Filters
Types of Filters
ilters are used in electronics to allow certain frequency components to pass while attenuating others. The
F
major types of filters are:
1. Low-Pass Filter (LPF)
📌
Allowslow frequencies to pass andattenuateshigh frequencies.
● Cutoff Frequency (fcf_c): Defines the boundary between passband and stopband.
Frequency Response:
f < f_c → Signal passes with little attenuation.
●
● f > f_c → Signal attenuates at-20 dB/decade (1st order).
2. High-Pass Filter (HPF)
📌
Allowshigh frequencies to pass andattenuateslow frequencies.
Key Points:
O
● pposite of an LPF.
● Used forremoving DC offsetor low-frequency noise.
Frequency Response:
f > f_c → Signal passes.
●
● f < f_c → Signal attenuates at-20 dB/decade (1st order).
3. Band-Pass Filter (BPF)
📌
Allows only a specific range of frequenciesandattenuates both lower and higher frequencies
outside this range.
Key Points:
D
● efined bylower cutoff frequency (f_L)andupper cutoff frequency (f_H).
● Used inradio communication, audio equalization, biomedical applications (ECG, EEG signal
processing).
4. Band-Stop Filter (Notch Filter) (BSF)
📌
Blocks a specific band of frequenciesandallows all othersto pass.
Opposite of a Band-Pass Filter.Stopband:Betweenf_L and f_H frequencies.
5. All-Pass Filter (APF)
📌
Allows all frequencies to pass but alters the phase of the signal.
Frequency Response:
M
● agnitude remains constant.
● Phase shift varies with frequency.
First Order Low Pass Filter
The figure shows the circuit model of the first-order low-pass Butter worth filter.
In the circuit we have:
Voltage ‘Vin’ as an input
●
voltage signal which is analog in
nature.
● Voltage ‘Vo’ is the output
voltage of the operational amplifier.
● Resistors‘RF’and‘R1’arethe
negative feedback resistors of the
operational amplifier.
There is a single R-C networkpresentinthecircuithencethefilterisafirst-orderlow
●
pass filter
Use the voltage divider rule at point ‘V1’ then we can get the voltage across the capacitor as,
V1
= [ -jXc / (R-jXc) ] V
in
Here –jXc = 1/2ᴫfc
After substitution this equation we will have something like below
V1
= Vi
n
/ (1+j2ᴫfRC)
owtheop-amphereusedinnegativefeedbackconfigurationandforsuchacasetheoutput
N
voltage equation is given as,
V0
= ( 1 + R
F
/ R
1
) V
1 .
If we submit V1 equation into Vo we will have,
V0 = (1 + R
F
/ R) [V
1
in
/ (1 + j2ᴫfRC) ]
After rewriting this equation we can have,
V0
/ V
in
= A
F
/ ( 1 + j(f/f) )
L
In this equation,
● 0 / Vin = gain of the filter as a function of frequency
V
● AF = (1+ RF/ R1) = passband gain of the filter
● f = frequency of the input signal
● fL = 1 / 2ᴫRC = cutoff frequency of the filter. We can use this equation to choose
appropriate resistor and capacitor values to select the cutoff frequency of the circuit.
IConvert the above equation into a polar form we will have,
Case1: f<<fL.
Case2: f = fL.
Case3: f >fL.
Second-Order Butterworth Low Pass Filter
The figure shows the circuit model of the 2nd order Butterworth low pass filter.
In the circuit we have:
Voltage‘Vin’asaninputvoltage
●
signal which is analog in nature.
● Voltage ‘Vo’ is the output
voltage of the operational amplifier.
● Resistors ‘RF’ and ‘R1’ are the
negative feedback resistors of the
operational amplifier.
● There is a double R-C network
presentinthecircuithencethefilteris
a second-order low pass filter.
‘RL’ is the load resistance connected at the op-amp output.
●
Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter Derivation
econd-orderfiltersareimportantbecausehigher-orderfiltersaredesignedusingthem.The
S
gainofthesecond-orderfilterissetbyR1andRF,whilethecutofffrequencyfH isdetermined
by R2, R3, C2 & C3 values. The derivation for thecutoff frequency is given as follows,
fH
= 1 / 2ᴫ sqrt (RR
2
C
3
C
2
)
3
The voltage gain equation
In this equation,
● 0 / Vin = gain of the filter as a function of frequency
V
● AF = (1 + RF/ R1) passband gain of the filter
● f = frequency of the input signal
● fH = 1 / 2ᴫ sqrt (R2R 3C C3) = cutoff frequency of the filter.
