REPRODUCTION

LESSON PREPARED BY:

LIFE SCIENTIST: J. NKOSI
REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
▪ All vertebrates reproduce
sexually, this means that a
male AND female are
needed, the developing
offspring must be in a liquid
medium and is able to obtain
nourishment (food)
▪Reproductive strategies
are ways that vertebrates
carry out reproduction so that
they produce a new
generation, hence the
continuation of their species
 Types of fertilization
EXTERNAL FERTILISATION
▪External fertilization
occurs when sperm and eggs
are released into water
▪The sperm fertilizes the
egg outside the female’s body
▪Huge quantities of sperm
are released as there is a
small chance of a sperm
fertilizing an egg of the
same species
▪Examples: fish and
amphibians
 Types of fertilization
INTERNAL FERTILISATION
▪Internal fertilization occurs when
sperm fertilize eggs inside the female’s
body. The male deposits sperm into the
female body
▪The penis is usually the specialized
organ in vertebrates that transports the
sperm into the female reproductive
organs
▪Because the sperm are protected inside
the body fewer sperm and eggs are
produced because there is a greater
chance of fertilization taking place

▪Examples: birds, humans, elephant etc.

Development of embryo

OVOVIVIPAROUS
The eggs hatch within the
mothers body and the young
are born
No eggs are laid
For example sharks.
 ovoviviparous
OVOVIVIPAROUS
• Refers to animals that do not lay eggs,
but keep them in their bodies until they
hatch
• The body temperature is necessary for
them to hatch
• There is no connection between the
embryo and the mother
• Examples: Sharks , lizards cockroaches
and some snakes
• ADVANTAGES :
• The young one is protected from cold and
predators to ensure survival
• The young one can develop to a fairly
large size before birth
 viviparous
• Refers to animals that give birth to live
young ones
• There is a connection between the
developing foetus and the mother
• Examples : Human beings, whales and
kangaroos
• Advantages :
• Temperature is regulated by the mother
• The mother provides nutrition for the
young one
• Mortality rate is lower
• Disadvantages :
• Number of off springs produced is few
• More energy is used to provide parental
care
 oviparous
• Refers to egg laying animals
• Eggs are protected by a hard shell while
others are protected by a jelly like layer
after fertilisation
• Development doesn’t occur inside the
body
• The development of an organism is
completed inside the egg after incubation
• Examples: Frogs, birds and marine animals
• Advantages:
• Eggs and sperm cells are produced in
large numbers to increase chances of
survival to adulthood
• Much energy is invested for parental care
• Parental care ensures survival to adult
 AMNIOTIC EGG
▪Terrestrial animals require specialized
structures to protect the egg from desiccation
(drying out)
▪Amniotic eggs are adapted to terrestrial life
o The fluid-filled amnion surrounds and
protects the embryo, especially against
dehydration and shock
o Allantois acts as reservoir for nitrogenous
leathery embryo
waste in birds and reptiles shell amnion
o Yolk sac holds nutritious food for development
of embryo
o Chorion surrounds all other membranes: in
birds it allows for gaseous exchange; in
mammals it forms the placenta (taking over
functions of allantois and yolk sac, amongst chorion
others) allantois yolk sac
Development of offspring
▪Once the embryo has
developed it either hatches or
is born
▪Fish and amphibians hatch
and are able to swim and feed
themselves soon after hatching
▪Birds and mammals vary in
the development of the
newborn young
▪There are TWO levels of
development of new–born
birds and mammals
 ALTRICIAL DEVELOPMENT
▪ Young are born in a helpless
condition and need parental care:
▪ Young are not able to move
around
▪ Young are vulnerable to
predators
▪ Young are dependent on parents
for shelter, nutrition and defence
▪Examples of altricial birds:
eagles, seagulls, sparrows & doves.
▪Examples of altricial
mammals: humans, rodents,
dogs, lions, rats and baboons
 PRECOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
▪ Young are born in a helpless
condition and need parental care
▪ Young are able to move
independently
▪ Young are able to avoid predators
▪ Young are not dependent on
parents for shelter, nutrition &
defence
▪Examples of precocial birds:
ostriches, domestic chickens, guinea
fowl, penguin
▪Examples of precocial
mammals: cattle, sheep, horses,
antelopes, giraffes and elephants
 Parental care
▪Parental care is rare in fish,
amphibians and reptiles
▪All birds and mammals care for
their young
▪Birds incubate their eggs, feed
their chicks, keep them warm and
teach them how to feed
▪Female mammals feed their
young on milk, keep them warm
and teach them how to feed
▪The amount of care is greater in
altricial young than precocial
young
Human life cycle
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
▪ Urethra conduct sperm cells
into female body
▪ Penis is the copulation organ
▪ Seminal vesicles add
yellowish fluid to semen, that
contains fructose to give sperm
cells energy
▪ Prostate glands add alkaline
fluid to semen, that neutralise
any acidity in the urethra
▪ Cowper’s gland adds mucus
fluid to semen, that contains
enzymes to make sperm cells
more active
 TESTES
▪ Testes produce sperm
cells and testosterone
▪ Septum separates testis
into compartments
▪ Epididymis stores sperm
cells until maturity
▪ Vas deferens or sperm
ducts transport sperm
cells to urethra / penis
▪ Seminiferous tubules is
site for sperm cells
production
▪ Scrotum protect testes
 Activity 1
1.1 Provide labels for A, B, E and G (4)
1.2 State ONE function each of C and F,
respectively. (2)
1.3 State the LETTER and NAME of
the part where sperms are
produced. (2)
1.4 Explain why it is necessary for part
D to 'hang outside' the body of the
male. (2)
1.5 Name the following:
(a) The cells that secrete a male
sex hormone (1)
(b) The hormone that stimulates
the development of secondary
sexual characteristics in males
1.6 During a vasectomy, part B is
surgically cut.
Explain how this procedure will act
as a method of contraception. (2)
 Activity 1 – answers
1.1 A - prostate gland
B - vas deferens / sperm duct
E - urethra
G - nucleus
1.2 C - Stores sperms temporarily/sperms mature here
F - Contain enzymes to break down the cell membrane of the ovum
1.3 D - testis /seminiferous tubules
1.4 To keep the testes at a temperature that is (about 3˚ C) lower than
body temperature
A lower temperature is necessary for the production of healthy
sperm /so that healthy sperms can survive
1.5 (a) Interstitial cells/Cells of Leydig
(b) Testosterone
1.6 Severing of the vas deferens
Will not allow sperms to pass to urethra and into the female and
hence no fertilisation results.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
▪ Fallopian tube: connect ovaries to
uterus, site of fertilisation, transport
egg cells from ovaries
▪ Ovaries: releases egg cell, secretes
oestrogen and progesterone
▪ Uterus: carries embryo and foetus
during pregnancy
▪ Endometrium: inner lining of uterus,
place where embryo implants and
placenta forms
▪ Cervix: lower narrow part of uterus, it
stretches to allow baby through during
childbirth
▪ Vagina: receives penis/semen during
copulation & passage for childbirth
 Puberty stage
FEMALE MALE
Stimulated by oestrogen Stimulated by
testosterone
Growth of female sex organs Growth of male sex
organs
Start of the menstrual cycle Start of the production of
and production of ova sperm cells

