19. Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the splitting ofa heavy nucleus (mass>200)
The fission
intotwo or more smaller nucleiof intermediate mass.
reaction releases a large amnount of energy with the formation of
One or more fast neutrons.

235
U+,n ’
141
56
Ba +9236 Kr +3
1
n +175Mev
92

Fission of each uranium produces three fast neutrons.

atoms. Thus the
These fast neutrons bombard fresh uranium
reaction.
process contineous as a chain

2357

reaction
A typical nuclear fission
types of fission of the same nucleus (U)will
Different
produce different fission products and energies.

17
 Xe+ Sr+n+ 200 MeV
U+

"Ba+ "Kr+3n+175MeV
1.19.a. Applications of nuclear fission
1)Atom bomb (Fission bomb)
A bomb which works on the principle of
nuclear fission
and releases an enormous amount of
energy in a few seconds is
known as an atom bomb.
equ
In an atom bomb, the nuclear fuel U- 235
(or Pu -239, TN
captures slow neutron and undergoes fission. This the
of mass. The fast neutrons involves loss
produced in the fission reactionarr the
again used for the fission of fresh U - 235
nuclei.
continues as a chain reaction and an enormous This process nic
is released. amount of energy da
A typical atom bomb is shown in the Wa

segments of subcritical masses of U - 235 with figure. It contains 2)

a small amount ot
an explosive like TNT (trinitrotoluene) in a
TNT is detonated. the segments are forced separate pocket. When co
into critical mass.
neutron released from the centre of the
bomb initiates Then.
reaction which leads to [Link] ission
anuclear explosion is known as fallout. radioactive dust formed in fis
pr
dr
 TNT
EXPLOSVE SUBCNTICAL
CHARGE 230 MAS SES

Fig. 16 Atypical atom bomb

Fission of0.45 kg of Ufuel releases energy which is

equivalent to energy released in the explosion of 8000
[Link] large kinetic energy of fission breaks the buildings, the
thermal energy buns the materials and the nuclear radiation harms
the living beings.
On 6th August 1945, an atom bomb containing U- 235 fuel,
nick named Little boy""was exploded on Hiroshima and after three
days , a bomb containing Pu- 239 fuel, nick namned "Fat Man"
was exploded on Nagasaki in Japan.
2) Thermal reactor
Thermal reactor is a device which generates electricity by
controlled fission reaction.
i) Principle:
in a controlled
In a thermal reactor, the heat liberated
high
fission reaction is used to produce [Link] steam at
turbine. The turbine
pressure is made to rotate the blades of a
drives a generator producing electricity.
19
 reactor:
ii) Components of the
Nuclear fucl: Isotopes such as U- 235, Th- 232
a)
used in the form of rods for fission reaction.
Pu-239 are
water is used ac
b)Moderator: Graphite, heavy water or
neutrone
moderator. The moderator slows down the fast fissioned
absorbin
c) Control rods(arrestors): The neutron
contro
materials like cadmium (or) boron-10 rods are used to
the rate of fission reaction.
d)Shicld: Concrete shields are used to protect the worker
from the leakage of radiation.
e) Coolant: Water is used to remove the heat produced by
fission reaction.

Turbine
Ganerntor
Coalant Steam
Contral rods Watar 32 C
Puel rods Soa watar
Coolent
Steel shlelA Pump
Water 28 C
Coaorete hield
Coolant water and
Moderator
Thermal Reactor

ii) Working:
The common nuclear reactor consist ofU-235 fuel rods
immersed in water in a steel shield, Water acts as a coolant and
[Link] movable control rods of boron-10 are placed
between the fuel rods. The heat produced by the fission
U-235 fuel is absorbedlby the [Link] converts sea waterinto t
20
 steam which at high pressure rotates the blades of turbine gener-
ating electricity.
1.20. Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two lighter nuclei
combine or fuse to form a heavier, stable nucleus. The fusion
reaction involves loSs of mass and release of an enormous amount
ofenergy. Fusion reaction occurs at very high temperature (10'K).
Hencethis reaction is also called thernonuclear reaction.
Examples :
3
i)H +,H ’ He +Y
2
i) H+ H’; He +n+3.25MeV
4
m); H+H’ He +hn+17.6MeV
2

Fusion reactions are possible only with light nuclei. Hence

hydrogen isotopes are generally used in fusion reaction.
1.20.a. Applications of nuclear fusion
Hydrogen bomb (Fusion bomb)
Abomb which works on the principle of nuclear fusion of
isotopes ofhydrogen is called hydrogen bomb. Fusion reaction
involves loss ofmass and releases an enormous amount of energy.
It occurs ar very high temperature (10 K). Hence it is also called
thermonuclear bomnb.
Atypical H-bomb consists ofasmall Pu-239 atom bomb with
a container of isotopes of hydrogen. The atom bomb first produces
Very high temperature. This high temperature is used to initiate
the fusion of hydrogen isotopes and this process continues as a
21
 reaction. Thus millions of nuclei are fused with the sudde; 1..
chain
enormous amount of energy, which leads t
release of an
fu
explosion.
than the aton sL
Hydrogen bomb is 1000times more powerful
first H-bomb was tested in Island by USA i o
Marshell
bomb. The
a secret. The h
1952. The actual reaction used inaH-bomb is
1
possible fusion reaction involved in such bomb is,
H+H’ ; He+n+E 4

1.21. Differences between nuclear fission and fusion

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
i) Fission involves heavynuclei Takes place in light nuclei
i)Heavy nucleus splits into Two light nucleicombine
two or more smallnuclei to form a heavy nucleus.
ii) It is a chain process It is not a chain proces
iv) High temperature is not Extremely high temperature
essential is required.
v) Can be controlled. Cannot be controlled.
vi) Atom bomb and nuclear Hydrogen bomb and stellar
reactors are based on energy are based on nuclear
nuclear fission fusion.
vii) The fission of one atom The fusion of tritium and
of U-235 release 211.5
deuterium release 17.6
MeV of energy. MeV of energy.

