BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

Technology has taken a big leap forward in the last century. Modern electronics are faster and more
efficient. Our computers can perform complex tasks in the fraction of a second. All of this has been
largely due to the invention of the transistor, which were invented in Bell Labs in 1948 by W. Shockley,
J. Bardeen, and W. Brattain. There are two main types of transistors: the bipolar junction transistor
(BJT) and the field effect transistors (FET). We will study BJTs in this course.

Bipolar junction transistors are solid-state, three-pin components, constructed from three layers of
silicon. The three layers are formed from two PN junctions connected together, with three pins attached.
The three pins are called base, emitter and collector.

While BJTs are designed primarily to amplify (analogue) current, they can also function as an electronic
(digital) switch in circuitry. A BJT can also function as an oscillator. BJTs are current-controlled and
operated devices, meaning that a much smaller base current causes a larger current to flow from emitter
to collector. Whereas transformers can amplify either current or voltage, transistors can amplify both. In
its most common emitter configuration, a BJT will naturally amplify current, but when integrated into a
circuit, it can easily be made to amplify output voltage.

There are two main types, namely NPN (negative-positive-negative).and PNP (positive-negative-
positive). NPN transistors have a p-type silicon base sandwiched between two layers of n-type silicon --
the emitter and collector, while PNP transistors have an n-type base sandwiched between two p-type
layers. Figure 1.1 shows the layers of the NPN and PNP transistors, and their schematics

Figure 1.1 PNP and NPN transistors and schematics

A transistor is similar to a set of two diodes with their cathodes or anodes tied together. It has three
terminals that carry electrical current and help make a connection to external circuits, namely emitter,
base and collector. Also, the BJT has two junctions: emitter-base junction and base-collector junction.

The emitter is moderately sized and heavily doped compared to the other two layers. Its primary
function is to supply the electrons (known as the majority carriers) that carry most of the electrical
current. It is called the emitter because it emits electrons. The base is the center terminal between the
emitter and the collector. It is thin and lightly doped. Its main purpose is to pass the carriers from the
emitter to the collector. The collector collects carriers sent by the emitter via the base. It is moderately
doped and physically larger than both the emitter and base.

The emitter, base and collector have the same functions in a PNP circuit. The only difference in the PNP
transistor is that the n-type base is layered between the p-type emitter and collector. The NPN versus
PNP configurations determine the direction of the emitter's arrow, which is always part of the emitter-
base junction. The arrow points out for an NPN circuit and in for a PNP circuit.

For proper operation of a BJT, the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the base-collector
junction is reverse biased. (Forward biased means p-doped region has more potential than the n-doped
side). Figure 1.2 shows the biasing connections for an NPN transistor, where V BE is the forward bias
applied to the base-emitter junction, V CE is base-collector junction reverse bias, I B, IE and IC the base,
emitter and collector currents respectively.

Note that although a BJT is made up of two PN junctions, connecting two diodes back-to-back will not
work. This is because of the varying doping concentrations which enable current flow even when the
base-collector junction is forward biased. A reverse biased diode will not allow current flow.

Figure 1.2 Correct biasing of PN junctions in an NPN Transistor

The direction of current flow in NPN and PNP transistors is shown in Figure 1.3. Thee emitter current
is the sum of the base and collector currents. The base current controls the collector current. Without a
base current, the transistor is off even if a voltage is connected to the collector circuit. In fact, the
collector current is limited mainly by the base current, no matter the amount of voltage in the collector
circuit. Thus, the base is like a gate to the transistor.

Figure 1.3 Direction of Current flow in BJTs

How does a BJT work?

The operating principle of BJTs will be explained using an NPN transistor. When a forward voltage
(VBE) is applied between the base and the emitter (forward bias), electrons (negative charge), which are
the majority carriers, flow from emitter into the base, where some of them combine with holes (positive
charge), resulting in an extremely small base current (I B). The base (P-type semiconductor) is
structurally thin and only lightly doped, so many electrons are left in the base, although some
recombination with holes occurs. The base-collector region is reverse biased to the holes in the base and
electrons in the collector, but forward biased to electrons in the base. The majority of these electrons are
attracted by the positive side of the reverse-biased voltage source. Many of the electrons flowing into
the base from the emitter escape to the collector, creating collector current i.e. the collector-emitter
voltage (VCE) induces electrons to move toward the collector electrode, generating a collector current I C.
Since the transistors use both types of charge carriers, they are called bipolar. As with a diode, a barrier
voltage exists within the transistor. In a transistor, the barrier voltage is produced across the emitter-
base junction. This voltage must be exceeded before electrons flow through the junction, and is
determined by the type of semiconductor used. Figure 1.4 illustrates the working of an NPN transistor.