Growth of pubic hair Growth of pubic hair,

facial hair and body hair

Growth and development of Development of muscles

breasts and widening of hips and deepening of voice
 gametogenesis
▪ Gametogenesis occurs in both
males and females
▪ It rely on MEIOSIS, which
ends with four cells containing
half the DNA of the parent cell
▪ Each gamete contains half
genetic materials of the parents
▪ Such cells are known as
HAPLOID, in contrast with their
DIPLOID parent cells which
contain a complete set of DNA
▪ When it fuses with another
gamete, it makes a
complete set of DNA
Meiosis/spermatogenesis
 spermatogenesis
▪ Spermatogenesis is the
production of sperm cells
▪ Epithelial cells in the testes
undergo mitosis to form
diploid spermatocytes
▪ Each diploid spermatocyte
in the seminiferous tubules
of testes undergoes meiosis
▪ Four haploid spermatids are
formed
▪ Each spermatid matures to
form a haploid sperm cells
Spermatozoon/sperm cell
▪The head of the sperm
cell contains an ACROSOME
filled with ENZYMES that
help penetrate the egg
cell/ovum
▪The middle piece contains
numerous MITOCHONDRIA
to provide ENERGY for
movement/locomotion
▪The NUCLEUS contains
genetic material (23
chromosomes)
▪A long tail enables the
sperm cell to swim
 Activity 2
QUESTION 2
The diagram on the left
represents a cross-sectional
view of a human seminiferous
tubule in which spermatogenesis
is occurring. Study the diagram
and answer the questions that
follow.