2
First -Order High Pass Filter
first-order Active High Pass Filter as its name implies, attenuates low
A
frequencies and passes high frequency signals.
his first-order high pass filter, consists simply of a passive filter followed by a
T
non-inverting amplifier. The frequency response of the circuit is the same as that of the
passive filter, except that the amplitude of the signal is increased by the gain of the
amplifier.
oranon-invertingamplifiercircuit,themagnitudeofthevoltagegainforthefilterisgiven
F
as a function of the feedback resistor ( R2 ) dividedbyitscorrespondinginputresistor(
R1) value and is given as:
Gain for an Active High Pass Filter
Where:
AF = the Pass band Gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1)
ƒ= the Frequency of the Input Signal in Hertz,(Hz)
ƒc= the Cut-off Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
heoperationofahighpassactivefiltercanbeverifiedfromthefrequencygainequation
T
above as:
Second -Order High Pass Filter
he second order high pass Butterworth filters produces a gain roll off at the rate of 40
T
dB/decadeinthestopband.Thisfilteralsocanberealizedbyinterchangingthepositions
of resistors and capacitors in a second order low pass Butterworth filters
he resulting expression is given here for the convenience of the reader. The
T
voltage gainmagnitudeequation for the second order high pass filter is
Wide Band Pass Filter
A Wide Band-Pass Filter (WBPF) is a type of Band-Pass Filter (BPF) that
allows a broad range of
frequencies to pass while
attenuating frequencies
outside this range.
Passes signals within
●
awide frequency range
(f_L < f < f_H).
● Lower cutoff
frequency (f_L): The point
where attenuation begins at
low frequencies.
● Upper cutoff
frequency (f_H): The point
where attenuation begins at
high frequencies.
● Thebandwidth
(BWBWBW)is given by:
BW = f_H - f_L
● Can be implemented usinga combinationof high-pass and low-pass
filters.
AWide Band-Pass Filteris implemented usingtwo cascaded active filters:
High-Pass Filter (HPF) and Low-Pass Filter (LPF).
BandPassFilterCircuitisdefinedasawidebandpassifitsfigureofmeritor
A
quality factor Q < 10.
herelationshipbetweenQ,3dbbandwidthandthecentrefrequencyfc isgiven
T
by
For the wide Band Pass Filter Circuit, the centre frequency can be defined as
where
fH
● = high cutoff frequency
● fL = low cutoff frequency of the wide bandpass
Wide Band Reject Filter
Wide BandRejectFilterisa
A
type of filter that attenuates a
broad range of frequencies
while allowing frequencies
belowandabovethisrangeto
pass.
Rejects a wide range of
●
frequenciesbetweenf_L
(lower cutoff) andf_H(upper
cutoff).
● Frequenciesbelow f_L
and above f_H pass through.
● Bandwidth (BW)is given
by: BW = f_H - f_L
● Implemented by combining
aLow-Pass Filter (LPF) and
High-Pass Filter (HPF) in
parallel.
Wide Band Reject Filter is
A
implemented by using:
.First Stage: Low-Pass Filter (LPF)(Passes frequencies below f_L)
1
2.Second Stage: High-Pass Filter (HPF)(Passes frequencies above f_H)
3.Parallel Combination: The output of both filters is combined to form the
band-reject response.
Digital-to-Analog Converters (DAC)
A DAC is an electronic circuit that takes in digital data as input and transforms it into an analog output
signal. It is actually the output voltage proportional to the binary code given at the DAC input and then
used to drive various circuits.
BINARY WEIGHTED DAC
A weighted resistor DAC produces an analog output (voltage or current), which is equal to the digital
(binary) input by using binary weighted resistors in the inverting summing circuit. The weight is the
same as the gain of the channel.
Av3 = -1
Av2 = -0.5
Av1 = -0.25
Av0 = -0.125
Output of this circuit is given by:
Substituting R values,
It is the sum of input voltages. Note that negative sign only indicates the inverting amplifier.
With 4 inputs, there are 16 possible input combinations of v3v2v1v0: 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100,
0101, 0110, 0111, 1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, and 1111.