Figure 1.4 Working of an NPN transistor

In the PNP type, a voltage is applied so that the emitter is positive and base negative, causing holes in
the emitter to flow into the base, some of which combine with electrons in the base to form a small base
current, and the rest escaping to the collector to become collector current. Transistors have many
applications, some of which are explained as follows:

Switching: In order to operate the transistor as a switch, a voltage (approx. 0.7V or more) is applied to
the base terminal. This enables a small current to flow, causing the transistor to turn ON and current to
flow between the Collector and Emitter. The emitter-base junction is forward-biased in this state,
allowing the base current to control the larger current at the emitter and collector. Conversely, when the
applied voltage to the base is low (less than 0.7V), the collector and emitter are OFF and no current
flows between them. Switching a transistor is like turning the current flow from the collector to the
emitter ON and OFF using the base as a switch.

Amplification: Compare the function of a transistor to the mechanism of a water supply. A bipolar
junction transistor is comprised of three legs. Assume the base is the valve, the emitter the faucet, and
the collector the tank. By controlling the valve with a small force (input signal to the base), a large
amount of water flows from the tank (collector) to the faucet (emitter). Thus, the small base current
enables a much larger amount of current from the collector to the emitter. The valve may be opened
more to allow more water to flow.

Operating Regions of Bipolar Junction Transistors

There are three operating regions of a bipolar junction transistor:

On or Saturation Region

In this mode, the transistor is like a switch that is fully on and effectively acts as a short circuit between
the collector and the emitter. Current flowing between the two is essentially unrestricted (in saturation)
as the transistor operates as a closed or complete circuit. This conditions corresponds to a forward bias
for both base-emitter and base-collector junctions. In this case, VCE = 0

When driven into either cutoff or saturation mode, the BJT effectively functions more like a binary
(on/off) circuit switch. In addition to amplification, this is another of the most powerful and versatile
uses of transistors.

Active Region

In this region, a transistor is partly on and operates as an amplifier. In this mode, the base-emitter
junction is forward biased while the base-collector junction is reverse-biased. This is arguably the most
common application for transistors used in circuits. VCE >0 (VCE ranges from 1/4 VCC to 3/4 VCC)

Off or Cutoff Mode

This mode is the opposite of saturation. The transistor essentially resembles a broken or open circuit; no
collector current is allowed to flow, and so there is no emitter current output. The transistor is fully off
and collector current is zero. Both the base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse biased. V CE
= VCC

Amplifier Configurations

BJT amplifiers are classified in a number of ways. One way is the arrangement of components, or
configuration. Three of the most fundamental transistor amplifier configurations are: common emitter,
common collector and common base.

Common Base (CB) configuration: This amplifier has no current gain but has a voltage gain. This is
the least popular of the three fundamental configurations. In a common base amplifier, the emitter is an
input and the collector an output. The base is common to both. The common base amplifier is shown in
figure 1.8
 Figure 1.8 Common Base Amplifier

Common base is a decent voltage amplifier, and current in is approximately equal to current out
(actually current in is slightly greater than current out). The common base circuit works best as a current
buffer. It can take an input current at a low input impedance, and deliver nearly that same current to a
higher impedance output. Figure 1.9 below shows a basic CB circuit. V ee is the supply voltage to the
emitter, while Vcc is the supply voltage to the collector. V be and Vcb represent the voltage between base
and emitter and between base and collector respectively.

Figure 1.9 Common Base Amplifier Circuit

In this configuration, the emitter current I E is the input current, while Vbe is the input voltage. The set of
curves which shows the relationship between these two quantities with the voltage across the collector
and the base (Vcb) held constant, is called the input characteristics, shown in figure 1.10. It is similar to
the forward characteristics of a PN junction diode. As Vcb increases, the curve shifts leftward.

The output characteristics is a set of curves which shows the relationship between the output current I c
and the output voltage Vcb while keeping IE constant. The collector current Ic increases linearly with IE.
As shown in figure 1.11, there are three regions in the output characteristics: the active region, the cut-
off region, and the saturation region. The behavior of the amplifier in the three regions is explained as
follows:

Figure 1.10 CB Amplifier Input Characteristics

Active Region: For a fixed value of V cb increases, IC remains almost constant i.e. IC acts like a constant
current source. Ic changes only with change in input current I E. For this reason, the active region is used
for amplification. The input and output currents are related by

Ic = αIE…………………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

Typically, α <1(Range from 0.95 to 0.99)

where α is the current gain of the amplifier

Saturation Region: As VCB reduces, IC reduces.

Cut-Off Region: In this region, there is no output current I C. The only current in this region is that due
to minority carriers (i.e. reverse saturation current). As long as I E is zero, IC remains constant no matter
how much VCB is increased.

Figure 1.11 Common Base Amplifier Output Characteristics

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration: This configuration provides both voltage and current gain. It
is the most popular amplifier arrangement. In this circuit the emitter is tied to a voltage common to both
the base and collector (usually ground). The input signal is applied between base and emitter, and the
output is between collector and emitter. It is illustrated in Figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12 Common Emitter Amplifier

The common emitter circuit is popular because it is well-suited for voltage amplification, especially at
low frequencies. It is widely used for amplifying audio signals. It is often found in the first gain stage of
audio amplifiers. If you have a small 1.5V peak-to-peak input signal, you could amplify that to a much
higher voltage using the circuit in figure 1.13. However, the output is 180 o out of phase with the input
(inverted).