[Link] the hormone produced by

the cells of Leydig. (1)

[Link] TWO functions of the

hormone named in QUESTION 1. (2)

2.3. Identify part labelled A. (1)

[Link] a neat, labeled diagram of

part A. (4)
 Activity 2 – answers
2.1 Testosterone

2.2 Stimulates the development of primary male sex organs/ penis

and testes
Stimulates the development of secondary male characteristics /
growth of body hair/muscle development/ deep voice

2.3 Spermatozoa/ sperm cell

2.4
Meiosis / oogenesis
 oogenesis
▪ OOGENESIS is when females
produce eggs or oocytes
▪ Diploid cells in the ovary
undergo meiosis to form a
primary follicle consisting of
haploid cells
▪ One cell develops into an ovum
contained in a Graafian follicle
▪ The creation of an ovum start
with primary oocyte
▪ Meiosis 1 results in secondary
oocyte + first polar body
▪ Meiosis 2 results in ovum and
second polar body complete if
fertilisation occurs
 Ovum / egg cell
▪ The female gonads or sex
glands develop and expel an
ovum each month
▪ A woman is born with
approximately 400,000
immature eggs called
follicles
▪ During a lifetime a woman
release @ 400 to 500 fully
matured eggs for
fertilization
▪ The follicles in the ovaries
produce the female sex
hormones, progesterone
and oestrogen
Menstrual cycle
 Menstrual cycle
▪ Begins a puberty → Monthly release of eggs
▪ “Normal” (average) cycle is 28 days → occurs
in four stages:
1. Follicle stage – FSH (hormone) tells uterine lining
to thicken. This takes 10-14 days to complete
2. Ovulation – release of egg cells into oviduct. This
happens on day 14. This is when you can become
pregnant
3. Corpus leutem stage – LH (hormone) helps ready
uterine lining for embryo implantation
4. Menstruation – occurs if no egg cell is fertilized.
The uterine lining breaks down and the tissue and
blood are expelled
 Follicle stage
▪ FSH starts the
development of a few
primary follicles
▪ The development of the
follicle is through a
process of oogenesis
▪ Usually only one follicle
matures (takes 10 days)
▪ This follicle produces
oestrogen
▪ Oestrogen causes
endometrium to
thicken & to be vascular
 OVULATION
▪ Ovulation is the
release of an egg cell
(ovum) from the
ovary after the
breaking of mature
Graafian follicle
▪ It is stimulated by high
level of LH in the
blood
▪ Ovulation usually
occurs on the 14th day
following the first day
of the last menstrual
period
 corpus luteum stage
▪ After ovulation a hole
is left where the ova
(egg cells) was
formed known as
Corpus Luteum -
yellow body
▪ Corpus Luteum
produces
progesterone
▪ If female becomes
pregnant a new
follicle does not burst
and oestrogen
production is reduced
 Activity 3
Study the diagram below showing the sequence
of events of the development of an ovum in a
28-day cycle.

1.1 Identify the following:

(a) Follicle labelled A (1) D

(b) Structure labelled C (1)

(c) Process shown at B (1)
(d) Hormone responsible for the formation of A
part A (1)
(e) Hormone responsible for the formation of
part C (1)
1.2 What type of cell division resulted in the
formation of part D? (1)

1.3 If the events shown above took place in a 28-

day cycle, state whether fertilisation took
place during this period. (1)
B

1.4 Explain your answer to QUESTION 1.3. (3)

1.5 Explain HOW and WHY the production of C

FSH is inhibited when fertilisation takes
place. (4)
 Activity 3 – answers
ANSWERS FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1.1 (a) Graafian follicle
(b) Corpus luteum
(c) Ovulation
(d) FSH
(e) LH