22
1.22. Stelar energy
The energy released by the stars from a series of nuclear
fusion reactions is called stellar energy or solar [Link]
sun is also one of the stars. Thestars produce enormousamounts
of heat and light energies. The surface of the stars are extremely
[Link] temperature of stellar bodies like the sun. astar is about
15 million degrees [Link] high temperature is sufficient for
nuclear fusion of light nuclei. Two sets of fusion reactions are
proposed toexplain the production of energy in the sun:
i) Proton -Proton chain
ii)Carbon -Nitrogen cycle
i)Proton Proton chain :
E. Salpeter suggested the following sequence of chain
reactions. In these reactions, v, stands for neutrino,, efor
positron and y for gammaradiation.
H+}H ’}H+e+v,
H+H ’}He +y
H+H-He +
overall reaction 4 H’;He + 2 .e+ energy
iü) Carbon - Nitrogen cyele:
Bethe suggested the following sequence of reaction
H.
ing carbon and nitrogen as calalyst.

23
 "C+ H’ "N +
N ’C + e +v,
C+H ’ "N+Y
N+ H’ PO + Y
0 ’N+ e + V,
N+ H ’ 7C+ He

Overall reaction 4H ’ He + 2je + energy

The overall fusion in each set of reactions is same.
1.23. Applications of radioactive isotopes:
1) Carbon dating
Radiocarbondating is amethod of estimating the age of an o
ancient material by measuring the C-14 content. f
C-14 is formed in the atmosphere by the interaction of P
nitrogen with the cosmic-neutron. S

p
SO
Since C- 14 is a radioactive isotope, it undergoes B-decay
with a half-life of 5568years. S

c’'4N+ge
je t-5568 years A;
The C-14 gradually gets oxidised to l4CO,. Plants absorb N,
carbondioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
enters the animals through their food-chains, It is then returned
to the atmosphere through respirtation of animals. Thus, there s
a natural equilibrium maintained which gives a constant
amou
24
 C-14content in the living sample. This amount corresponds to
15.3disintegration per minute per gram of carbon.
When the plant or animal dies, it is removed from the
natural equilibrium. Hence the C-14 content in the dead sample
decreases with time due to B-decay. By measuring the C-14
content in the dead sample, its age can be estimated using the
following equations.
Age of the sample in years =
2303y2log
0.693
No
N

where,N,=C-14 content in the living sample (15.3)

N=C-14 content in the dead sample
t,n = Half -life ofC-14 isotope.
Radiocarbon dating has been used for determining the ages
of archacological and geological materials like wood, bone, skull,
fossil, etc.
Problem: A sample of carbon derived from one of the dead sea
scroll is found to be decaying at the rate of 11.5 disintegrations
age of the dead
per minute per gram of carbon. Calculate the
scroll. [t,/, for C-14 =5568 years]
Solution:

Age of the sample = 2.303ty2 1ogNo

0.693 N

N,= 15.3; N= 11.5; tin=5568 years

2.303 x 5568 15.3
Age of the sample -log 11.5
0.693
2.303 x5568
0.693
(log 15.3- log 11.5)
25
 decaying is series
orocksrock 0.5Kg to
92U238
anduranju oU238
lead 1.0
(molten decay
contains =0.43Kg
rock for
the contain U-238
with, The started of uranium of the
1.0607) all half-life grams
Hence-206.
magma
starts have of formation
would of
ratio 206 206
0.5Kg
x /
Pb-206
lead must the
age
-(1.1847 Series
o,Pb200, from 6,e0decayed, 238 =0.86
124 The
weight of the
to ityears,
294.4Uraniumconverted
0. -2years. rock reactions
+ its of
formed to
x
18503.75
18503.75 lead,. the the
fixed. +,8He+ after Pb-206=
0.43
Pb-206 ratio 26
0.5 corresponds
uranium
in estimating
be
rock.soon10 weight
of
radioactive be uranium overall x U-238
be
isotopeto can Pb206 sample4.49
= would
assumed The
of sample ofamount
rock grams after ratio,
the
Therefore the
stable radioactive ratio
natural nature
2)Rock
dating by
the years.
Therefore the then Incidentally,
years.
a
are as,
U238 238in rock The weight
with in of formed
every 238,
The earth age 10 written
the
U-238. 10
presentthe x 9 If
ends -ofU
the andthen. the
4.49 Forbe Thisx4.49
is
rock samples collected in different locations of Earth were close
to 0.86. Hence the age of Earth is estimated to be 4.5 x 10 years.
3) Applications in Medicine (radiothraphy)
Radioactive isotopes are used in diagonising and treating many
of the diseases.
Example:
i) Co-50 is used to diagonise the cancer growth. Co-60 (poor
man's radium) isused for treating cancer.
ii) Sodium chloride solution containing Na-24 is used to locate
the blood clots and other blood circulation disorders.
iii) The P-30 isotope is used for treating certain skin diseases.
iv) The phosphate containing P-32 is used for treating Leukemia
(blood cancer)
v) I-123 isotope is used to diagonise the thyroid tumour.
I-131is used for treatingthyroid cancer.
vi) Fe-59 isotope is used for studying anaemia and disorder during
pregnancy.
vii) TI-201 isotope is used for diagonising heart disorders and
Pu-238 is used in heart pacemaker.
vii) Sr-90 isotope is used for the treatment of comeal cancer
(cancer in eyes)

27