Figure 1.13 CE circuit to amplify sound

The DC current gain of the CE amplifier is

β = IC/IB …………………………………………………………………………………(2)

IC= βIB…………………………………………………………………………………..3

β is also known as hFE

Relationship between α & β

IC IC β IE
β =I , α = IE α
= IB
B
IC
IB= IE - IC therefore, β = I E−I C
IC
IE α
Β = I E IC =>β = 1−α
−
IC I E

Common Collector (CC) Configuration: This has no voltage gain but has a current gain (in fact,
output voltage is a little lower than input due to 0.7V barrier voltage). For that reason, this circuit is
sometimes called a voltage follower. The collector pin is tied to a common voltage and the base is used
as an input, and the emitter as an output. This configuration is also known as an emitter follower. An
illustration of this configuration is shown in figure 1.14.
 Figure 1.14 Common Collector Amplifier

This circuit has great potential as a current amplifier. In addition to that, the high current gain combined
with near unity voltage gain makes this circuit a great voltage buffer. A voltage buffer prevents a load
circuit from undesirably interfering with the circuit driving it.

Table 1.1 Characteristics of different transistor configurations are given in table 1.1

Characteristics Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector

Power Gain Low Very high medium

Current gain Low medium high

Voltage gain High high Low(unity)

Phase angle 0 180 0

Output impedance Very high High low

Input Impedance Low Medium high

These three amplifier configurations are at the heart of many more complicated transistor amplifiers.
Each has applications where it performs best, whether it is amplifying current, voltage, or buffering.
Amplifiers can also be connected together to give more power or other desired characteristics. When
two or more single stage amplifiers are connected together, the resulting amplifier is a multistage
amplifier. Some examples of combinations of the single-stage amplifiers above are:

Darlington

The Darlington amplifier runs one common collector into another to create a high current gain amplifier.
It is shown in figure 1.9
 Figure 1.9

Voltage out is about the same as voltage in (minus about 1.2V-1.4V), but the current gain is the product
of two transistor gains. That is β 2 -- upwards of 10,000! The Darlington pair is a great tool to drive a
large load with a very small input current.

Differential Amplifier

A differential amplifier subtracts two input signals and amplifies that difference. It's a critical part of
feedback circuits, where the input is compared against the output, to produce a future output. It is also
called a long tailed pair. It's a pair of common-emitter circuits that are compared against each other to
produce a differential output. Two inputs are applied to the bases of the transistors; the output is a
differential voltage across the two collectors.

Other examples are the push-pull amplifier and the operational amplifier.

Operational Amplifier (Op Amp)

This is a classic example of a multi-stage transistor Here is the circuit inside an LM3558 (figure 1.10), a
really simple op amp:
 Figure 1.10

Transistor Biasing and Load Lines

The most important application of a BJT is amplification, where a small input signal produces a larger
output signal. This amplification is not possible without a DC supply. In fact, it is the energy from this
DC supply that is used to amplify the input AC signal. This DC supply is called a bias. Thus, for a
transistor to operate properly, it must be biased.
The BJT is operated as an amplifier in the active region of the output characteristics. For the common
emitter amplifier (most popular amplifier configuration), the output characteristics is a set of curves each
showing a plot of IC against VCE for a constant IB. A straight line plot on the output characteristic curves
which joins the points (VCE=VCC, where IC=0, and IC=VCC/RL) is called the DC load line. This load line
shows every possible operating point of the transistor. Hence, it helps us to find the Q-point or
quiescent operating point (also bias point) of the BJT. The Q-point is the DC operating point at which
the BJT operates when no AC signal is applied.. It represents the stable operating point of the transistor.
The Q-point is a point where the load line intersects with the specific base current curve. Proper biasing
is crucial for establishing the Q-point.
For linear amplification, the Q-point must be in the active region. If this operating point is close to the
saturation region, some of the input AC signal is clipped off or distorted. The same happens when the Q-
point is close to cut-off. Amplifier operation near the breakdown region (toward the right of the curves)
should also be avoided. All of this means that the Q-point should be as close to the centre of the output
characteristics as possible, so as to avoid distortion. In this region, the gain is almost constant.
Example on DC Load Lines : For CE Circuit shown below, draw the DC load line and then the Q-point
β = 100

In the cut – off Region

VCE = VCC = 30V
In Saturation Region
30
VCE = 0; VCC - ICRC = 0; ICsat = 5 K = 6mA.
In the Active Region
V CC−V BE 30−0
IB = R = 1.5 mΩ = 20μA
B

ICQ = βIB = 100 x 20μA = 2mA; VCEQ = VCC – ICRC = > 30 – 2 x 5 = 20V
Q-point=(20V, 2mA)

There are different biasing techniques for BJT amplifiers. Some are fixed bias, voltage divider bias,
base bias with emitter feedback, etc.