1.2 Meiosis

1.3 No

1.4 If fertilisation occurred the corpus luteum would stay intact and not be
destroyed.

1.5 If fertilisation occurs high levels of progesterone enters the blood.

The high levels of progesterone inhibits the production of FSH
Low levels of FSH stop the development of a ovum inside a Graafian follicle
No ovulation occurs when the individual is pregnant
 Ovarian cycle
▪ Cyclical changes within the ovary give rise to an ovum
which eventually results in ovulation
▪ The pituitary gland secretes FSH which stimulates the
development of a primary follicle in the ovary
▪ The developing follicle secretes oestrogen which causes
the lining of uterus to start to thicken
▪ The pituitary gland starts to secrete luteinizing
hormone (LH) which causes ovulation to occur on day 14
▪ The remains of the Graafian follicle develops into the
corpus luteum which starts to produce progesterone
▪ Progesterone inhibits the production of FSH so that the
ovaries are no longer stimulated to produce another follicle
▪ Therefore, no more ova are released while there is a
fertilized ovum in the fallopian tube
 menstruaTION
▪If the egg cell is not fertilized,
progesterone secretion decrease,
and uterine lining degenerates
▪Menstruation is the discharge of
tissue and blood are discharged
from female body
▪Menstrual cycle is the cycle
where an egg cell develops and is
released from the ovary and the
uterus is prepared to receive a
fertilized egg cell
▪Menarche: first menstrual
period – occurs between 11 & 12
▪Menopause: end of
menstruation, between 45 & 55
and is no longer able to conceive
 Uterine cycle
▪ In the uterine cycle, oestrogen is produced by the developing
follicle which stimulates the initial thickening of the endometrium
▪ FSH production is inhibited
▪ This happens from day 1 to 14
▪ The increased levels of oestrogen stimulates the pituitary
gland to secrete LH
▪ LH causes the Graafian follicle to rupture around day 14 to
release the ovum – ovulation occurs
▪ The remains of the Graafian follicle forms the Corpus Luteum
▪ Progesterone, produced by the corpus luteum continues to
thicken the lining of uterus in preparation for a pregnancy
▪ When fertilization does occur, level of progesterone stays high
▪ These high levels of progesterone inhibit FSH, so no new follicles
develop
▪ The placenta takes over the secretion of the progesterone at 12
weeks
Hormones in menstrual cycle
GLAND/
HORMONE FUNCTION
STRUCTURE
Follicle • In females, stimulates development
Stimulating Pituitary of a follicle in the ovary
Hormone Gland
(FSH)
Luteinizing • In females, causes ovulation
Pituitary
Hormone • Stimulates empty Graafian follicle
Gland
(LH) to develop into Corpus Luteum
• Stimulates the endometrium to
Primary thicken in preparation for
follicle / implantation of a fertilized ovum
Oestrogen Graafian • Stimulates pituitary gland to
follicle inside secrete LH
ovaries • Inhibits secretion of FSH so that no
further follicles are produced
• Maintains endometrium
Corpus
Progesterone • Prevents pituitary gland from
Luteum
producing FSH and LH
Menstrual cycle
 Negative feedback mechanism
▪ What happens if fertilization occurs?
▪ Corpus luteum keeps producing progesterone
to maintain pregnancy
▪ After 5 weeks the embryo produces
progesterone – this inhibits LH & FSH so no
menstrual cycle

▪ What happens if fertilization does not

occur?
▪ There is no implantation – the corpus luteum
breaks down
▪ Progesterone level drops, uterine lining
breaks down – menstruation
▪ FSH & LH are produced again – new cycle
Negative feedback mechanism
 Activity 4
Study the diagram below answer the
questions that follow.

2.1. On which day does ovulation take

place? (1)
2.2 Between which days does
menstruation take place? (1)
2.3 State any ONE function of
luteinising hormone (LH). (1)
2.4 Describe the changes in the level
of LH shown in the graph. (3)
2.5 Describe the relationship
between the level of oestrogen
and the endometrium from day 7
to day 14. (2)
2.6 Explain why it is necessary for
the level of progesterone in the
blood to increase after ovulation.
(2)
 Activity 4 – answers
ANSWERS OF QUESTION 2
2.1 Day 14 or day 15

2.2 Days 0–7

2.3 -Causes the follicle to burst open/stimulates ovulation

-Stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum

2.4 -LH levels remain low up to day 12/13

-Then it increases sharply up to day 14
-After which it decreases and remains low