When all inputs are zero (0000), the output is:
Vout = 0
When v3 v2 v1 v0 = 0001, the output is:
Vout = -(0.125) = -0.125
When v3 v2 v1 v0 is 0010, the output is:
Vout = -(0.25) = -0.25
and so on. When the inputs are all 1s (1111), the output is maximum and equals:
Vout = -(1 +0.5 +0.25 +0.125)= - 1.875
If the D/A converter is driven by a circuit that produces the 0000 to 1111 sequence of numbers given
earlier, it will produce these output voltages:
0, -0.125, -0.25, -0.375, -0.5, -0.625, -0.75, -0.875, -1, -1.125, -1.25, -1.375, -1.5, -1.625, -1.75,
and -1.875.
The staircase voltage demonstrates that the D/A converter does not produce a continuous range of output
values. Therefore, strictly speaking its output is not truly analog. Low-pass filter circuits can be
connected to the output to provide a smoother transition between output steps.
R/2R Ladder DAC
(DAC) converts a digital input signal into an analog output signal. The digital signal is represented with
a binary code, which is a combination of bits 0 and 1.
3
As the name suggests, R-2R Ladder DAC produces an analog output, which is almost equal to the
digital (binary) input by using a R-2R ladder network in the inverting adder circuit.
A 4-input D/A converter has 16 possible outputs, an 8-input A/ D converter has 256 possible outputs,
and a 16-input D/A converter has 65,536 possible outputs.
The switches, D0 – D3, would normally be some type of active switch. The switches connect the four
inputs to either ground (logic 0) or Vref (logic 1). The ladder network converts the possible binary input
values from 0000 through 1111 to one of 16 unique output voltage levels. D0 is considered to be the
least significant input bit (LSB) while D3 is the most significant bit (MSB).
To determine the D/A converter’s output voltage, you must first change the binary input value to its
decimal equivalent value, BIN. This can be done by:
Then, the output voltage will be found by:
where N equals the number of inputs.
For example, D0 =1, D1 =0, D2 =0, and D3 =1. Using a Vref = 5 V, determininig the decimal equivalent
of the binary input (BIN) and the output voltage of the converter.
3.3 NON-LINEAR OPAMP CIRCUITS
The output of a nonlinear op-amp circuit usually has a different shape from the input signal because the
op-amp saturates during part of the input cycle.
Comparators with Zero Reference: zero-crossing detector
In this circuit the output voltage ideally switches from low to high or vice versa whenever the input
voltage crosses zero reference (x-axis) line. It can work as a comparator and it can build using an op
amp without feedback resistors, as shown in Fig.(a)
Because of the high open-loop voltage gain of op-amp, a positive input voltage produces positive
saturation, and a negative input voltage produces negative saturation.
4
Successive Approximation Register (SAR)
he Successive Approximation Register (SAR) is a key component in
T
SuccessiveApproximationAnalog-to-DigitalConverters(SARADCs),which
efficiently convert an analog signal into a digital output by using a binary
search algorithm.
● T heSAR ADCconverts ananalog input voltage(Vin into an N-bitdigital
output.
● It uses aSuccessive Approximation Register (SAR)to determine each
bitone-by-one, starting from theMSB (Most SignificantBit) to LSB
(Least Significant Bit).
● The process is based onbinary search, minimizing the number of
comparison steps.
.Initialize: The SAR register sets theMSB to ‘1’and all other bits to ‘0’.
1
2.Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC): The SAR output is converted to an
analog voltage.
3.Comparison: The input voltage (VinV_{in}) is comparedwith the DAC
output.
○ If Vin>VDAC → Keep the bitas '1'.
○ If Vin<VDAC → Reset the bitto '0'.
.Iterate for Next Bit: The process repeats for all bits from MSB to LSB.
4
5.Final Output: Once all bits are determined, the finaldigital output
represents Vin
Example (3-bit SAR ADC)
Assume Vin=5V, Vref=8V
Step AR
S DAC Output Comparison
egister
R
1 100 4V 5V > 4V → Keep ‘1’
2 110 6V 5V < 6V → Reset ‘1’ to ‘0’
3 101 5V 5V = 5V → Keep ‘1’
Final Output:1012 = 510.
Advantages of SAR ADC
✅
✅
Fast and Efficient
✅
Low Power Consumption
High Resolution (Up to 16-bit or more)