2.5 As the oestrogen level increases

The thickness of the endometrium also increases

2.6 Maintain the increase in the thickness of the endometrium for greater chance
of implantation
 Copulation & fertilization
▪ During sexual intercourse the penis
becomes erect for the transfer of semen into
the vagina
▪ After intercourse, the sperm cells swim
through the female reproductive tract and
enter the oviducts
▪ If they meet with an egg cell in the oviduct,
the egg and sperm cell may unite
▪ The fusion of a sperm cell nucleus and an
egg cell nucleus is known as fertilization
▪ A fertilized egg is known as a zygote
 fertilization
▪ The sperm cell swim up
the uterus to the
Fallopian tube / Oviduct
▪ One haploid sperm cell
can penetrate the haploid
ovum (egg cell)
▪ The nucleus of the
sperm cell enters the
ovum which then fuses
with the nucleus of the
ovum to form a diploid
zygote
▪ This is FERTILISATION
 Development of zygote
▪ As the diploid ZYGOTE
passes down the fallopian
tube, it divides by mitosis
to form of a ball of cells
called a MORULA
▪ It then develops into a
hollow ball of cells called
BLASTOCYST (Blastula)
▪ By the time it reaches the
uterus, the blastula has
developed into an EMBRYO
▪Which then embeds itself
into the endometrium
 implantation
▪ Implantation is when the
embryo settles on the
endometrium and sinks in
▪ It takes 5 – 7 days to reach
the uterus after
fertilisation took place
▪ After egg and sperm
combine (fertilization
occurs) the fertilized eggs
becomes a zygote
▪ The zygote then undergoes
cleavage (mitosis) for 6 –
10 days, then it attaches to
the uterus
Oestrogen and progesterone
▪Oestrogen is produced by the Graafian follicle in the
ovary
▪Oestrogen causes the endometrium to become thicker
and richly supplied with blood in preparation for
implantation
▪Progesterone is produced by the Corpus Luteum in
the ovary
▪Progesterone stimulates the endometrium to maintain
pregnancy if fertilization has taken place
▪High level of progesterone inhibit the secretion of FSH
in the pituitary gland
▪Which prevents further development of new follicles in
the ovary
Development of foetus

3 Weeks
Development of foetus

3 Months
Development of placenta
• Chorion is the outer membrane that protects the
embryo
• Chorionic villi are formed from the chorion, and project
into the endometrium of the uterus
• Chorionic villi absorb food and oxygen from the
mother’s blood
• Amnion is the inner membrane that encloses the
amniotic fluids
• Amniotic fluids protect the foetus against mechanical
shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations
• Umbilical cord, containing two umbilical arteries and
one umbilical vein connects the embryo and placenta
• Umbilical arteries carries deoxynated blood from
embryo towards placenta
• Umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood from placenta
towards embryo
Development of placenta
Development of placenta
• Placenta is the site of nutrient, gas, and waste
exchange
• Secretes hormones that maintain pregnancy
• Placenta develops from the embryonic chorion and
maternal uterine tissue
• Significance of placenta:
• Exchange soluble materials between mother and
foetus
• Physical attachment of foetus to the wall of uterus
• Protection against mother’s blood pressure and
immune system
• Hormones keep the wall of the uterus during
pregnancy
• Placenta ensures that there is no direct link between
mother’s blood and the developing foetus
• Placenta is expelled afterbirth
 Activity 5
Study the diagram below A
answer the questions that
follow.

1.1 Provide labels for A and B.

(2)
B

1.2 Explain ONE way in which

the part labelled B is
structurally adapted for its
function. (2) C

1.3 List TWO functions of the The human foetus

fluid found at C. (2)
 Activity 5 – answers
1.1 A - Umbilical cord
B - Placenta

1.2 - Has folds / villi to enlarge the surface area

- Enriched with blood vessels for transport of gases / nutrients /
waste products
- Selective permeable membranes to promote diffusion of
gases / substances
- Contains blood sinuses to bring blood of mother in close
association with that of foetus

1.3 - acts as a shock absorber / prevents mechanical damage

- prevent great variation in temperature
- allows for movement of the foetus
- passes out before birth to lubricate the birth canal
 Activity 6
Study the diagram below
answer the questions that B A
follow.

2.1 Provide the labels for C

parts A, B and D. (3)

2.2 Describe the function of E

E
during the birth process. (2)

2.3 State what happens to D

the level of progesterone

after birth. (1)
 Activity 6 – answers
2.1 A – Placenta / Chorionic villi 
B – Umbilical Cord
D – Cervix  (3)

2.2 Contraction of the muscular wall of the uterus

pushes the foetus out/ placenta and umbilical
cord / after birth (2)

2.3 Progesterone level drops as the pregnancy stage

is completed (1)
 SIYABONGA
THANK YOU
BAIE DANKIE

LESSON PREPARED BY:

LIFE SCIENTIST: J. NKOSI